Roman Civilization: Culture, Architecture and

Planning Physical Planning Report.

By,

Bhavana Brindavan

Sahithi Datla

Nandita Maalige

Abhina vBellam

CONTENT

TOPIC PAGE NOS.

ROMAN GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE 1

REPUBLIC GOVERNMENT OF ROME 3

ROMAN SOCIETY 5

ART , MUSIC, LITERATURE OF ROME 6

ENTERTAINMENT 7

THE RELIGION OF ROME 10

FESTIVALS OF ROME 12

SOCIAL ECONOMIC AND PLANNING FACTORS 13

ROMAN TECHNOLOGY 15

ARCHITECTURE OF ROME 18

ROMAN CIVILISATION

ROMAN GEOGRAPHY The Roman Empire dominated most of Europe and much of Africa and the Middle

East for centuries. So great was the empire that it influences geopolitics even

today. Often overlooked is the role that geography played in the great city's rise to

power. Several geographic advantages helped Rome to grow and ultimately

dominate the known world. The geography is characterized by the Seven Hills and

The Tiber River. Rome city situated on the eastern banks of river Tiber has a

geographical position of 41° 54' N and 12° 29' E. Rome lies to the west of the

Apennine Mountains that forms the backbone of peninsular Italy. Being close to the

Tyrrhenian Sea, Rome experiences a Mediterranean climate.

Rome is popularly called 'the city of seven hills'. These seven hills namely, Viminal,

Quirinal, Palatine, Esquiline, Capitoline, Caelian, and Aventine were separated by

marshy land and the River Tiber. Of these seven hills, the Caelian, Esquiline,

Quirinal and Viminal hills were portions of a volcanic ridge. The Aventine,

Capitoline, and Palatine hills formed the western group of hills. In ancient Rome

each of the seven hills had separate walled cities.

The Tiber River flows from the Apennine Mountains south-westwards to the

Tyrrhenian Sea after passing by Rome. This river of length 405 km has played a

significant role in shaping Rome's history and culture.

Protection From Invasion

Two mountain ranges, the Alps and the Apennines, helped to protect Rome from invasion. The Apennines divide the Italian peninsula in half and, allowed the

Romans to mass forces for counter-attack whenever they were threatened. Any army attempting to attack Rome would be at risk of attack from the other side of the mountains. The Alps, located on the northern border of modern-day Italy, seal

off the peninsula from the rest of Europe during winter. This natural roadblock protected Rome from outside invasions by forcing attackers to move slowly through

narrow passes, giving the Romans time to respond.

Fertile Land

Rich volcanic soil makes the Po and Tiber river valleys ideally suited for agriculture. The volcanic ash made the soil near Rome some of the best in all of Europe. Rome attracted new settlers during its rise to power due to its agricultural potential, The

Roman population grew quickly, thanks to surplus production of grains, olives and other crops. The extra population later helped Rome's military expansion by

providing a large supply of troops. The surplus also helped Rome to establish trade ties with other Mediterranean powers, enhancing the city's economic might. The marshes meant that the first inhabitants tended to congregate on the steep hills

which had been cut out by erosion Being an area of volcanic origins the soil is naturally rich in water springs and minerals. The hills themselves were (are) largely

made up of tufa rock - a sort of hardened rocky sponge. This type of stone was widely used for ancient Roman building and construction for example to build

foundations, the earliestwalls of the city or even as part of wall construction - opus reticulatum. It is still widely used in modern day construction.

Centre for trade Rome further benefited from its position at the center of the Mediterranean Sea. the Italian Peninsula is only 50 miles from Greece, while Sicily is less than 100 miles from Africa. Rome is also a short voyage by boat from Spain and only a few days'

journey to France on horseback. Its central location made Rome a desirable trading post even before the city's rise to power. This centrality later helped the Romans

administer their empire effectively by reducing communication times. Perhaps Rome's location has relied on their access to the sea for international trade. It is Rome's proximity to the sea which explains the relatively low height above sea

level.

Diversity of Population

Rome's central location attracted immigrants and traders from all parts of the ancient Mediterranean world. According to The Flow of History, the diversity of the

early Roman state helped it expand its influence. The Romans were unusually adaptable and willing to change their strategy when compared to the rest of the ancient world. That flexibility enabled the Romans to overcome new challenges as

the centuries passed. It also made the Roman Empire more accepting of outsiders, which encouraged foreign powers to cooperate with rather than oppose Roman

forces. Rome Climate

Rome climate very broadly is of the 'Mediterranean' variety. The summer months are warm to mild, and the winters are cold. The rainfall occurs during the winter months between October to January. The summer season lasts from June to

September with temperatures ranging between a maximum of 30° C to a minimum of 14° C. The daily range of temperature averages at 14° C. The winter season

extends from December to March with temperatures varying between 3° C to 16°C. The months of April, May, October and November are very pleasant with

temperatures varying between 7° C and 23° C.

Resources Available Wheat, grape and olive production, Limestone, Marble, Concrete (mixed volcanic

dust with water), Copper, Imported tin to mix with it to make bronze, Iron and Timber from the Apennine Mountains

ROMAN GOVERNMENT

The Romans established a form of government — a republic — that was copied by

countries for centuries In fact, the government of the United States is base. It all

began when the Romans overthrew their Etruscan conquerors in 509 B.C.E.

Centered north of Rome, the Etruscans had ruled over the Romans for hundreds of

years. Once free, the Romans established a republic, a government in which

citizens elected representatives to rule on their behalf. A republic is quite different

from a democracy, in which every citizen is expected to play an active role in

governing the state.

The aristocracy (wealthy class) dominated the early Roman Republic. In Roman

society, the aristocrats were known as patricians. The highest positions in the

government were held by two consuls, or leaders, who ruled the Roman Republic. A

senate composed of patricians elected these consuls. At this time, lower-class

citizens, or plebeians, had virtually no say in the government. Both men and

women were citizens in the Roman Republic, but only men could vote.

Tradition dictated that patricians and plebeians should be strictly separated;

marriage between the two classes was even prohibited. Over time, the plebeians

elected their own representatives, called tribunes,

who gained the power to veto measures passed by the senate.

Gradually, the plebeians obtained even more power

and eventually could hold the position of consul. Despite these changes, though,

the patricians were still able to use their wealth to buy control and influence over

elected leaders.

Magistrates :- 2 consuls—chief magistrates who convened and presided over the Senate and

assemblies, initiated and administered legislation, served as generals in military

campaigns, and represented Rome in foreign affairs. Consuls could appoint and/or

serve as

Dictator- For up to 6 months in times of emergency when the constitution was

suspended. When their term of office was completed, consuls usually governed a

province as proconsul.

8 praetors—served primarily as judges in law courts, but could convene the Senate

and assemblies; they assumed administrative duties of consuls when these were

absent from Rome. When their term of office was completed, praetors might govern

a province as proprietor.

2 censors—elected every 5 years for terms of 1½ years; revised lists of senators

and equestrians; conducted census of citizens and property assessments for tax

purposes; granted state contracts.

4 aediles—supervised public places, public games, and the grain supply in the city

of Rome; 2 were required to be plebeians, and the other two (who had more

status) could come from either order; the latter 2 were called curule aediles. 10 tribunes—had to be plebeian, because the office was established to protect the plebeians from arbitrary actions of magistrates. Hence the primary power of

tribunes was negative; they could veto the act of any magistrate and stop any official act of administration. They were by law sacrosanct, meaning that anyone

who attacked them physically could be immediately and summarily killed; they could convene the Senate and assemblies and initiate legislation. 20 quaestors—administered finances of state treasury and served in various

capacities in the provinces; when elected quaestor, a man automatically became eligible for membership in the Senate, though censors had to appoint him to fill a

vacancy

Senate:

composed of 600 magistrates and ex-magistrates (minimum qualification was

election as quaestor) who served for life unless expelled by the censors normally met in a building called the Curia located in the Roman Forum although technically an advisory body, in effect the Senate was the chief governmental body because it

controlled public finances and foreign affairs, assigned military Commands and provinces, and debated and passed decrees that would be Submitted to the

assemblies for final ratification. the Republican government was symbolized by the

letters SPQR (senatus populusque Romanus), meaning ―the Senate and the Roman people‖

Assemblies:

These were theoretically composed of all males who were full Roman citizens, though individuals had to attend in person in order to vote. No debate from the

floor was possible, and votes were counted in groups, not individually (the vote of each group was determined by the vote of the majority of individuals in that

group). Assembly of the Curiae (comitia curiata): oldest assembly; by the late Republic had mostly ceremonial and clan functions.

Assembly of the Centuries (comitia centuriata): elected consuls, praetors, censors; declared war; served as court of appeal for citizens sentenced to death. The 193

centuries were determined by wealth, and the richest centuries were also the smallest, so individual votes in these counted more heavily (when a majority of the 193 votes was reached, voting was stopped, so some of the largest centuries rarely

got to cast votes). Assembly of the Tribes (comitia tributa): elected all other magistrates; voted yes or

no on laws; the 35 tribes were originally determined geographically and then passed on by birth. A subgroup of this assembly, the Concilium Plebis, was open only to plebeians. This plebeian assembly elected the magistrates open only to

plebeians (tribunes and plebeian aediles). After 287 BCE, the measures passed by the Concilium Plebis (plebiscita) had the force of laws binding on the whole state.

Occasionally, an emergency situation (such as a war) arose that required the decisive leadership of one individual. Under these circumstances, the Senate and

the consuls could appoint a temporary dictator to rule for a limited time until the crisis was resolved. The position of dictator was very undemocratic in nature.

Indeed, a dictator had all the power, made decisions without any approval, and had full control over the military.

The best example of an ideal dictator was a Roman citizen named Cincinnatus.

During a severe military emergency, the Roman Senate called Cincinnatus from his

farm to serve as dictator and to lead the Roman army. When Cincinnatus stepped

down from the dictatorship and returned to his farm only 15 days after he

successfully defeated Rome's enemies, the republican leaders resumed control over

Rome.

The Twelve Tables

One of the innovations of the Roman Republic was the notion of equality under the

law. In 449 B.C.E., government leaders carved some of Rome's most important

laws into 12 great tablets. The Twelve Tables, as they came to be known, were the

first Roman laws put in writing. Although the laws were rather harsh by today's

standards, they did guarantee every citizen equal treatment under the law.With

respect to the law and citizenship, the Romans took a unique approach to the lands

that they conquered. Rather than rule those people as conquered subjects, the

Romans invited them to become citizens. These people then became a part of

Rome, rather than enemies fighting against it. Naturally, these new citizens

received the same legal rights as everyone else.

THE ROMAN SOCIETY

The roman society originally broadly consisted of Patricians and Plebeians.

Patricians were aristocratic landlords(Power and social status inherited).plebians

were the common farmers, artisan, merchants who were majority of the people.

They have limited power in the government, yet had tribunes represent them at

the senate to protect their rights from the unfair law of the patrician officials. All

free citizens had a right to the protection of their right under the law.

Senators----Eq ue strians(knights)---- Proliterii (citizens without any property land-

---Slaves

A class division originally based on military service became more important.

Membership of these classes was determined periodically by the Censors, according to

property. Women shared some basic rights with their male counterparts, but were not

fully regarded as citizens and were thus not allowed to vote or take part in politics. At the

same time the limited rights of women gradually were expanded (due to emancipation)

and women reached freedom from paterfamilias, gained property rights and even had

more juridical rights than their husbands, but still they had no voting rights and were

absent from politics.

Voting and Citizenship-

Voting was done in class order and stopped as soon as most of the tribes had been

reached, so the poorer classes were often unable even to cast their votes. Allied foreign

cities were often given the Latin Right, an intermediary level between full citizens and

foreigners (peregrini), which gave their citizens rights under Roman law and allowed their

leading magistrates to become full Roman citizens. While there were varying degrees of

Latin rights, the main division was between those cum suffragio ("with vote"; enrolled in

a Roman tribe and able to take part in the comitia tributa) and sine suffragio ("without

vote"; could not take part in Roman politics). Some of Rome's Italian allies were given full

citizenship after the Social War of 91–88 BC, and full Roman citizenship was extended to

all free-born men in the Empire by Caracalla in 212.

Households

Households included the head (usually the father) of the household, pater

familias (father of the family), his wife, children, and other relatives. In the upper

classes, slaves and servants were also part of the household. The power of the

head of the household was supreme (patria potestas, "father's power")

over those living with him: He could force marriage (usually for money) and

divorce, sell his children into slavery, claim his dependents' property as his own,

and even had the right to punish or kill family members (though this last right

apparently ceased to be exercised after the 1st century BC).

Art, music and literature

The graffiti, brothels, paintings, and sculptures found in Pompeii and Herculaneum suggest

that the Romans had a sex-saturated culture.

Latin literature was, from its start, influenced heavily by Greek authors. Some of the

earliest extant works are of historical epics telling the early military history of Rome. As

the Republic expanded, authors began to produce poetry, comedy, history, and tragedy.

Roman music was largely based on Greek music, and played an important part in many

aspects of Roman life. Most religious rituals featured musical performances, with double

pipes at sacrifices, cymbals and Tambourines at orgiastic cults,

and rattles and hymns across the spectrum.

Entertainment

Athletic play and exercise, such as jumping, wrestling, boxing, and racing were popular

among the common people in the city while in the countryside, pastimes for the wealthy

also included fishing and hunting. Children entertained themselves with toys and such

games as leapfrog. For the wealthy, dinner parties presented an opportunity for

entertainment, sometimes featuring music, dancing, and poetry

readings. Plebeians sometimes enjoyed similar parties through clubs or associations, but

for most Romans, recreational dining usually meant patronizing taverns. Thus their villas

had paved, ornamented courtyard with pools or greenery for conducting parties. . Public

games were sponsored by leading Romans who wished to advertise their generosity and

court popular approval; in the Imperial era, this usually meant the emperor. Several

venues were developed specifically for public games that formed epicentre of activity and

trade in many roman cities. The Colosseum was built in the Imperial era to host, among

other events, gladiatorial combats. These combats had begun as funeral games around

the 4th century BC, and became popular spectator events in the late Republic and Empire.

Gladiators had an exotic and inventive variety of arms and armour. They sometimes

fought to the death, but more often to an adjudicated victory, dependent on a referee's

decision. The outcome was usually in keeping with the mood of the watching crowd.

Shows of exotic animals were popular in their own right; but sometimes animals were

pitted against human beings, either armed professionals or unarmed criminals who had

been condemned to a spectacular and theatrical public death in the arena. Some of these

encounters were based on episodes from Roman or Greek mythology. Chariot racing was

extremely popular among all classes.

Distribution of population with respect to occupation --Some

economists like Peter Temin consider the Roman Empire a market economy, Ancient

Rome commanded a vast area of land, with tremendous natural and human

resourcesRome's economy remained focused on farming and trade.The economy of the

early Republic was largely based on smallholding and paid labor. However, foreign wars

and conquests made slaves increasingly cheap and plentiful, and by the late Republic, the

economy was largely dependent on slave labor for both skilled and unskilled work.Slaves

are estimated to have constituted around 20% of the Roman Empire's population at this

time and 40% in the city of Rome.

Life in ancient Rome revolved around the city of Rome, located on seven hills. The city had

a vast number of monumental structures like the Colosseum, the Forum of Trajan and

the Pantheon. It had theatres, gymnasiums, marketplaces, functional sewers, bath

complexes complete with libraries and shops, and fountains with fresh drinking water

supplied by hundreds of miles of aqueducts. Throughout the territory under the control of

ancient Rome, residential architecture ranged from modest houses to country villas.

In the capital city of Rome, there were imperial residences on the elegant Palatine Hill,

from which the word palace derives. The low Plebeian and middle Equestrian classes lived

in the city center, packed into apartments, or Insulae, which were almost like

modern ghettos. These areas, often built by upper class property owners to rent, were

often centred upon collegia or taberna. These people, provided with a free supply of grain,

and entertained by gladatorial games, were enrolled as clients of patrons among the

upper class Patricians, whose assistance they sought and whose interests they upheld.

THE RELIGION OF ROME Roman Paganism

If anything, the Romans had a practical attitude to religion, as to most things,

which perhaps explains why they themselves had difficulty in taking to the idea of a

single, all-seeing, all-powerful god.

In so far as the Romans had a religion of their own, it was not based on any central

belief, but on a mixture of fragmented rituals, taboos, superstitions, and traditions

which they collected over the years from a number of sources.

To the Romans, religion was less a spiritual experience than a contractual

relationship between mankind and the forces which were believed to control

people's existence and well-being.

The result of such religious attitudes were two things: a state cult, the significant

influence on political and military events of which outlasted the republic, and a

private concern, in which the head of the family oversaw the domestic rituals and

prayers in the same way as the representatives of the people performed the public

ceremonials.

However, as circumstances and people's view of the world changed, individuals

whose personal religious needs remained unsatisfied turned increasingly during the

first century AD to the mysteries, which were of Greek origin, and to the cults of

the east.

The origins of Roman Religion

Most of the Roman gods and goddesses were a blend of several religious influences.

Many were introduced via the Greek colonies of southern Italy. Many also had their

roots in old religions of the Etruscans or Latin tribes.

Often the the old Etruscan or Latin name survived but the deity over time became

to be seen as the Greek god of equivalent or similar nature. And so it is that the

Greek and Roman pantheon look very similar, but for different names.

An example of such mixed origins is the goddess Diana to whom the Roman king

ServiusTullius built the temple on the Aventine Hill. Essentially she was an old Latin

goddess from the earliest of times.

Before ServiusTullius moved the center of her worship to Rome, it was based at

Aricia.

There in Aricia it was always a runaway slave who would act as her priest. He would

win the right to hold office by killing his predecessor. To challenge him to a fight he

would though first have to manage to break off a branch of a particular sacred tree;

a tree on which the current priest naturally would keep a close eye. From such

obscure beginnings Diana was moved to Rome, where she then gradually became

identified with the Greek goddess Artemis.

It could even occur that a deity was worshipped, for reasons no-one really could

remember. An example for such a deity is Furrina. A festival was held every year in

her honour on 25 July. But by the middle of the first century BC there was no-one

left who actually remember what she was actually goddess of.

Prayer and Sacrifice

Most form of religious activity required some kind of sacrifice. And prayer could be

a confusing matter due to some gods having multiple names or their sex even

being unknown. The practice of Roman religion was a confusing thing.

THE FESTIVALS There was not a month in the Roman calendar which did not have its religious

festivals.

And the very earliest festivals of the Roman state were already celebrated with

games.

The consualia (celebrating the festival of Consus and the famous 'rape of the

Sabine women'), which was held on 21 August, also was the main event of the

chariot racing year. It can hence hardly be a coincidence that the underground

granary and shrine of Consus, where the opening ceremonies of the festival were

held, was accessed from the very center isle of the Circus Maximus.

But apart from the consualia August, the sixth month of the old calendar, also had

festivals in honour of the gods Hercules, Portunus, Vulcan, Volturnus and Diana.

Festivals could be somber, dignified occasions, as well as joyful events.

Economic Factors

Trade with nearby colonies was vital to the development of Rome. At the height of

the Roman Empire the population of Rome was estimated to be around 1 million

people. In order to sustain the population, trade and commerce became a

necessity.

The Roman Empire traded by land and by sea

o Their sea routes spanned throughout the Mediterranean and the Black Sea.

o The two main reasons for building roads was to facilitate trade and movement of

the Roman Army.

Rome’s main trading partners were Spain, France, the Middle East, and North Africa

Trade in the Roman Empire was encouraged by many years of peace

Rome imported a variety of goods such as: beef, corn, iron, leather, marble, silk,

silver, spices, tin and wine.

Social Factors

Ancient Rome set the premiere example of a modern city; one that would be copied

and improved countless times. The information outlined below represents some of

the crucial data influencing the urban design of the city as well as the daily lives of

the inhabitants.

The forum was a central meeting place located in the heart of the city where

citizens and politicians would gather to discuss pertinent issues, broker business

deals, and generally congregate. As time went by, and the Roman Empire grew in

splendor and size, more and more emphasis was placed on the Forum (in addition

to more forums being constructed).

Like many modern cities, traffic posed a huge problem, so in an effort to reduce

congestion any vehicle with wheels was outlawed except for the 2 hours around

sunrise and sunset.

In one of the earliest examples of internal spatial structures of cities, ancient Rome

can be represented by the sector model in the early years, that is, clear residential

patterns based on affluence are present. The city’s poor were concentrated to the

east of the original forum in an area known as the subura. As the city grew

progressively larger and more advanced, more and more forums were constructed

under different emperors. As these additional forums were built, business districts

and markets would spring up in the immediate area, thus creating multiple centers

of commerce in the city. During the height of its power in antiquity, the city of

Rome had made a spatial shift away from the sector model and resembled more

closely the multiple nuclei model, despite the fact that these multiple nuclei were all

in close proximity.

Public Housing in Ancient Rome:

The affluent of Rome lived in multi-roomed houses called domus. Despite the fact

the vast majority of the city wasn’t wealthy enough to live in domus, they made up

a disproportionately high percentage of the city landscape, upwards of 30%.

Most citizens of Rome lived in what many would describe as an ancient apartment;

multi-leveled buildings called insulas. These buildings were fairly simplistic in

nature, without indoor plumbing and with little insulation from the weather. As a

result, the inhabitants of insulas would have to venture to public wells for a steady

water supply.

Education in Ancient Rome

While Rome in antiquity featured few if any schools, education still played a

crucial role in the upbringing of children in society.

The majority of the basic knowledge was taught through the medium of family life.

Many of the rudimentary skills for farming, craftsmanship, and warfare were passed

down generation by generation.

The children of Rome’s affluent were often schooled by private tutors in the fields

of the classics and philosophy, as well as many of the prominent Greek works, such

as the Homeric and Hesiodic epics.

Slavery in Ancient Rome

Slaves played a crucial role in not only the construction of ancient Rome but also

the everyday lives of Rome’s many citizens. Many menial or lesser tasks were

assigned to slaves, such as woodworking, beauticians, and messengers; however, it

was not uncommon for slaves to also hold more prominent positions in business

and to some extent, government.

The wealth and prestige of a man in Rome was often based on the sheer

number of slaves owned.

Ironically, the fact that slaves were employed in such great numbers during the

construction and rise of Rome probably aided its downfall. Through a relatively

simple process called manumission, it was possible for a slave to receive full

citizenship and freedom. Over time, when enough slaves went through this

process, Rome experienced a massive lack of manpower which served as a

contributing factor in the eventual downfall of Rome.

Planning Factors

The city plan of Timgad clearly shows the rationality of Roman town planning. The organic medieval cities that were

eventually to house the successor populations of the former territories of the Roman Empire represent a very different

approach to urbanism. Modern Rome has been shaped by its past dating back centuries. Planning factors

were decided long ago, beginning with Rome’s establishment near the Tiber River

and Alban Hills around 753 BC. This site offered many benefits as the river was a

natural border, it flowed through the city offering water, transport, and sewage

disposal, and the hills gave a safe defensive position. The site was also located on

an intersection between two principal roads leading to the sea coming from

Sabinum in the Northeast and Etruria in the Northwest.

The Ancient Romans used a specific scheme for city planning that centered around

military defense and civil convenience.

The basic city plan consisted of a central forum with city services, surrounded by a

compact grid of streets and wrapped in a wall for defense. The wall was also used

to mark the city limits and was covered by a Portcullis, or fortified gate at the front

of the city.

They would lay out the streets at right angles, in the form of a square grid. All

roads were equal in width and length, except for two diagonal ones that intersected

in the middle to form the center of the grid.

Each square marked by four roads was called an insula, the Roman equivalent of a

modern city block. Each main road held a gateway with watchtowers.

The collapse of Roman civilization saw the end of Roman urban planning. The

Ancient Roman city planning style is still very clear in Modern Rome and it has

influenced many towns across Europe and the world.

Roman technology Roman technology is the engineering practice which supported Roman civilization

and made the expansion of Roman commerce and Roman military possible for

almost three quarters of a millennium (753 BC–476 AD).

The greatest areas of roman technology were those where roman civilization

excelled the most. Technology for civil engineering, building and warfare were some

of the areas they explored. Roman roads , roman bridges, roman defensive walls

are some of the prominent examples.

Roads The Romans primarily built roads for their military. Their economic importance was

probably also significant, although wagon traffic was often banned from the roads to preserve their military value. At its largest extent the total length of the Roman

road network was 85,000 kilometres.Way stations providing refreshments were maintained by the government at regular intervals along the roads. A separate system of changing stations for official and private couriers was also

maintained.Paved roads were needed to reach to any point of the empire. They facilitated both communication and political control.

The roads were made with strong foundations; different materials were put into different layers. The roads were constructed by digging a pit along the length of the

intended course, often to bedrock. The pit was first filled with rocks, gravel or sand and then a layer of concrete. Finally they were paved with polygonal rock slabs. The

roads were not completely flat, they consisted of several parts. The central and highest was the most important; it was convex to conduct the water to the Ditches that were built in the sides.Roman roads are considered the most advanced roads

built until the early 19th century. The roads were resistant to floods and other environmental hazards. To measure the distance they created the Milliarium or

stones located in the sides. Bridges were constructed over waterways.After the fall of the Roman Empire the roads were still usable and used for more than 1000 years.

Most Roman cities were shaped like a square. There were 4 main roads leading the centre of the city, or forum. They formed a cross shape, and each point on the edge of the cross was a gateway into the city. Connecting to these main roads were

smaller roads, the streets where people lived.

Bridges Roman engineers were true masters building them, since constructions were essential elements for reaching places and cities often situated at the bank of

rivers. This location was due to defensive and infrastructural reasons -supply and drainage.

They are characterised by: – Not pointed arches.

– Constructions of ashlars masonry often with pad shape. – Route of more than 5 m. wide. – Route of horizontal or slightly combed surface "few curved".

– Rectangular pillars from their basis with lateral triangular or circular cutwaters that end before the railings.

Source: wikipedia

Aqueducts

The Romans constructed numerous aqueducts to supply water. The city of Rome itself was supplied by eleven aqueducts made of limestone that provided the city with over 1 million cubic metres of water each day. Water inside the aqueducts depended entirely on gravity. The raised stone channels in which the water

travelled were slightly slanted. The water was carried directly from mountain springs. After it had gone through the aqueduct, the water was collected in tanks

and fed through pipes to fountains, toilets, etc. The main aqueducts in Ancient Rome were the Aqua Claudia and the Aqua Marcia.Most aqueducts were constructed

below the surface with only small portions above ground supported by arches.The longest Roman aqueduct, 178 kilometres in length, was traditionally assumed to be that which supplied the city of Carthage.

Roman aqueducts were built to remarkably fine tolerances, and to a technological standard that was not to be equalled until modern times. Powered entirely by gravity, they transported very large amounts of water very efficiently. Sometimes,

where depressions deeper than 50 metres had to be crossed, inverted siphons were used to force water uphill.

Walls

Defence of cities has been one of the capital problems that civilizations had to solve in order to project thefuture of their citizens,goods, culture and waysof life.Romans

were the firstin the technique of improving different kinds of defence, using walls. The entire Roman Empire was surrounded by an outer wall which protected the city

from foreign attacks and acted as a boundary in itself.

Roman architecture

Ancient Roman architecture developed different aspects of Ancient Greek architecture and newer technologies such as the arch and the dome to make a new architectural style. Roman architecture flourished throughout the Empire during the

PaxRomana. Its use of new materials, particularly concrete, was a very important feature.Roman Architecture covers the period from the establishment of the Roman Republic in 509 BC to about the 4th century AD, after which it becomes reclassified

as Byzantine architecture. Most of the many surviving examples are from the later period. Roman architectural style continued to influence building in the former

empire for many centuries, and the style used in Western Europe beginning about 1000 is called Romanesque architecture to reflect this dependence on basic Roman forms.

The Ancient Romans were responsible for significant developments in housing and public hygiene, for example their public and private baths and latrines, under-floor heating in the form of the hypocaust, mica glazing and piped hot and cold water.

Roman architecture is the result of different influences: – Primitive cultures of the area Rome was founded in. – Etrurian civilization: urban, offering cult to the ancestors.

– Greek and Hellenistic: this was the model the aimed at imitating.

Roman town planning

Cities were the centre of Roman life. The plan of the city was based on the camp. It had two main axes

– Cardus E-W – Decumanus N-S

Where the two converged was the forum. The rest of the space was divided into squares in which insulae or blocks of flats were built. There was a need of linking them through paved roads.

The most important part of the city was the forum, where political, economic, administrative, social and religious activity were centred. In big cities there were

theatres, circuses, stadiums.

Typology Roman Architecture has a rich typology that includes:

• Religious building: temple • Civil buildings: – Public: basilicas, baths

– Spectacles: theatre, amphitheatre, circus – Domestic: house, village, palace

– Funerary: tombs

Religious 1. Temple It copied the Greek model.It has only one portico and a main façade. It tends to be pseudoperiptero. The cella is totally closed. It is built on a podium. Instead of

having stairs all around, it only has them in the main façade. There were other kindsof temples:

Circular: similar to the Greek tholos

Pantheon: combined squared and circular structures and was in honour of all gods.

Source: google and wikipedia

roman temples

Source: wikipedia

Civil Buildings

1. Basilica: It was the residence of the tribunal. It is rectangular andhas different naves.The central nave is higher and receives light from the sides. The building ends in an

apse. It is covered with vaults – Barrel over the central nave

– Edged over the lateral naves

Source: google

2. Baths:

There were spaces for public life. They consisted of different rooms. Changing rooms: – Different temperature rooms: Frigidarium (cold),Tepidarium (warm),Caldarium

(hot). – Swimming pool

– Gymnasium – Library

Caracalla’s bath house

Source: google

Spectacle

1.Theatre: It is similar to the Greekbut it is not located in amountain but it iscompletely built.

It has a semicircularscenery. The doors to facilitatepeoples’ movement arecalled vomitoria. It does not have theorchestra because inRoman plays was not achorus. The rest of the parts aresimilar to those of theGreek theatre.

Merida’s Roman Theatre Source: wikipedia

2.Amphitheatre:

It comes from the fusion of two theatres. It was the place for spectacles with animals and fights (gladiators). There could be filled with water for naval battles.

Source: wikipedia

3.Circus: It was a building for horse races and cuadriga competitions. It has the cavea, the

areaand a central element toturn around, thespina.

Houses 1.Insulae:

There are urban houses. In order to take advantagefrom the room in cities,buildings up to four floors were constructed.The ground floor was forshops

tabernae- and theothers for apartments of different sizes.Every room wascommunicated through acentral communitarian patiodecorated with flowers orgardens.

2.Domus: It was the usual housing for important people ineach city. It was endowed with a structure based ondistribution through porticated patios:

– the entry -fauces- gives access to – a small corridor -vestibule-.

– It leads to a porticated patio -atrium-. – Its centre, the impluvium, is a bank for the water falling from the compluvium. – At both sides -alae- there are many chambers used as rooms for service slaves,

kitchens and latrines. – At the bottom, the tablinum or living-room can be found, and close to it, the

tricliniumor dining-room. – This atrium gave also light enough to next

rooms. – At both sides of the tablinum, little corridors led to the noble part of the domus.

– Second porticated patio peristylium, was bigger and endowed with a central garden.

– It was surrounded by rooms –cubiculumand marked by an exedra used as a chamber for banquets or social meetings.

3.Villa:

Houses far from cities,were thought forrealizing agriculturalexploitations –villaerustica-, or else asplaces for the rest ofimportant persons -villae urbana.Entertaining villa wasendowed with everycomfortable element in its age as

well asgardens and splendid views. Country villa got stables, cellars, storesand orchards apart fromthe noble rooms.

4.Palaces: There were the residences of the emperor. They consisted of a numerous series of rooms. Their plan tended to be regular.

Diocleciano’s Palace at Splitz