role of chromium

8/11/2019 Role of Chromium

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/role-of-chromium 1/12

AC TA

PH YSIOL OGIAE

PL AN TAR U M

Vol . 20. No. 2 . 1998:201 212

Review

R o l e of c h r o m i u m o n p la n t g r o w t h a n d m e t a b o l i s m

S a n g h a m i t r a S a m a n t a r a y 1 G y a n a R a n a n R o u t 2 a n d P r e m a n a n d a D a s 1 2 .

1Plant Physi ology and Biochem istry Laboratory, 2 Plant Biotech nology Division, Re gional P lant Reso urce Centre,

Bhubaneswar- 751 015, Orissa, India, Fax: 0091-674-450274

* corresponding Auth or

K e y w o r d s : Chromium , Cr d i s t r ibu t ion , Phy to tox -

ic i ty , To le rance

bstract

The beneficial as w ell as toxic effects of chromium with regard

to its absorption, translocation and accumulation in different

parts of plants w ere reviewed. High concentrations of chro-

mium exhibited severe chlorosis, necrosis and a host of other

growth abnormalities and anatomical disorders. The regu lation

of the mineral metabolism, enzyme activity and other meta-

bolic processes by chromium in plants was discussed.

Introduction

Ch rom ium i s know n to be an e ssen t ia l e lemen t fo r

no rma l ca rbohydra te m e tabo l i sm in an ima l and hu -

man nutr i t ion (Mertz 1969 and Anderson1981) . A

number o f s tud ie s we re made to inves t iga te the

chemis t ry o f ch romium in so i l and it s up take by

p lan ts (Desme t

et al.

1975a, Cary

et al.

1977 a,b,

Lahou t i Pe te r son 1979 , Ram achandran et al.

1980, Sam antaray Das 1997) . Alth ough chro-

mium was found to be a s t imu lan t fo r p lant g rowth

(Gericke 1943, Pra t t 1966 and Bertrand De W olf

1965, 1968) , severa l invest iga tors reported i ts toxic

e f fec t on p lan ts (H erbe r t 1907 , Koe n ig 1911,

Voelcker 1921) . Cary

et al.

(1977 a , b) and Laho uti

Peterson (1979) reported tha t Cr (VI) was taken

up by p lan ts bec ause o f i ts mob i le na tu re in so il

while Cr ( I I I ) was not . Since t r iva lent and hexava-

lent Cr may in terconvert in so i l (James and Bart le t t

1983a ,b ,c ; Otabbo ng 1989a ,b) and so i l immob i l ize

bo th t r iva len t and hexava len t ch romium (Sto l len -

Werk Grov e 1985 and Otabb ong 1989a ,b ) , i t i s

d i f f i cu l t to a s ses sepa ra te ly the e f fec t s o f the two

types o f Cr on p lan ts . Consequen t ly , i t migh t be ap -

propria te to use the te rm Cr toxic i ty in p lants , in-

s tead of toxic i ty of t r iva lent or hexavalent Cr . The

l i te ra ture on the ro le of chrom ium in p lants is mea-

g re, mo s t o f wh ich dea l s wi th the func t ion o f chro -

mium in b io log ica l sys tems and the geno tox ic me-

c h a n i s m s . T h e e f f e c t s o f c h r o m i u m o n pl a n t

growth, c rop y ie ld , uptake and d is tr ibut ion in vege-

ta t ive and reprodu ct ive par ts a re not ye t fu l ly under-

s t o o d ( S h e w r y P e t e r s o n 1 9 74 , C a r y et al.

1977a ,b , Goo droad Ca ldw e l l 1979 , James

Bart le t t 1984, Barcelo

et al.

1986, Dor n

et al.

1987

and Corradi et al. 1993) . Moral et al. (1995) and

Saman ta ray et aI. (1996a ) r epo r ted tox ic symptom s

and growth charac ter is t ics in crop p lants grown in

ch romiu m r ich so i l. The p re sen t r ev iew dea l s wi th

the ro le o f ch rom ium on p lan t g rowth and me tabo-

l ism with emphasis on the accumulat ion and d is tr i -

but ion in d if ferent p lant par ts .

201



S. SAMANTARAY G.R. ROUT P. DAS

G e n e r a l o c c u r r e n c e a n d b e n e f i c i a l n a t u r e o f

c h r o m i u m

C h r o m i u m is w i d e l y d i s t r ib u t e d i n so il , w a t e r a n d

b i o l o g i c a l m a t e r i a l a n d o c c u r s i n th e r a n g e o f 5 to

1 0 0 0 p p m i n so i ls ( S w a i n e 1 9 5 5 ). H o w e v e r , i n s e r -

p e n t i n e s o il , h ig h c o n c e n t r a t io n s o f c h r o m i u m a n d

n i c k e l a r e s o m e o f t h e m a i n c a u s e s o f i n f e r t il i ty

( R o b i n s o n e t a l 1 9 3 5 ) . S a m a n t a r a y e t a l (1991) r e -

p o r te d t h e p r e s e n c e o f 2 1 0 0 - 2 7 0 0 p p m c h r o m i u m

i n t h e S u k i n d a c h r o m i t e m i n e w a s t e s . C h r o m i u m

w a s d e t e c t e d in a v a r i e t y o f c r o p p l an t s ( H o d g k i s s

E r r i n g t o n 1 9 4 1 , Y u a n 1 9 5 5 , B e a t h 1 9 4 3 , M o r a l

e t a l 1 9 9 6, S a m a n t a r a y D a s 1 99 1 a n d S a m a n t a -

ra y Da s 1997) .

C h r o m i u m i s c o n n c c t c d w i th t h e g lu c o s e to l c r a n c c

f a c t o r ( M e r t z 1 9 6 9 a n d S a n e r 1 9 8 0 ) a n d i s i m p o r -

t a n t i n a n i m a l a n d h u m a n n u t r i ti o n f o r n o r m a l c a r -

b o h y d r a t e m e t a b o l i s m ( M e r t z 1 9 6 9 an d A n d e r s o n

1 9 8 1 ). A n u m b e r o f s t u d i e s w e r e i n i t ia t e d t o i n v e s ti -

g a t e t h e c h e m i s t r y o f c h r o m i u m i n s o i ls a n d i t s u p -

t a k e b y p l a n ts ( C a r y e t a l 1 9 7 7 a ,b , L a h o u t i P e -

t e r so n 1 9 7 9 a n d R a m a c h a n d r a n e t a l 1980) . C hro-

m i u m s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n i s k n o w n t o i m p r o v e a n d

n o r m a l i s e t h e i m p a r e d g l u c o s e t o l e r a n c e i n s o m e

d i a b e t i c p e o p l e ( M e r t z 1 9 6 9 ) a n d m a l n o u r i s h e d

c h i l d r e n ( H o p k i n s e t a l 1 9 6 8 ) w h i c h i n d i c a t e s t h a t

t h is e l e m e n t p l a y s a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e in h u m a n n u t r i -

t i on . Ha ssa n e t a l ( 1 9 8 9 ) r e p o r t e d t h e p r e s e n c e o f

c h r o m i u m i n t h e h e x a v a l e n t a n d t h e t r iv a l e n t l b r m s

i n w a t e r b u t t ri v a l e n t c h r o m i u m r a r e l y o c c u r r e d i n

p o r t a b l e w a t e r ; h e x a v a l e n t c h r o m i u m , h o w e v e r ,

w a s f o u n d t o e n t e r th e w a t e r s u p p l y s y s t e m t h r o u g h

i n d u s t ri a l w a s t e s . W a r r i n g t o n ( 1 9 4 6 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t

0 .1 p p m c h r o m i u m i n n u t r ie n t s o lu t io n s w a s s o m e -

t i m e s b e n e f i c i a l . S e v e r a l b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t s i n t e r m s

o f y i e l d b y a p p l i c a ti o n o f c h r o m i u m s a lt s w a s r e -

p o r t e d i n o a t a n d b a r l e y ( P f e i f f e r

e t a l

1918) ; c u-

c u m b e r ( R e i n h o l d H a u s r a t h 1 9 40 ) a n d g r a p e

( D o b r o l y u b s k i i 1 9 5 7 , 1 9 5 8 , D o b r o l y u b s k i i

S l a vvo 1958) .

f f ec t o f c h r o m i u m o n p l a n t g r o w t h

C h r o m i u m w a s n e v e r r e c o g n i s e d a s a n e s s e n t i a l

e l e m e n t f o r p l a n t g r o w t h b u t s o m e o f i ts s t i m u l a t i v e

e f f e c ts w e r e r e p o r t ed . T h e a p p l i c a ti o n o f c h r o m i u m

a s p o t a s s i u m d i c h r o m a t e w a s f a t a l t o t e a p l a n t s ,

e v e n i n l a r g e d o s e s t h e e f f e c t w a s s l o w a n d s e v e r a l

m o n t h s w e r e r e q u i r e d t o k i l l t h e p l a n t s ( K e i l l e r

1 9 3 9 ) . L e r o u x ( 1 9 4 0 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t c h r o m i u m

a d d e d a t a r a te o f 5 m g / k g i n c r e a s e d t h e r a t e o f co m -

b u s t i o n o f o r g a n i c m a t t e r a n d t h e r a te o f n i tr i fi c a-

t i on in so i l . Le ro ux (1941 a , b ) r e po r t e d t ha t a pp l i c a -

t io n o f c h r o m i u m t o t h e s o i l i n p o t c u l t u r e e x p e r i -

m e n t s i n c r e a s e d t h e n i t r o g e n c o n t e n t o f p e a s e e d s

a n d a l s o i n c r e a s e d n i t r o g e n f i x a t i o n b y t h e i n o c u -

l a te d p l a n ts . T h e r e w a s r e d u c t i o n in d r y w e i g h t a n d

n o d u l a t i o n o f p e a s a f t e r a d d i n g c h r o m i c s u l f a te

( G a w S o o n g 1 94 2) . S e v e r a l i n v e s t i g a to r s f o u n d

t ha t C r wa s t o x i c to p l a n t s (K oe n i g 1911 , Vonsc ha r -

r e r S c h o r p p 1 93 5, L y o n e t a l 1970 , Wa l l a c e e t a l

1 9 7 6 , W a t a n a b e i 9 8 4 , M o r a l

e t a l

1993 , Sa ma nt a -

r a y e t a l 1 9 9 6 a, b a n d S a m a n t a r a y e t a l 1998a, b).

I n s o m e c a s e s c h r o m i u m s t i m u l a te d t h e g ro w t h o f

t h e p l an t s a t l o w e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s w h e r e a s a t h i g h e r

c o n c e n t r a t i o n s it h a d d e f i n i t e g r o w t h r e t a r d i n g e f-

f e ct s. E v e n l o w c h r o m i u m c o n c e n t r a ti o n s i n h i bi te d

g r o w t h in s o m e p l an t s . W a r r i n g t o n ( 1 9 4 6 ) r e p o r t e d

t h at l e t tu c e g r o w n i n n u t r i e n t s o l u t io n s w a s s o m e -

t i m e s s l i g h t l y b e n e f i t e d b y 0 . 1 p p m o f c h r o m i u m .

S u b s e q u e n t ly , C r i n th e f o r m o f T h o m a s P h o s p h a te

s l a g , c hromi t e , ox i de o r p~ ,ospha t e i nc re a se d t he

y i e l d o f s o m e p l a n t s a n d m o r e s o l u b l e f o r m s o f

c h r o m i u m s u c h a s c h r o m a t e a n d b i c h ro m a t e s w e r e

b e n e f i c i a l a t l o w b u t i n j u r i o u s a t h i g h c o n c e n t r a -

t io n s . R e i n h o l d s H a u s r a t h ( 1 9 4 0 ) o b t a i n e d f a -

v o u r a b l e r e s u l t s i n c u c u m b e r w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n o f

p o t a s s i u m d i c h r o m a t e ( 3 0 a n d 1 00 g . m -3 ) t o th e

s o il . H e w i t t (1 9 5 3 ) o b s e r v e d c h l o r o s i s a n d g r o w t h

re duc t i ons i n p l a n t s l i ke t oma t o , po t a t o , oa t a nd

k a l e d u e t o t h e a p p l i c a ti o n o f c h r o m i u m a s c h r o -

m a t e i o n ; h e a ls o f o u n d t h a t c h r o m a t e i o n w a s m o r e

t o x i c t h a n c h r o m i c i o n . H u n t e r a n d V e r g n a n o

( 1 9 5 3 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t c h r o m i u m a t 5 a n d 1 0 p p m i n

n u t r i e n t s o l u t i o n s p r o d u c e d c h l o r o s i s s i m i l a r t o

i r o n c h l o r o s i s in o a t p l a n t s. C o u p i n ( 1 9 0 0 ) f o u n d

c h r o m a t e a n d b i c h r o m a t e s a l t s o f s o d i u m , p o t a s -

s i u m a n d a m m o n i u m t o b e t o x i c a n d t h a t t h e b i c h r o -

m a t e s a l t r J ~ m o r e t o x i c th a n c h r o m a t e s . S a m a n t a -

r a y e t a l ( 1 9 9 1) a n d S a m a n t a r a y e t a l (1996b) ob-

s e r v e d t t~ at h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f c h r o m i u m ( 3 I 0 0

p p m ) p r e s e n t i n m i n e w a s t e c a u s e d t h e d e a t h o f

p l a n ts b u t , a m e d i u m m i x e d w i t h g o o d a e r ab l e an d

n o r m a l s o il s u p p o r t e d t h e g r o w t h o f p la n t s w h i c h

f l o w e r e d a n d s e t s e e d s .

202



C H R O M I U M P L A N T G R O W T H A N D M E T A B O L I S M

H u n t e r V e r g n a n o ( 1 9 5 3 ) o b s e r v e d t h at g r o w t h o f

o a t p la n t s d e c r e a s e d w i t h i n c r e a s e d c h r o m i u m c o n -

c e n t r a t i o n a d d e d t o n u t r i e n t s o l u t i o n a s p o t a s s i u m

d i c h r o m a t e . S o a n e S a u n d e r ( 1 9 59 ) f o u n d h e x a -

v a l e n t c h r o m i u m t o b e t o x i c t o t o b a c c o a s w e l l a s

c o r n i n s a n d c u l t u r e a t lo w c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . B r e c k l e

( 1 9 8 9 ) w a s o f t h e v i e w t h a t r o o t g r o w t h , n o t s h o o t

g r o w t h a l o n e, s h o u l d b e t a k e n i n to a c c o u n t b e c a u s e

r o o t c o m e s i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e t o x i c m e t a l s f i r s t a n d

u s u a l ly a c c u m u l a t e s a s i g n i fi c a n tl y h i g h e r a m o u n t

o f m e t a l t h a n t h e u p p e r p l a n t p a rt s ( B r e c k l e 1 9 8 9 ).

A l o n g t e rm e x p o s u r e o f c h r o m i u m c a u s e d r e d u c -

t i o n i n g r o w t h a n d d e c r e a s e d t h e r o o t / s h o o t r a t i o

( B r e c k l e 1 9 8 9 a n d C l a r k 1 9 8 2 ). C h r o m i u m t o x i c i t y

n o t o n l y a f f e c t e d t h e l en g t h o f t h e p r i m a r y r o o t b u t

a l s o c h a n g e d t h e a r c h i t e c h t u r e o f t h e e n t i r e r o o t

s y s t e m ; C r a t h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s w a s f o u n d t o e n -

h a n c e l a t e r a l r o o t f o r m a t i o n g i v i n g r i s e t o a m o r e

d e n s e a n d c o m p a c t r o o t s y s t e m b u t r o o t h a ir d e n s i t y

w a s g e n e r a l l y l o w ( S a m a n t a r a y

et al.

1996a ) . Da vi s

( 1 9 8 6 ) r e p r e s e n t e d t h e o p i n i o n t h a t d e c r e a s e d w a t e r

u p t a k e b y m e t a l s t r e s s e d p l a n t s w a s d u e t o t h e d r a s-

t ic r e d u c t i o n o f th e r o o t s y s t e m , a n d a n i n c r e a s e d r e -

s i s t a n c e t o w a t e r f l o w i n t o a n d w i t h i n r o o t s . R o o t

b r o w n i n g , a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f h i g h m e t a l a v a il -

a b i l it y w e r e r e p o r t e d ( B r e c k l e 1 9 8 9 , S a m a n t a r a y et

aL

1 9 9 6a , S a m a n t a r a y D a s 1 9 97 ). T h e b r o w n i n g

s e e m e d d u e t o t h e e n h a n c e d s u b e r i z a t i o n w h i c h

m i g h t l i m i t w a t e r u p t a k e . I t w a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t

R h i z o - b o x s t u d i es c o u l d b e a n i m p o r t a n t t o o l f o r i n -

v e s t i g a t i o n s o n r o o t g r o w t h i n p l a n t s e x p o s e d t o

b o t h m e t a l a n d d r o u g h t s t r es s ( B r e c k l e 1 9 8 9 ) . B i s h -

n o i

et al.

( 1 9 9 3 a , b ) r e p o r t e d t h a t h e x a v a l e n t c h r o -

m i u m w a s m u c h m o r e t o x ic a n d s u p p r e s se d g r o w t h

o f r ad i c l e a n d p l u m u l e o f

Pisum sativum

s igni f i -

c a n t ly . I n c h r o m i u m - t r e a t e d p l a n ts a l a r g e r p r o p o r -

t io n o f p o d s f a i l e d to s e t s e e d s a n d t h e a v e r a g e

n u m b e r o f s e e d s p e r p o d w a s l o w e r .

Visual symptoms o f chromium toxicity

S y m p t o m s o f c h r o m i u m t o x ic i ty w e r e e x p r e ss e d

d i f f e r e n t l y in d i l ~ e r e n t p l a n ts . S o a n e a n d S a u n d e r

( 1 9 5 9 ) a n d R o u t

et al.

( 1 9 9 7 ) f o u n d t h e t o x i c i t y

s y m p t o m s i n c o r n a n d m u n g b e a n d u e t o th e a p p li -

c a t io n o f c h r o m i u m i n e x c e s s b y w h i c h t h e p la n ts

w e r e s e v e r e l y s t u n t e d , a n d t h e l e a v e s h a d a t e n -

d e n c y t o r o ll a r o u n d t h e s h o o t ; t h e l e a v e s w e r e n a r -

r o w a n d p u r p l e g r e e n w i t h a n i n te n s e p u r p l e c o l o u r

o n t h e l o w e r t w o i n c h e s o f th e l o w e r b l a d e . I n t o -

b a c c o , n o s p e c i f i c t o x i c s y m p t o m s w e r e m a r k e d ;

b u t s h o o t d e v e l o p m e n t w a s d e p r e s s e d a n d c o n s e -

q u e n t l y n o i n f l o r e s c e n c e d e v e l o p e d .

H u n t e r V e r g n a n o ( 1 9 5 3) r e p o r t e d t h a t o a t p l an t s

a f f e c t e d b y c h r o m i u m t o x i c i ty w e r e s t u n t ed w i t h

p o o r l y d e v e l o p e d r o o t s a n d s m a l l n e c r o t i c l es i o n s.

T h e y a l s o r e p o r t e d t h a t p l a n t s r e c e i v i n g 5 . 0 p p m

c h r o m i u m i n t h e n u t r ie n t s o l u t io n w e r e u s u a l l y n o r -

m a l , b u t s h o w e d s ig n s o f m i l d c h l o ro s i s o f t h e

l e a v e s a t 1 0 p p m c h r o m i u m ; t h e p l a n ts w e r e s t u n te d

a n d m o s t o f t h e le a v e s s h o w e d c h l o r o s i s a n d n e -

c r o t i c l e s i o n s a t 2 5 a n d 5 0 p p m c h r o m i u m . R o o t s

s h o w e d n o r m a l g r o w t h a t 5 a n d 1 0 p p m c h r o m i u m

b u t p o o r r o o t d e v e l o p e d a t h i g h e r c o n c e n t r a t io n s .

H e w i t t ( 1 9 5 3 ) r e p o r t e d C r t o x i c i t y i n m a i z e p l a n ts .

C h r o m i u m t o x i c i t y c a u s e d w i l t i n g o f t h e t o p s o f

s o y b e a n p la n t s a t 5 p p m C r o n l y a f t e r tw o d a y s o f

t r e a t m e n t ( T u r n e r R u s t 1 9 7 1 ). B a r c e l o et aI

( 1 9 8 5 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t v i s u a l s y m p t o m s o f t o x i c i t y i n

b u s h b e a n

Phaseolus vulgaris cv.

C o n t e n d e r ) o c -

c u r r e d a t 2 . 5 a n d 5 p p m o f C r t r e a t m e n t . T h e p l a n ts

s h o w e d c h l o r o s i s i n t r if o l i a te d l e a v e s a s i n c a s e o f

i r o n d e f i c i en c y . S a m a n t a r a y

et al.

( 1 9 9 6 b ) o b s e r v e d

s e v e r e c h lo r o s i s a n d s t u n te d g r o w t h o f r ic e

Oryza

sativa cv. P a t h a r a ) g r o w n o n c h r o m i t e m i n e w a s t e

c o n t a i n in g a h i g h p e r c e n t a g e o f c h r o m i u m . C o r r a d i

et al. 1993)

r e c o r d e d s u p p r e s s i o n o f l a te r a l sh o o t s

w i t h a d i m i n i s h i n g t r e n d w i t h t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e

d o s e o f c h r o m i u m . L a t e ra l r o o t p r o d u c t i o n w a s

c o m p l e t e l y i n h i b i t e d at 1 0 p p m C r ( V I ) . A t t h e t i m e

o f h a r v e s t , o l d e r l e a v e s o f th e s e p l a n t s t r e a t e d w i t h

5 p p m C r s h o w e d i n t e rv e i n a l c h l o r o s is w i t h th e d e -

v e l o p m e n t o f i n t e r v e i n a l n e c r o t i c a r e a s . A h i g h

d o s e o f C r ( 3 0 o r 6 0 p p m ) a d d e d t o t h e p l a n ts r e -

s u l t e d i n t h e d e a t h o f p l a n t s w i t h i n t h r e e d a y s o f

t r e a t m e n t in h y d r o p o n i c s a s w e l l a s p o t c u l tu r e e x -

p e r i m e n t s . S a m a n t a r a y

et al. t996a)

a l s o r e p o r t e d

s e v e r e c h l o r o s i s a n d n e c r o s i s o f l e a f in

E. colona

a t

h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f C r i n s o l u t i o n c u l t u re .

Absorption and distribution of chromium in plants

t i s o f g r e a t i n t e r e s t t o d e t e r m i n e t h e a b s o r p t i o n

a n d d i s t r ib u t i o n p a t t e r n o f m e t a l s i n d i f f e r e n t v e g e -

t a b l e pa r t s , e spe c i a l l y i n the e d i b l e pa r t s , due t o t he

i n c r e a s in g t o x i c i t y p r o b l e m s c a u s e d b y m e t a ls i n

t h e s o i l - p la n t s y s t e m ( B a x t e r et al. 1983) so a s to e s -

t i m a t e t h e b a s a l lo a d t h a t a c r o p c a n s t a n d w i t h o u t

e x c e e d i n g p e r m i s s i b le l im i ts r e c o m m e n d e d f o r

203



S. SAMANTARAY G.R. ROUT P.

D S

consumption. The absorption and accumulation of

chromium in differen t plants were reported in C i t -

r u s s i n e n s i s (0.2 to 0.3 ppm), pear P y r u s c o m m u -

h i s ) (0.03 to 0.85 ppm), T r i t i c u m s p p . (10.2 to 14.8

ppm) and corn Z e a m a y s ) (0.22 to 0.74 ppm) by us-

ing different types of culture systems (Liebig e t a l .

1942, Saint-Rat 1948, Vergnano 1959, Shimp e t a l .

1957 and Prince 1957).

In oat A r e n a s a t i v a ) grown in serpentine soil, the

accumulation of chromium varied between 3 to 11

ppm (Soane and Saunder 1959). They also reported

that the accumulation of chromium in leaves varied

between 4 and 14 ppm and in roots from 13 to 175

ppm in tobacco N i c o t i n a t o b a c u m ) grown in ser-

pentine soil. Mung bean plants grown in chromite

minewastes accumulated 62.29 to 70.73 ppm chro-

mium (Samantaray and Das 1997). Chromium ac-

cumulated mainly in the roots and was poorly trans-

ported to shoots ( Moral e t a l . 1994, Samantaray &

Das 1997) possibly due to spatial localization in a

specific subcellular compartment in the root cells (

Barcelo e t a l . 1985). The level of chromium in

plants grown in solution culture containing chro-

mium ranged from 3.8 -10.53 (ng Cr/g dry weight)

in tomato, 12-31 (ngCr/g dry weight)in potato, 19-

42 (ng Cr/g dry weight) in wheat and 18-30 (ng Cr/g

dry weight) in bean (Huffman and Allaway 1973).

The dynamics of metals in the absorption as well as

the accumulation in various plant parts have been

studied in soilless cultures (Moral e t a l . 1996).

Hexavalent chromium was found to be preferen-

tially absorbed by the roots (Ishihara e t a l . 1968).

Subsequently, Moral e t a l . (1996) found that triva-

lent chromium was also absorbed by the roots; less

is accumulated and transported to aerial parts.

Hunter and Vergnano (1953) reported that the chro-

mium accumulation varied between 0.04 - 3.9 ppm

in the oat plants grown in solution culture. Accu-

mulation and distribution of chromium were ob-

served in trees, shrubs and herb naturally growing

on chromite mine wastes containing high percent-

age of chromium (Samantaray e t a l . 1998a,b).

Chromium uptake and translocation by plant cells

were very low and chromium concentration associ-

ated with the root was greater than that in the leaf

which in turn was greater than that in the fruit (Ra-

machandran e t a l . 1980). Similar results were also

reported on the uptake o f chromium (VI) over chro-

mium (III) in soils (Cary e t a l . 1977 a,b and Lahouti

& Peterson 1979). Often plants growing on low

chromium soils may appear to have lower concen-

trations of chromium as compared to the same

plants grown on high chromium soil which may be

due to contamination (Cary & Kubota 1990). Addi-

tion of up to 1 chromium as Cr(OH)3 to soils in-

creased the chromium concentra tion in alfalfa and

buckwheat (Cary e t a l . 1977b). Many workers

noted that the lower chromium concentrations were

found in the fruit with increased levels in the stem

and the highest concentration in the leaf (Desmet e t

al . 1975a, Cary e t a l . 1977a,b). Cary and Kubata

(1990) explained the effects of chromium concen-

tration in soil on chromium accumulation in plants.

f f e c t o f ch r om i u m on p l an t me t abo l i sm

He av y metals have received considerable attention

partly due to their natural occurrence. High concen-

trations depressed plant growth, although certain

metals were required in very small amounts for

proper growth and development. Several workers

also reported stimulatory effects o f chromium on

growth, but the absolute requirement of chromium

for normal plant growth was not established (Arnon

1937, Warrington 1946, Farror 1968, Haas &

Brusca 1961, Hunter & Vergnano 1953, Soane &

Saunder 1959 and Turner & Rust 1971). Significant

reduction in dry matter yields of two cultivars o f

soybean was recorded with as low as 0.5 ppm of

chromium in nutrient culture and 10.0 ppm in soil

culture. Drastic reduction in yield, as low as 50 of

the control was also reported by the above workers

due to the application of 5.0 ppm of chromium for 5

days.

Th e heavy metal toxicities and reduction in the net

photosynthetic rate, leading to decreased growth

and productivity and electron transport system

have been reported by several workers (Desmet e t

al . 1975b, Foy e t a l . 1978, Baszyfiski e t a l . 1981

and VanAssche & Clijsters 1988). Heavy metals

not only related the growth of algae but also ham-

pered the uptake of nutrients, photosynthesis and

enzyme activities within a few hours of exposure

(Dubey & Rai 1987, Mallick & Rai 1990). Rai &

Dubey (1988) pointed out that an irreversible inhi-

bition of N2 fixation by chromium. They also sug-

204



CHROMIUM.

P L N T G R O W T H N D M E T B O L IS M

g e s t e d t h a t n i t r o g e n a s e a c t i v i t y o f

Anabaena dolio-

lure

w a s i n h i b i t e d b y C r a n d S n e i t h e r su b s t r a t e c o n -

c e n t r a t i o n i n N 2 f i x a t i o n . P r a s a d

et al.

(1991) r e -

p o r t e d t h a t m e t a l s n o t o n l y s p e c i f i c a l ly a f f e c t c a rr i -

e r s o f e l e c t r o n t r a n s p o r t, b u t a l s o t h e e l e c t r o n f l o w

f r o m H 2 0 t o P S - I I r e a c t i o n c en t r e . T h i s i n h i b i ts t h e

p r i m a r y r e a c t i o n s o f p h o t o s y n t h e s i s t h e r e b y d e -

c r e a s i n g t h e e n e r g y l e v e l ( A t p p o o l ) o f t h e c e l l s .

T h e e f f e c ts o f d i f f e r e n t c o n c e n tr a t io n s o f h e x a v a -

l e n t c h r o m i u m ( C r V I ) o n p h o t o s y n t h e t i c r a t e i n

g r e e n a l g a e h a v e b e e n d e s c r i b e d b y W i u m -

A n d e r s o n ( 1 9 7 4 ) a n d i n a n a q u a t i c m a c r o p h y t e

( G u i l l i z z o n i

et al.

1 9 8 4 , F r a n c k o

et al.

1 9 9 3 ) . A u s -

t e n f e l d ( 1 9 7 9 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t p h o t o s y n t h e t i c r a t e w a s

r e d u c e d i n a h e x a v a l e n t c h r o m i u m t r e a t e d h i g h e r

p l an t w h i l e t h e c h r o m i u m c o n t e n t s w e r e h i g h e r in

p r i m a r y l e a v e s t h a n i n t r i f o l ia t e l e av e s o f b e a n s b u t

p h o t o s y n h e t i c r a t e w a s m o r e a f f e c t e d i n t r i f o l i a t e

l e a v es . B a r c e l o

et al.

( 1 9 8 6 ) r e p o r t e d t h e i n f l u e n c e

o f d i f f e r e n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f h e x a v a l e n t c h r o -

m i u m o n b o t h p i g m e n t a n d m i n e r a l co n t e n t s in o r -

d e r t o e s t a b l i s h a p o s s i b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

c h r o m i u m i n d u c e d n u t r ie n t d i s o r d er s a n d c h l o ro s is .

R i e d e l ( 1 9 8 5 ) w o r k i n g w i t h d i a t o m

Thalassiosira

pseudonana)

n o t e d t h a t t r i v a l e n t c h r o m i u m h a d

h i g h a f f i n i t y f o r p r o te i n s a n d c o u l d b i n d e s s e n t i a l

e n z y m e s t o i n a c t iv a t e t h e m . S u b s e q u e n t l y , B a r c e lo

et al.

( 1 9 8 6 ) o b s e r v e d t h a t c h l o r o p h y l l - b a n d c a -

r o t e n o i d s i n b e a n s e x h i b i t e d a s i m i l a r r e s p o n s e t o

t h e h e x a v a l e n t c h r o m i u m t r e a t m e n t b u t th e r e w e r e

d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e r e s p o n s e b e t w e e n t h e p r i m a r y

a n d f i r s t t r i f o l i a t e l e a v e s . P r i m a r y l e a v e s s h o w e d

h i g h p i g m e n t c o n t e n t p r o b a b l y d u e t o a c o n c e n t r a -

t io n e f f e c t b e c a u s e o f r e d u c e d g r o w t h . I n c o n t r a s t,

fo r t r i fo l i a t e l e a ve s , t he re wa s a s i gn i f i c a n t l i ne a r

n e g a t i v e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f

c h r o m i u m a n d t h e c h l o r o p h y l l co n t e n ts . T h e y r e -

p o r t e d t h a t t h e h i g h n e g a t i v e r e g r e s s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t

o f c h r o m i u m v e r s u s c h r o m i u m c o n t e n t c o u l d i n di -

c a te a d i r ec t e f f e c t o f c h r o m i u m o n t h e p i g m e n t s y n -

t he si s. N e v e r t h e l es s , c h r o m i u m m i g h t a l s o r e d u c e

i n d i r e c t l y t h e c h l o r o p h y l l a n d c a r o t e n o i d c o n t e n t s

b y i n h i b i t io n o f F e a n d Z n t r a n s p o r t to t h e d e v e l o p -

i n g t r i f o li a t e le a v e s ; t h is h y p o t h e s i s a l s o s u p p o r t e d

t h e h ig h r e g r e s s io n s b e t w e e n t h e p i g m e n t a n d F e o r

Z n c o n t e n t s . T h o m s o n & W e i e r ( 1 9 6 2 ) a n d M a -

c h o l d ( 1 9 72 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t th e c h r o m i u m i n d u c e d

c h l o r o s i s w a s r a t h e r d u e t o a d i r e c t o r i n d i r e c t e f f e c t

o n t h e c h l o r o p l a s t f o r m a t i o n t h a n t o a s p e c i f i c

e f

f e c t o n t h e p i g m e n t s y n t h e s i s. K r u p a

et al.

( 1 9 8 2 )

r e p o r t e d t h a t th e s y n t h e s i s o f p i g m e n t s a n d l i p o q u i -

n o n e s i n

Zea mays

w a s i n h i b i t e d b y t h e a p p l i c a ti o n

o f c h r o m i u m . R e d u c t i o n i n t h e c h lo r o p h y l l c o n te n t

w a s n o t e d w i t h t h e in c r e a s e o f c h r o m i u m c o n c e n -

t r a t i o n w h i c h m a y b e d u e t o a c c u m u l a t i o n a n d

d e p o s i t io n o f c h r o m i u m b y r o o t s ( S a m a n t a r a y

et al.

1996b) . Gui l i z z on i

et al.

( 1 9 8 4 ) f o u n d t h a t c h r o -

m i u m e n h a n c e d s h o o t g r o w t h in

Myriophyllum spi-

catum

u p t o a m e d i u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f 5 0 p g . 1 - 1 .

H i g h e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f u p t o 1 m g- 1- 1 c a u s e d a n

a l m o s t l i n e a r r e d u c t i o n i n s h o o t l e n g t h a n d w e i g h t

a n d p h o t o s y n t h e t i c r a t e . T h e y a l s o r e p o r t e d t h a t

c h r o m i u m i n h i b it e d m e t a b o l i c a c t iv i ty p a r t ic u l a rl y

14C

p h o t o s y n t h e t i c c a r b o n a s s i m i l a t i o n ( P C A ) .

P o r t e r & F r a n c k o ( 1 9 9 1 ) f o u n d t h a t c h r o m i u m a n d

c o p p e r w e r e c a p a b l e o f s t i m u l a ti n g o r r e p r e s s in g

P C A r a te s i n l e a f d i s k s f r o m

Potamogeton amplifo-

lius,

a l t h o u g h b o t h m e t a l s r e p r e s s e d P C A a t o r

a bove 0 .5 mg.1-1 . B i shnoi

et al.

( 1 9 9 3 b ) p r o v i d e d

e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e in h i b i t i o n o f p h o t o s y n t h e s i s , r e s -

p i r a t i o n a n d n i t r o g e n f i x a t i o n i n p e a

Pisum sati-

rum)

s e e d l i n g s w a s d u e t o t h e a p p l ic a t i o n o f c h r o -

m i u m .

Effect of

h r o m i u m o n

plant yield

T h e i n t er a c t io n o f h e a v y m e t a ls o n p l a n t g r o w t h

a n d y i e l d h a v e b e e n e x a m i n e d b y v a r i o u s w o r k e r s

( T u r n e r & R u s t 1 9 7 1 , D a v i s

et aI.

1 9 8 6 a n d O t a b -

b o n g 1 9 8 9 c ). T u r n e r a n d R u s t ( 1 9 7 1 ) i n d i c a t e d th a t

c h r o m i u m t r e a t m e n t s a s l o w a s 0 . 5 m g . 1 -1 i n n u tr i -

e n t c u l t u r e a n d 1 0 p p m i n s o i l c u l t u r e s i g n i f i c a n t ly

r e d u c e d t h e d r y m a t t e r y ie l d s o f t w o s o y b e a n v a r i e-

t ie s . T h e d r y w e i g h t a n d t h e y i e l d w e r e a l m o s t t h e

s a m e a t 0. 2 p p m c o n c e n t r a t i o n s b u t d e c r e a s e d a t 2 . 0

a n d 1 0 p p m o f c h r o m i u m ; t h e c r i ti c a l c o n c e n t r a ti o n

o f c h r o m i u m w h i c h r e s u l t ed i n 5 0 d e c r e a s e i n t h e

y i e l d d u e t o e x c e s s i n ju r y , w a s e s t i m a t e d a t 2 0 p p m

i n o u t e r le a v e s a n d 2 0 0 0 p p m i n r o o ts r e s p e c t iv e l y

( H a r a

et al.

1 9 7 6 ) . D a v i s

et aL

( 1 9 8 6 ) r e p o r t e d th e

u p p e r c r i t ic a l l e v e l o f a p o t e n t i a l t o x i c e l e m e n t i n it s

m i n i m u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n a c t i v e ly g r o w i n g t i ss u es

o f a p l a n t a t w h i c h t h e d r y m a t t e r y i e ld w a s r e d u c e d .

O t a b b o n g ( 1 9 8 9 c ) r e p o r t e d t ha t t h e d r y m a t t er

y i e ld s o n b o t h r o o t a n d s h o o t w e r e l a r g er in p h o s -

p h o r u s c o n t a i n in g s o i l th a n c h r o m i u m a d d e d t o t h e

s a m e s o i l. T h e i n c r e a s e in t o t a l d r y m a t t e r y i e l d d u e

t o t h e a p p l i c a ti o n o f a s m a l l a m o u n t o f C r O 3 in

c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h K H 2 P O 4 as c o m p a r e d to

205



S . S A M A N T A R A Y G . R. R O U T P . D A S

K H 2 P O 4 a l o n e w a s r e c o r d e d i n a c id i c s o il ( O t ta -

b o n g 1 9 8 9 c ) .

D i f f e re n t i a l c h r o m i u m t o l e ra n c e i n p l a n t s

E v o l u t i o n o f p l a n ts t o l e ra n t to h e a v y m e t a l s h a s b e -

c o m e a n i n c r e a s i n g l y s t u d i e d s u b j e c t i n r e c e n t

y e a r s. V o l u m i n o u s i n f o r m a t i o n h a s b e e n a c c u m u -

l a te d , w h i c h m o s t l y a p p l y o n l y t o e c o t y p i c s p e c i e s

b u t i n f o r m a t i o n o n c r o p p l a n t s i s m e a g r e . P l a n t s p e -

c i e s a n d v a r i e t i e s v a r y w i d e l y i n t h e i r t o l e r a n c e t o

e x c e s s C r i n th e g r o w t h m e d i u m . I n s e v e r a l s p e c i es ,

t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e g e n e t i c a l l y c o n t r o l l e d ( R e i d

1 9 7 1 ) . E p s t e i n ( 1 9 6 9 ) p o i n t e d o u t t h a t a n e l e m e n t

p r e s e n t i n e x c e s s c a n i n t e r f e r e w i t h m e t a b o l i s m

t h r o u g h c o m p e t i t i o n f o r u p t a k e , i n a c t iv a t i o n o f e n -

z y m e s , d i s p l a c e m e n t o f e s s e n ti a l e l e m e n t s a t f u n c -

t io n a l s i t e s, o r t h e a l t e r a t i o n o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f w a -

te r. M a n y o f t h e s e e f f e c ts p r o b a b l y i n v o l v e a m o d i -

f i c a ti o n o f m e m b r a n e s t r u c tu r e a n d f u n c t i o n .

C l o s e l y r e l a t e d g e n o t y p e s a r e v a l u a b l e t o o l s f o r

s t u d y i n g t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l m e c h a n i s m o f t o x i c it y

o r t o l e r a n c e . R o u t

e t a l .

( 1 9 9 7 ) t e s t e d e i g h t m u n g

b e a n c u l t i v a r s s u b j e c t e d t o t h e s i x l e v e l s o f c h r o -

m i u m i n t h e n u t r i e n t s o l u t i o n f o r s e e d g e r m i n a t i o n ,

e l o n g a t i o n o f s h o o t a n d r o o t , a n d t h e t o ta l b i o m a s s

p r o d u c t i o n . A g o o d d e g r e e o f v a r i a t i o n i n t h e r e -

s p o n s e s w a s o b s e r v e d o n l y a t t h e 9 6 p M c h r o m i u m

i n t h e n u t r i e n t s o l u t io n ; t h e r o o t a n d s h o o t g r o w t h

w a s a f f e c t e d b y c h r o m i u m i n a l l t h e ei g h t s tu d i e d

c u l ti v a r s. S e v e r a l m e c h a n i s m s o f h e a v y m e t a l t o l-

e r a n c e i n p l a n t s w e r e p r o p o s e d w h i c h i n c l u d i n g

p r o d u c t i o n o f i n t r a c e l l u l a r m e t a l b i n d i n g c o m -

p o u n d s , a l t e r a ti o n o f m e t a l c o m p a r t m e n t a t i o n p at -

t e rn s , a l t e r a ti o n o f c e l l u l a r m e t a b o l i s m , a n d a l te r a -

t io n o f m e m b r a n e s t r u c t u r e ( V e r k le i j S c h a t

1 9 9 0 ) . T h e r e f o r e , t h e c u l t i v a r s w h i c h p e r f o r m e d

w e l l i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f c h r o m i u m c o u l d b e r e g a r d e d

a s c h r o m i u m - t o l e r a n t . T h e e x a c t p h y s i o l o g i c a l

m e c h a n i s m o f C r t o x i c i t y o r t o l e r a n c e is s ti ll d e -

b a t e d ; t h e s e m a y w e l l b e d i f f e r e n t i n d i f f e r e n t p l a n t

s p e c i e s a n d v a r i e t ie s a n d c a n b e c o n t r o l l e d b y d i f-

f e r e n t g e n e s t h r o u g h d i f f e r e n t b i o c h e m i c a l p a t h -

w a y s . O b v i o u s l y , C r t o l e r a n t p l a n ts m u s t b e a b l e t o

p r e v e n t t h e a b s o r p t i o n o f e x c e s s C r o r d e t o x i f y a f te r

i t h a s b e e n a b s o r b e d ( F o y e t a l . 1978, B a rc e l o 1986 ,

V e r k l e j i S c h a t 1 9 9 0 a n d M o r a l

e t a l .

1994, 1996) .

y t o g e n e t ic e f f e c ts o f c h r o m i u m

C h r o m i u m m a y b e d i v a le n t , tr i v al e n t, o r h e x av a -

l e n t ; i t i s c o n s i d e r e d a s a t o x i c e l e m e n t o n p l a n t

( T u r n e r

e t a l .

1 9 7 1 ), a l g a e ( F a s u l o

e t a l .

1983) and

c e l l c u l t u r es ( N a k a m u r o

e t a l .

1 9 7 8 ). M a n y a u t h o r s

r e p o r t e d t h a t t r i v a l e n t c h r o m i u m h a s a l o w e r to x i c -

i ty t h a n h e x a v a l e n t C r c o m p o u n d s , b e c a u s e o f t h e

s t r o n g o x i d i s i n g p o w e r o f C r + 6 A l s o , C r + 6, i n c o n -

t r a s t to C r + 3, i s mo re so l ub l e a nd pa s se s t h roug h

b i o l o g i c a l m e m b r a n e s m o r e r a p i d l y ( M e r t z 1 9 6 9

a n d V a n D e r P u t t e

e t a l .

1981) . Ge ne ra l l y , he xa va -

l e n t c h r o m i u m p e r t u r b s c e l l g r o w t h a n d c e l l c y c l e s .

T h e c y t o t o x i c a c t i o n ( d i s t u r b a n c e o f m i c r o t u b u l es ,

c h r o m o s o m a l a b b e r at io n s a n d m o r p h o l o g i c a l p e r-

t u r b a t io n s ) o f C r + 6 w e r e r e p o r t e d i n

E u g l e n a g r a -

c i l i s

( F a s u l o

e t a l .

1982 , 1983) . B roc h i e ro

e t a l

( 1 9 8 4 ) r e p o r t e d t h e t o x i c a c t i o n o f h e x a v a l e n t c h r o -

m i u m o n E u g l e n a g r a c il i s u n d e r h e t e r o t r o p h i c co n -

d i ti o n s . T h e y a l s o i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e

o f t o x i c i ty a f t e r 2 4 h w a s n o t d u e t o d e t o x i f i c a t io n

b y a l g a e , a n d i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f l a c ta t e C r + 6 t o x i c it y

w a s m a r k e d b y t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f c o m p l e x f o rm a -

t io n w i th o r g a n i c c o m p o u n d s .

I n t e r a c t i o n o f c h r o m i u m w i t h d i ff e r en t

h e a v y m e t a l s a n d m i c r o e le m e n t s

T h e i n t er a c ti o n o f m e t a ls a n d o t h e r m i c r o e l em e n t s

a r e v e r y i m p o r t a n t f o r p l a n t g r o w t h a n d d e v e l o p -

m e n t b u t p r i n c i p a l l y i t d e p e n d s o n t h e a v a il a b il it y

o f t h e m e t a l s . H o w e v e r , a v a i l a b i l it y i n s o i l d e p e n d s

o n s e v e r a l s o i l c o n d i t i o n s , s u c h a s p H o r r e d o x p o -

t e n t ia l s ( B a r t l e t t K i m b l e 1 9 7 6 ) . H u n t e r

V e r g n a n o ( 1 9 5 2 ) r e p o r t e d t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f n i ck e l ,

c o b a lt , c o pp e r , zi n c, m a n g a n e s e a n d m o l y b d e n u m

w i t h h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f t h e e l e m e n t in t h e le a f

t i s sue o f oa t p l a n t s , bu t t h is w a s no t a l wa ys so wi t h

c h r o m i u m a n d a l u m i n i u m . T h e y a ls o o b s e r v e d th a t

t h e to x i c e f f e c t s o f n i c k e l , c h r o m i u m , c o p p e r a n d

m o l y b d e n u m w e r e a s s o c ia t e d w i t h t h e r e d u c e d n i-

t r o g e n c o n t e n t o f t h e p l a n t s a n d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y

t h e y o b s e r v e d t h a t n i c k e l , c o b a l t , c h r o m i u m , z i n c

a n d m a n g a n e s e i n c r e a s e d t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f

p h o s p h o r u s . T h e r e f o r e , ti le s o l u b i l it y o f m e t a l s c a n

b e i n c r e a s e d o r d e c r e a s e d d e p e n d i n g o n t h e p r es -

e n c e o f o t h e r e l e m e n t s i n t h e s o i l -p l a n t s y s t e m . O n

t h e o t h e r h a n d , M o r a l

e t a l .

(1996) e s t a b l i she d a n-

o t h e r i m p o r t a n t p o i n t f o r t h e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n

206



CHROMIUM PLANT GROWTH AND METABOLISM

chromium and iron and copper upon absorption

which could be associated with the chemical prop-

erties of these metals, as the charge (Cr+3 and Fe+3),

effec tive ionic and metal radius (Cr and Cu). In the

same way, the contents of zinc can be diminished

with Cr treatments. They also observed antagonis-

tic and synergistic effects of different elements and

metals in stem, branch and leaf where a competitive

interaction of chromium and copper was noted.

However, a synergistic interaction between B-Cr

was found in root, nevertheless, in aerial parts, an

antagonistic effect was observed. Simultaneously,

in fruits no effect of chromium treatments were

noted on Fe, Cu and Zn contents, but, boron con-

centration increased in the presence of chromium.

Turner Rust (1971) found that 0. l ppm of chro-

mium in nutrient culture resulted in the decrease in

concentration and contents of Ca, K, R Fe and Mn

in shoots and Mg, P, Fe and Mn in roots as com-

pared to the untreated soyabean plants. They also

observed that in soil culture, chromium treatment

significantly increased concentrations of Ca, K,

Mg, R Bo and Cu in shoots of soybean. They also

concluded that chromium interferred with the abil-

ity of the plants to obtain these elements from soil.

The inhibitory effects of chromium on plant

growth are thought to be the result of specific inter-

action between chromium and phosphorus (Robin-

son e t a l . 1935, Soane and Saunder 1959, Spence

Millar 1963, Vergnano 1959, Moral e t a l . 1995) or

Fe (Canon 1960, Dekock 1956 and Hewi~t 1953) in

plant nutrition. Turner and Rust (1971) concluded

that chromium in hexavalen t form specifically in-

terferred with the uptake of Fe or P by plants. It ap-

peared that a broad range of elements was affected

by treating soybean plants with chromium soil.

There was no significant effect of chromium treat-

ment on Ca, Zn, Bo or Cu concentrations but the to-

tal contents of calcium and zinc were depressed

with the addition of high concentration of chro-

mium. The interaction mechanism with organic ac-

ids might play an important role in the inhibitory

and stimulatory effects of chromium on the translo-

cation of different mineral nutrients (Barcelo e t a l .

1985). Interaction with R Zn, Ca and Fe have been

reported, but effects varied widely in different spe-

cies and cultivars (Turner Rust 1971, Foroughi e t

al . 1976 and Skeffington e t a I . 1976). The transloca-

tion of phosphorus in bush bean grown on soil with

pH 6.0 was inhibited by the addition o f hexavalent

chromium (Turner Rust 1971, Barcelo e t a l .

1985).

In nutrient culture, Turner Rust (1971) reported

that the concentrations and total contents o f Ca, K,

P, Fe and Mn in shoots and Mg, R Fe and Mn in

roots showed apparently non-significant increases

due to chromium treatment at 0.05 ppm and signifi-

cant decreases at all treatments >0.1 ppm. They also

stated that there were no significant effects of chro-

mium treatment on Na and Zn concentrations but

the total Zn content tended to decrease with chro-

mium treatment at high concentrations. Riedel

(1985) reported that the uptake of Cr (VI) was ap-

proximately linear with time, proportional to exter-

nal Cr (VI) concentration and inversly proportional

to external sulphate ion concentration in diatom

T h a l a s s i o s i r a p s e u d o d a n a ) . Concentration of Cr

(VI) that restricted growth also inhibited sulphate

uptake. On the other hand, Skeffington e t a t . (1976)

examined the uptake of chromate by barley seed-

lings and found that it was competitively inhibited

by sulphate and concluded that chromate entered

the roots through the sulphate uptake system. Sev-

eral workers reported chromate to be an inhibitor of

sulphate uptake by plants. It usually inhibited sul-

phate uptake though only when the ratio of sulphate

to chromate ranged from 1:10 to 1:1 (Smith 1976;

Coughlan 1977, Jeanjean and Broda 1977 and

Deane O'Brien 1981). Turner and Rust (1971)

found Cr (VI) to interfere with Co, K, Mg, R Fe and

Mn uptake in nutrient cultures and Co, K, Mg, R B,

and Cu in soil culture. Cary e t a l . 1 9 7 7 a ) described

a Cr and Fe interaction in plants and postulated a

similar or related process of translocation for the

two elements. Soane and Saunder (1959) felt that

Cr (III) and Fe(III) acted analogously causing the

acute phosphate (P) deficiency symptoms which

they observed in sand culture experiments with

oats. Hewitt (1953) and Ander son Nilsson

(1973) found Fe chlorosis to be the primary symp-

tom of high chromium presence. Cunnigham e t a l .

(1975) correlated increasing Cr content in sludge

with decreasing concentrations of Cu, Zn, Ni, Cd

and Mn in plant tissues. They attr ibuted this phe-

nomenon to a possible blockage of plant absorption

sites. Grove Ellis (1980) reported the changes in

the soil chemist ry of Fe and Mn resulting from ad-

207



S . S AM AN T ARAY , G .R . ROU T , P . DA S

dition of chromium compounds to soil. They also

reported the formation of a mixed hydrous oxide of

Fe (III) and Cr (III). The precipitated compound

was apparen tly quite stable at low pH. Sludge addi-

tion raised the pH to qui te high levels on all soil and

decreased the solubili ty of Fe.

C o n c l u s i o n

Chromium (Cr), a transition metal, is one of the

major sources of environmental pollution. The

compounds of hexavalent chromium are compara-

tively much more toxic than those o f trivalent chro-

mium. The reason for such toxicity appears to be

due to its rapid permeability through biological

membranes and subsequent interaction with inter-

cellular proteins and nucl eic acids, in the plant sys-

tems; Cr +3 ions seem to be effici ently absorbed by

the roots. Cr +3 transport to other vegetab le parts

was very low and Cr values in the stems and leaf

were two orders of magnitude lower than those

found in the roots. Chromium levels in the fruits

were below the detection limit found by ICP analy-

sis. Cr was seen to have a negative ef fect on Fe ab-

sorption, competitive interactions between Cr and

Cu in the root, stem and leaf were confirmcd.

Boron-chromium interactions showed a synergism

in root absorption; nevcrthelcss, in the stem and

leaf, an antagonistic effect was observed. Complex

formation of Cr with organic acids may play an im-

portant role in the inhibiting and st imulating effects

of Cr on the translocation o f different mineral nutri-

ents. Several mechanisms of heavy metal toxicity

in plants were proposed which include production

of intracellular metal binding compounds, metal

compartmentation patterns, cellular metabolism

and alteration of membrane structure. This review

gives an up-to-date informati on on chromium tox-

icity in plants which may be useful/'o r further stud-

ies understanding the mecha nism of Cr toxi city in

the plant system.

A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t

Th e authors wish to acknowledge the financial as-

sistance of the Department of Environment and

Forests, Government of India and Forest and Envi-

ronment Department of Government of Orissa for

other facilities to undertake this study.

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corn p lan t . Jour . Ag r ic Assoc . , C hina (Ta ipe i ) , 9: 67-72 .

Received September 01, 1997; accepted February 12, 1998

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