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Does High Self-esteem

Running Head: Self-Esteem, Body Image, Attractiveness

Does High Self-Esteem Moderate the Negative Effects ofExposure to Attractive Models?

Literature Review

Trista MacGillivray

Algoma University College

This paper is prepared for the department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of therequirements of PSYC 4105 (Thesis), Algoma University College, Sault Ste. Marie,Ontario, CANADA

Does High Self-esteem 2

Does High Self-esteem Moderate the Negative Effects ofExposure to Attractive Models?

Previous research has shown the negative effects of exposure [to attractive

models] on self-esteem, body image, mood, depression and eating attitudes [of women]

(Pinhas, Toner, Ali, Garfinkel & Stuckless, 1999), (Turner&Hamilton, 1997). Much of

the research indicates that these variables interact with and affect one another;

unfortunately, the research has been primarily correlational, thereby restricting their

conclusions. Researchers have yet to conclude whether any single variable can be

manipulated to reduce the negative effects of exposure to attractive models. To be sure,

researchers have found correlations between the variables however; all the variables

listed above have yet to be analyzed together in a single study. Much of the research has

found that when self-esteem varies, so too do body image, mood, and eating attitudes.

This finding, of course, raises the question as to whether or not self-esteem is a mediating

factor amongst these variables and exposure to attractive models.

The independent variable of interest in present is type of model exposure,

specifically; exposure refers to viewing attractive female models. The dependent

variables include, self-esteem, body image, mood, depression and eating attitudes. Self-

Esteem has been understood as a self-evaluation or attitude towards one's self along a

positive-negative dimension (Baron & Byrne, 1997, p. 160). Part of one's self-esteem

includes one's body image, which is a person's subjective concept of his or her physical

appearance (Mosby, 1990). This mental representation, which may be realistic or

unrealistic, is constructed from (a) self-observation, (b) the reactions of others, and (c) a

complex interaction of attitudes, emotions, memories, fantasies, and experiences, both


conscious and unconscious. Related but distinct is, mood or our state of mind or feeling

(Avis, Drysdale, Gregg, Neufeldt, & Scargill, 1983). Similarly, one distinct mood

getmane to the study of the effects of exposure is depression, which is an emotional state

marked by great sadness and apprehension, feelings of worthlessness and guilt, amongst

other symptoms (Davison & Neale, 1996). A final variable of interest in present is eating

attitudes, which refers to how one thinks or feels about the issues surrounding food and

eating (Hesse-Biber and Marino, 1991). All of these variables have been found to

interact and affect one other--- in particular negatively--- when exposed to attractive

female models.

Research in the area of exposure is increasing as a result of media attention,

specifically, how media sources impose the ideal image of female beauty on today's

society. For example, in evaluating the effects of exposure to attractive models on

young women, Pinhas, Toner, Ali, Garfinkel and Stuckless (1999) found that following

exposure to 20 photos of female models, women showed less satisfaction with their

physical appearance, and reported feelings of anger, hostility and depression. Similarly,

Turner and Hamilton (1997) found that after viewing fashion magazines for a period of

13 minutes, college-aged women became more conscious of their bodies and evaluated

their physical appearance more negatively. It has been suggested by Martin and Gentry

(1997) that the effects of exposure on self-evaluations appear to operate through declines

in self-esteem; that is, when individuals are evaluating themselves while viewing

attractive models, their self-esteem is reduced. In support of this hypothesis, Garner

(1997) has found that exposure to fashion models leads to negative evaluations of bodies,

feelings of anger and resentment in 30 percent of women, as well as feelings of insecurity


40% of women. Clearly, research appears to strongly suggest a series of negative effects

on self-evaluations, attitudes and mood from exposure to attractive models.

Self-esteem is of particular interest in the present context because it appears to be

both affected by, as well as, affect the other variables being measured. Esteem does not

appear to be equally affected by positive and negative event outcomes; that is, negative

experiences appear to have a greater effect on esteem than positive experiences (Brown

& Mankowski, 1993). Brown and Mankowski (1993) conducted three studies to examine

the relationship between mood, self-appraisals and self-esteem. The first study involved

participants receiving a mood induction procedure followed by self-evaluations of

personal qualities and characteristics. The second study was similar to the first with the

exception that the procedure involved a non-cognitive method (music) to induce mood.

The final study, investigated naturally occurring mood variations over a six-week period.

The effects on self-esteem showed; specifically, individuals with high self-esteem (HSE)

accept positive experiences but rail against negative experiences, while individuals with

low self-esteem (LSE) respond to positive and negative events in a complementary

fashion (Brown & Mankowski, 1993). It seems that when in a positive mood, both high

and low self-esteem individuals evaluate themselves favorably; however, when in a

negative mood, only the low self-esteem individuals report more decreases in their mood

(i.e., less positive mood). This has led Brown and Mankowski (1993) to conclude that

self-esteem moderates the effects of moods on self-appraisals. The effect is such that

LSE people are more adversely affected by a negative mood than are HSE individuals (p.

425). This research lends support to the suggestion that pre-existing levels of self-esteem

effect the valence with which individuals perceive themselves. Brown and Mankowski


however, suggest further investigation to establish what specific mechanisms involved

mediate the effects of mood. As well, the interactive process between mood and

cognition. This finding however illustrates that high self-esteem may serve some type of

protective function for both esteem and mood, when we encounter negative event

outcomes. It would be of interest to study the effects of manipulated high self-esteem on

mood as well as alternate factors such as, body image, depression, and eating attitudes.

Similarly, self-esteem appears to be affected by the motive of comparison one

uses, mainly, self-evaluation, self-improvement and self-enhancement. Martin and

Gentry (1997) studied the effects of attractive models on female adolescents using the

social comparison theory as the framework by which young girls compare their physical

attractiveness to that of female fashion models. The study involved viewing

advertisements containing attractive models, using one of the three motives of

comparison, followed by self-evaluation of physical attractiveness, body image and self-

esteem. It was found that when women use the method of self-evaluation in contrast to

self-improvement or enhancement, they report lower self-esteem. This leads Martin and

Gentry (1997) to conclude that when a female is judging the value or worth of her own

physical attractiveness or body image compared to that of an attractive model, it is likely

to result in lowered self-perception and self-esteem. It is suggested that the long term

affects of lowered self-esteem following exposure be investigated (Martin & Gentry,

1997).

Self-esteem has been found to affect more than one's mood. It appears that one's

subjective perception of one's physical appearance (i.e., body image) also appears to vary

with self-esteem, particularly amongst young, white women. Henriques and Calhoun


(1999) examined ethnic and gender differences in the relationship between body esteem

and self-esteem. Including the degree to which these variables change in relation to each

other over time. The study compared black and white, female and male individuals using

the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale (1979) and the Body Esteem Scale (1984). The scales

were administered on two separate occasions, 1 week apart. The results of the test from

the two time intervals were compared. It was found that white women are the most

concerned with and show a greater discrepancy between actual and desired body weight

(Henriques & Calhoun, 1999). Changes in body esteem correlated with changes in self-

esteem. It appeared that when self-esteem was low or negative, women also had a

negative view of their body. The self-reports in this study pose a problem as demand

effects may have interfered, as well, memory and order effects as the same tests were

administered at both time intervals. A replication of this study using alternate tests at

each time interval and manipulation of self-esteem may lead to more conclusive results.

There appears to be robust sex differences with respect to body image; in

particular women are more dissatisfied with their physical appearance than men. This

dissatisfaction appears to lead, in turn, to low self-esteem and depression. Thus, while

body dissatisfaction is affected by low self-esteem, self-esteem is, in turn, affected by

body dissatisfaction. To evaluate this hypothesis, Monteath and McCabe, (1997)

compared two generations of women, ranging in age from 18-55 years in order to

investigate societal factors affecting women's perception of and attitudes towards her

body. Using video camera apparatus, participants viewed themselves on screen and

adjusted the image to represent her perceived size (Monteath & McCabe, 1997).

Participants additionally adjusted the image displaying her representation of the societal


ideal. The participants then completed several scales, including the Body Esteem Scale

(1984) the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale (1965), the Multidimensional Body Self

Relations Questionnaire (1994) and others. It was found that perceived body size

differed from ideal body size; however, this discrepancy was significantly larger for the

younger generation, who desired thinner bodies compared to the older generation

(Monteath&McCabe, 1997). Moreover, 44% of the women expressed strong to

moderate negative feelings about body parts, and 39% about their body as a whole

(Monteath&McCabe, 1997). These findings strongly suggest cohort differences that

reflect different societal norms with respect to ideal body weight. There is clearly a shift

in attitudes-over-time in that the recent generation of young women desires a thinner

body, in comparison with the previous generation of women. It is important to note that

94% of the women expressed the desire to be thinner than that of their current body size.

Given, however, that participants had to stand in front of a camera, view themselves and

have their weight recorded brings questions to the reliability of the study. A level of

discomfort for the participants may have interfered with her ability to report honestly.

Perhaps, a more passive evaluation or approach whereby the participant is not aware of

the topic of research, (body image) and where the study is conducted in a more relaxed

fashion. Alternatively, if the level of discomfort could somehow be eliminated, we may

see a more natural response.

Similar, survey research conducted by Garner (1997) confirms the

aforementioned findings on the increasing preoccupation and dissatisfaction with

physical appearance. Garner (1997) published a survey in Psychology Today

encompassing a five page questionnaire relating to how one sees and feels about


him/herself and how one is influenced by his/her body. 4, 000 individuals responded,

including 3,452 women (86%) and 548 men (14%) Across all age groups, Garner found

that 56% of women were dissatisfied with their overall appearance and 89% of women

wanted to lose weight. Garner (1997) also found that gaining weight is among the most

common cause of negative body image. Interesting to note, it was also found that

pregnancy although viewed as a normal physical change jeopardizes a women's body

image, enough to discourage her from getting pregnant (Garner, 1997). The results

appeared to show the most influence among women however, it was found that 15% of

women and 11% of men reported that they would agree to sacrifice more than five years

of their lives to achieve their desired weight (Garner, 1997). Although quite influential,

given that there was no manipulation nor control used in this study, the truthfulness of the

responses can be questioned and in turn, the reliability. The implementation of the same

survey in a controlled experimental fashion may provide more valid conclusions.

An earlier study by Noles, Cash and Winstead (1985) found that one premorbid

factor that predicts negative body image is mood; that is, including body parts and overall

physical appearance. Noles et al., (1985) assessed body satisfaction and physical

attractiveness in depressed subjects. The participants completed the Body Parts

Satisfaction Scale (1973), the Body-Self Relations Questionnaire (1984), and the Center

for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression Scale (1977), the Self-labeling of Depression

Scale (1982), and a physical attractiveness scale. The measures were analyzed and

compared to one another (Noles, et al., 1985). It was found that the more depressed the

research participants, the more negative their reported body image. Non-depressed

subjects, while reporting less negative body image, did however distort their self-


perceptions of physical attractiveness. Participants who reported an "average body

image" did not differ in depression scores from those with a positive body image. This

study gives support to the contention that depressed mood does effect one's evaluation of

his/her physical appearance. Taken together with the earlier findings on pre-existing

levels of self-esteem, it is possible that positive mood may serve a self-protective

function for maintaining positive self-perceptions, including body image. As this study is

of a correlational nature, no causality can be assumed. Given that neither manipulation

nor control by way of a comparison group was used, the reliability of the results is in

question. An alternative to this would be to manipulate depression in participants

followed by a measurement of self-evaluation. This may provide more compelling

evidence to the research.

While self-esteem and mood may affect satisfaction with one's body, it is

important to acknowledge that these factors are affected by extraneous events, such as

exposure to attractive (comparison) targets. Turner and Hamilton (1997) examined the

impact of exposure to fashion models on body image satisfaction. Female College

participants in this study, viewed for thirteen minutes one of two types of magazines,

fashion or news (Turner & Hamilton, 1997). Participants then completed a questionnaire

including items regarding body image satisfaction, dieting attitudes and behaviour, and

preoccupation with thinness. The results demonstrated that women exposed to fashion

magazines became more conscious-of, and negative-in, their evaluations of their bodies;

moreover, these women reported (a) high levels of frustration about their weight, (b)

guilty feelings while eating, and (c) fear of becoming fat. These findings suggest that

body image is affected by both internal (i.e., self-esteem, mood) and external factors (i.e.


exposure to attractive models). In addition, negative body image, in turn, affects self-

esteem and mood. However, a question is raised as to the statistical methods in this

study. Turner and Hamilton (1997) eliminated data for those participants who reported

not having viewed any magazines. This data may have been used for the purpose of a

control or comparison group and it may have been of some interest to analyze the results

of these questionnaires. This may lead us to doubt the reliability and validity of the

analysis. Perhaps, a replication of the study including a control or comparison group

would bring rise to some new information or validation of the previous findings.

In addition to depression, body image has been linked to other elements of mood;

namely, anger and hostility. Pinhas et al., (1999) examined the relationship between

exposure to the visual image of the ideal of female beauty and mood, body dissatisfaction

and disordered eating. Participants completed a series of measurement scales, including

the Eating Disorder Inventory (1983), the Profile of Mood States (1971), the Body Parts

Satisfaction Scale (1973), and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (1979). After a period of

one week, participants viewed a series of 20 slide of full body image of female models

then completed two of the previous tests, the Profile of Mood States and the Body Parts

Satisfaction Scale (Pinhas et al., 1999). Results found females reported less satisfaction

with physical appearance, and higher scores on anger, hostility, and depression on the

Profile of Mood States (POMS). Furthermore, individuals scoring highest on anger and

depression also scored highest on the EDI (Eating Disorder Inventory), an index

reflecting poor eating attitudes and a propensity toward eating disorders. These data

suggest that exposure to attractive images has negative effects on women's mood,

depression, and EDI scores in particular, all of which predict the likelihood of eating


disorders (Pinhas, et al., 1999). The authors indicate that the participants were primarily

normal university students and they suggest a comparison to individuals with eating

disorders. Given that the tests were completed previous to viewing, it is possible that the

participants were aware of the purpose of the study, giving rise to demand effects. A

replication of the study in a more natural setting may allow for more realistic or honest

reports from the participants.

In light of the predictive power of eating attitudes towards the likelihood of

developing eating disorders, Hesse-Biber and Marino (1991) examined the impact of

critical maturational periods on the development of eating attitudes; namely the transition

phase between high school and college/university. A longitudinal study over 3 separate

time changes; 1(senior high school to sophomore college), 2(sophomore college to senior

college) and 3(senior high school to senior college) was conducted (Hesse-Biber &

Marino, 1991). Self-concept was measured at all three time changes using a revision

scale of Brownfain's (1952) self-rating inventory. The Eating Attitudes Test (1982) was

also administered however, only at two points, sophomore and senior college year.

Following and analysis, a relationship was found between self-concept and eating

problems. Hesse-Biber and Marino (1991) found that women experiencing a more

negative sense of self also showed severe eating problems, and in a notable number of

cases, eating disorders. The research suggests that self-concept and eating patterns

interact through the process of socialization. Hesse-Biber and Marino (1991) suggest a

dynamic interactional model where eating attitudes and self-concept are intricately

connected through socialization. In light of the myriad of social and personal stressors

prominent during this transition, both self-concept and eating patterns are profoundly


affected. Thus, while eating attitudes do change over time, there appears to be critical

periods, such as late adolescence, wherein women are particularly vulnerable to the

development of negative eating attitudes and eating problems. This particular study

lacks a pre-college baseline of the participants and has a very small sample size. Results

may not affect the entire college population. Given that neither control nor manipulation

was used, further research is suggested. It would be of interest to select a wide range of

age groups and compare eating attitudes to the selected time periods. The transition from

high school may be only one of many critical time periods. It is likely that women have

already established eating attitudes at a young age; the behaviours affected however, may

not surface until late adolescence. A target of several critical periods may lead to

identification of the onset of these negative attitudes and the point to which the

behaviours surface.

In summary, the aforementioned research suggests relationships among self-

esteem, body image, anger/hostility, depression, and eating attitudes; however, the

research is largely correlational in nature, thereby restricting any compelling statement

about the directionality of these relationships. Consequently, the precise nature of these

relationships is still in question. There does appear to be ample evidence that self-esteem

is a critical mediating factor on the effects of exposure on body image, mood, and eating

attitudes. In light of the apparent self-protective function that high self-esteem has on the

effects of exposure, it appears worthwhile to evaluate attempts to fortify and enhance

such esteem in order to enhance mood, eating attitudes and body image The next step

would be to evaluate the effects of procedures designed to modify such esteem.


To this end, I intend to modify levels of self-esteem by providing female participants

with feedback suggesting task success or failure. Participants would then be exposed to

attractive images varying in the extent to which they would foster self-comparisons;

namely attractive female models or attractive female homes. Participants would finally

be post tested on scales measuring body image, mood, esteem, depression, and eating

attitudes. The study is designed to compare the relative effects of high and low self-

esteem on the reported self-perceptions, as well as whether the effects of modified esteem

on the type of exposure. It is predicted that, assuming successful modifications in self-

esteem, participants in the high self-esteem condition exposed to attractive female models

will have a more positive body image, mood and eating attitudes, and lower depression

compared to those in the low self-esteem condition. Given that self-esteem has been

deemed to play a moderating role on self-perceptions, it was predicted that these effects

would be specific to females exposed to the attractive female model.


References

Avis, W.S., & Drysdale, P.D., & Gregg, R.J., & Neufeldt, V.E., & Scargill, M.H. (1983).

Gage Canadian dictionary. Toronto: Gage Educational Publishing Company.

Baron, R.A., & Byrne, D. (1997). Social psychology. Boston:

Allyn and Bacon.

A psychological text book covering a wide range of topics in the

area of social psychology.

Brown, J.D, & Mankowski, T.A. (1993). Self-Esteem mood, and self-evaluation:

Changes in mood and the way you see you. Journal of Personality and Social

Psychology, 64, 421-430.

An investigation of mood and how high self-esteem and low self esteem

individuals differ in their responses to these moods.

Davison, G.C., & Neale, J. M. (1996). Abnormal psychology (rev. 6th ed.). New York:

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

A psychological text covering a range of topics in the area of abnormal

psychology and specifics of diagnostic disorders.


Fischer, J., & Corcoran, K. (1994). Measures for clinical practice: A source book

(Vol. 2). New York: The Free Press.

A psychological textbook containing a large number of clinical

tests for use in the clinical, educational and research fields.

Garner, D.M. (February,1997). The 1997 body image survey results. Psychology Today,

30, 30-48.

A widely distributed survey to assess body image in society. The survey

covered a range of areas dealing with self-evaluations of physical

attractiveness, body image, eating attitudes, personal happiness, weight,

societal influences of attractiveness and others.

Henriques, G.R., & Calhoun, L.G. (1999). Gender and ethnic differences in the

relationship between body esteem and self-esteem. Journal of Psychology:

Interdisciplinary and Applied, 133, 357-369.

An investigation of the differences between white and black men and

women in regards to body esteem and self-esteem. An analysis of how the

variables affect one another and differences in gender and ethnicity.


Hesse-Biber, S., & Marino, M. (1991). From high school to college: Changes in

women's self-concept and its relationship to eating problems. The Journal of


A longitudinal study evaluating eating attitudes at critical periods in a

women's life, in particular the transition from high school to college. A

look at how these attitudes change over time and in turn effect eating

behaviours.

Martin, M.C., & Gentry, J.W. (1997). Stuck in the model trap: The effects of beautiful

models in ads on female pre-adolescents and adolescents. Journal of Advertising,

26, 19-34.

A investigation of the Social Comparison theory, a look at how the type

of motive operating for comparison may influence self-perceptions and

self-esteem.

Monteath, S.A., & McCabe, M.P. (1997). The influence of societal factors on female

body image. Journal of Social Psychology, 137, 708-728.

An investigation of societal factors affecting women's perception of and

attitudes towards her body. Investigated how women view their own

bodies and their representation of the societal ideal of women.


Noles, S.W., & Cash, T.F., & Winstead, B.A. (1985). Body image, physical

attractiveness, and depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology,

53, 88-94.

An assessment of women's body satisfaction and physical attractiveness

in depressed female subjects. At look at how depressed individuals

perceive themselves.

Pinhas, L., & Toner, B.B., & Ali, A. & Garfinkel, P.E., & Stuckless, N. (1999). The

effects of the ideal of female beauty on mood and body satisfaction. International

Journal of Eating Disorders, 25, 223-226.

An examination of the relationship between exposure to the

image of the ideal female and mood, body dissatisfaction and

disordered eating. A look at how female's respond following the

viewing of attractive female models.

Turner, S.L., & Hamilton, H. (1997). The influence of fashion magazines on the

body image satisfaction of college women: An exploratory analysis.

Adolescence, 32, 603-615.

An examination of the impact of exposure to fashion models on

body image satisfaction. An evaluation of how women perceive

their physical self-following the viewing of attractive female models.

Does High Self-esteem

Running Head: Self-Esteem, Body Image, Attractiveness

Does High Self-Esteem Moderate the Negative Effects ofExposure to Attractive Models?

Trista MacGillivray

Algoma University College

SPPSYCMAC99/00RESERVE

This paper is prepared for the department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of therequirements of PSYC 4105 (Thesis), Algoma University College, Sault Ste. Marie,Ontario, CANADA


ASST CT

Women report low self-esteem, poor body image, negative attitudes towards eatingand negative moods following exposure to attractive models; however, self-esteemhas not been evaluated independently of the latter variables. Using a 2x3 factorialdesign, this study compared the interactive effects of self-esteem and exposure toattractive models on 60 female university students and faculty. Self-esteem levelswere manipulated by providing positive, negative or no feedback on a series ofcomputer-implemented tasks. The groups were then divided into two exposureconditions, where groups evaluated photos, female fashion models or homes, onattractiveness. Finally; participants completed measurement scales on self-esteem,body image, body parts satisfaction, depression and mood. Results showed asignificant main effect of exposure condition on self-esteem change scores. Afterviewing attractive models, groups showed no change in self-esteem scores; incontrast, after viewing attractive homes, groups did show an increase in self-esteemscores. The findings suggest that exposure to attractive models may suppress theintensifying effects of exposure to other attractive images, suggesting that self-esteem may be independent of negative attitude, body image and mood.


Does High Self-esteem Moderate the Negative Effects ofExposure to Attractive Models?

Previous research has shown the negative effects of exposure [to attractive

models] on self-esteem, body image, mood, depression and eating attitudes [of women]

(Pinhas, Toner, Ali, Garfinkel & Stuckless, 1999), (Turner&Hamilton, 1997). Much of

the research indicates that these variables interact with and affect one another;

unfortunately, the research has been primarily correlational, thereby restricting their

conclusions. Researchers have yet to conclude whether any single variable can be

manipulated to reduce the negative effects of exposure to attractive models. To be sure,

researchers have found correlations between the variables however; all the variables

listed above have yet to be analyzed together in a single study. Much of the research has

found that when self-esteem varies, so too do body image, mood, and eating attitudes.

This finding, of course, raises the question as to whether or not self-esteem is a mediating

factor amongst these variables and exposure to attractive models.

The independent variable of interest in the present study is type of model

exposure, specifically; exposure refers to viewing attractive female models. The

dependent variables include, self-esteem, body image, mood, depression and eating

attitudes. Self-Esteem has been understood as a self-evaluation or attitude towards one's

self along a positive-negative dimension (Baron & Byrne, 1997, p. 160). Part of one's

self-esteem includes one's body image, which is a person's subjective concept of his or

her physical appearance (Mosby, 1990). This mental representation, which may be

realistic or unrealistic, is constructed from (a) self-observation, (b) the reactions of others,


and (c) a complex interaction of attitudes, emotions, memories, fantasies, and

experiences, both conscious and unconscious. Related but distinct is, mood or our state

of mind or feeling (Avis, Drysdale, Gregg, Neufeldt, & Scargill, 1983). Similarly, one

distinct mood germane to the study of the effects of exposure is depression, which is an

emotional state marked by great sadness and apprehension, feelings of worthlessness and

guilt, amongst other symptoms (Davison & Neale, 1996). A final variable of interest in

the present study is eating attitudes, which refers to how one thinks or feels about the

issues surrounding food and eating (Hesse-Biber and Marino, 1991). All of these

variables have been found to interact and affect one other--- in particular negatively---

when exposed to attractive female models

Research in the area of exposure is increasing as a result of media attention,

specifically, how media sources impose the ideal image of female beauty on today's

society. For example, in evaluating the effects of exposure to attractive models on

young women, Pinhas, Toner, Ali, Garfinkel and Stuckless (1999) found that following

exposure to 20 photos of female models, women showed less satisfaction with their

physical appearance, and reported feelings of anger, hostility and depression. Similarly,

Turner and Hamilton (1997) found that after viewing fashion magazines for a period of

13 minutes, college-aged women became more conscious of their bodies and evaluated

their physical appearance more negatively. It has been suggested by Martin and Gentry

(1997) that the effects of exposure on self-evaluations appear to operate through declines

in self-esteem; that is, when individuals are evaluating themselves while viewing

attractive models, their self-esteem is reduced. In support of this hypothesis, Garner

(1997) has found that exposure to fashion models leads to negative evaluations of bodies,


feelings of anger and resentment in 30 percent of women, as well as feelings of insecurity

40% of women. Clearly, research appears to strongly suggest a series of negative effects

on self-evaluations, attitudes and mood from exposure to attractive models.

Self-esteem is of particular interest in the present context because it appears to be

both affected by, as well as, affect the other variables being measured. Esteem does not

appear to be equally affected by positive and negative event outcomes; that is, negative

experiences appear to have a greater effect on esteem than positive experiences (Brown

& Mankowski, 1993). Moreover, the effects on self-esteem; specifically, individuals

with high self-esteem (HSE) accept positive experiences but rail against negative

experiences, while individuals with low self-esteem (LSE) respond to positive and

negative events in a complementary fashion (Brown & Mankowski, 1993). It seems that

when in a positive mood, both high and low self-esteem individuals evaluate themselves

favorably; however, when in a negative mood, only the low self-esteem individuals report

more decreases in their mood (i.e., less positive mood). This has led Brown and

Mankowski (1993) to conclude that self-esteem moderates the effects of moods on self-

appraisals. The effect is such that LSE people are more adversely affected by a negative

mood than are HSE individuals (p. 425). This research lends support to the suggestion

that pre-existing levels of self-esteem effect the valence with which individuals perceive

themselves. This finding also illustrates that high self-esteem may serve some type of

protective function for both esteem and mood, when we encounter negative event

outcomes.

Similarly, self-esteem appears to be affected by the motive of comparison one

uses, mainly; self-evaluation, self-improvement and self-enhancement. Martin and


Gentry (1997) found that when women use the method of self-evaluation in contrast to

self-improvement or enhancement, they report lower self-esteem. This has led Martin

and Gentry (1997) to conclude that when a female is judging the value or worth of her

own physical attractiveness or body image compared to that of an attractive model, it is

likely to result in lowered self-perception and self-esteem.

Self-esteem has been found to affect more than one's mood. It appears that one's

subjective perception of one's physical appearance (i.e., body image) also appears to vary

with self-esteem, particularly amongst young, white women. Henriques and Calhoun

(1999) compared black and white, female and male individuals and it was found that

white women are the most concerned with and show a greater discrepancy between actual

and desired body weight. Changes in body esteem correlated with changes in self-

esteem. It appeared that when self-esteem was low or negative, women also had a

negative view of their body.

There appears to be robust sex differences with respect to body image; in

particular women are more dissatisfied with their physical appearance than men. This

dissatisfaction appears to lead, in turn, to low self-esteem and depression. Thus, while

body dissatisfaction is affected by low self-esteem, self-esteem is, in turn, affected by

body dissatisfaction. To evaluate this hypothesis, Monteath and McCabe, (1997)

compared two generations of women, ranging in age from 18-55 years. It was found

that perceived body size differed from ideal body size; however, this discrepancy was

significantly larger for the younger generation, who desired thinner bodies compared to

the older generation (Monteath&McCabe, 1997). Moreover, 44% of the women

expressed strong to moderate negative feelings about body parts, and 39% about their


body as a whole (Monteath&McCabe, 1997). These findings strongly suggest cohort

differences that reflect different societal norms with respect to ideal body weight. There

is clearly a shift in attitudes-over-time in that the recent generation of young women

desires a thinner body, in comparison with the previous generation of women. It is

important to note that 94% of the women expressed the desire to be thinner than that of

their current body size.

Similar survey research conducted by Garner (1997) confirms the aforementioned

findings on the increasing preoccupation and dissatisfaction with physical appearance.

Across all age groups, Garner found that 56% of women were dissatisfied with their

overall appearance and 89% of women wanted to lose weight. An earlier study by Noles,

Cash and Winstead (1985) found that one premorbid factor that predicts negative body

image is mood; that is, including body parts and overall physical appearance. The more

depressed the research participants, the more negative their reported body image. Non-

depressed subjects, while reporting less negative body image, did however distort their

self-perceptions of physical attractiveness. Participants who reported an "average body

image" did not differ in depression scores from those with a positive body image. This

study gives support to the contention that depressed mood does effect one's evaluation of

his/her physical appearance. Taken together with the earlier findings on pre-existing

levels of self-esteem, it is possible that positive mood may serve a self-protective

function for maintaining positive self-perceptions, including body image.

While self-esteem and mood may affect satisfaction with one's body, it is

important to acknowledge that these factors are affected by extraneous events, such as

exposure to attractive (comparison) targets. Turner and Hamilton (1997) demonstrated


that women exposed to fashion magazines became more conscious-of, and negative-in,

their evaluations of their bodies; moreover, these women reported (a) high levels of

frustration about their weight, (b) guilty feelings while eating, and (c) fear of becoming

fat. These findings suggest that body image is affected by both internal (i.e., self-esteem,

mood) and external factors (i.e., exposure to attractive models). In addition, negative

body image, in turn, affects self-esteem and mood.

In addition to depression, body image has been linked to other elements of mood;

namely, anger and hostility. Pinhas et al. (1999) found females reported less satisfaction

with physical appearance, and higher scores on anger, hostility, and depression on the

Profile of Mood States (POMS). Furthermore, individuals scoring highest on anger and

depression also scored highest on the EDI (Eating Disorder Inventory), an index

reflecting poor eating attitudes and a propensity toward eating disorders. These data

suggest that exposure to attractive images has negative effects on women's mood,

depression, and EDI scores in particular, all of which predict the likelihood of eating

disorders (Pinhas, et al., 1999).

In light of the predictive power of eating attitudes towards the likelihood of

developing eating disorders, Hesse-Biber and Marino (1991) examined the impact of

critical maturational periods on the development of eating attitudes; namely the transition

phase between high school and college/university. They found that women experiencing

a more negative sense of self also showed severe eating problems, and in a notable

number of cases, eating disorders. The research suggests that self-concept and eating

patterns interact through the process of socialization. In light of the myriad of social and

personal stressors prominent during this transition, both self-concept and eating patterns


are profoundly affected. Thus, while eating attitudes do change over time, there appears

to be critical periods, such as late adolescence, wherein women are particularly

vulnerable to the development of negative eating attitudes and eating problems.

In summary, the aforementioned research suggests relationships among self-

esteem, body image, anger/hostility, depression, and eating attitudes; however, the

research is largely correlational in nature, thereby restricting any compelling statement

about the directionality of these relationships. Consequently, the precise nature of these

relationships is still in question. There does appear to be ample evidence that self-esteem

is a critical mediating factor on the effects of exposure on body image, mood, and eating

attitudes. In light of the apparent self-protective function that high self-esteem has on the

effects of exposure, it appears worthwhile to evaluate attempts to fortify and enhance

such esteem in order to enhance mood, eating attitudes and body image. The purpose of

the present study is to evaluate the effects of procedures designed to modify such esteem.

To this end, I intended to modify levels of self-esteem by providing female

participants with feedback suggesting task success or failure. Participants were then

exposed to attractive images that varied in the extent to which they would foster self-

comparisons; namely attractive female models or attractive female homes. Participants

were finally post tested on scales measuring body image, mood, esteem, and eating

attitudes. The study was designed to compare the relative effects of high and low self-

esteem on these reported self-perceptions, as well as whether the effects of modified

esteem on the type of exposure. It was predicted that, assuming successful modifications

in self-esteem, participants in the high self-esteem condition exposed to attractive female

models will have a more positive body image, mood and eating attitudes, compared to


those in the low self-esteem condition. Given that self-esteem has been deemed to play a

moderating role on self-perceptions, it was predicted that these effects would be specific

to females exposed to the attractive female model.

METHOD

Participants

Sixty female Algoma University College students and faculty, varying in age

from 18 to 54 years (M=24 years) participated on a voluntary basis. The university

students, which comprised 59 participants, received credit for their participation in the

study.

Procedure

Participants signed a consent form to participate in a psychological experiment.

Using a 2 (Exposure Type: Attractive Female Model vs Attractive Home) x 3

(Task Feedback: Positive/Negative/No Feedback) factorial design, each subject was

randomly assigned to one of three feedback groups: (a) positive task feedback, (b)

negative task feedback, and (c) no task-feedback. These conditions were designed to

create high self-esteem (HSE), low self-esteem (LSE) or no self-esteem change,

respectively. The subjects were then randomly assigned to one of two treatment

conditions; namely, exposure (i.e., attractive female model) or non-exposure (i.e.,

attractive home). These assignments resulted in a total of six conditions.

Each participant was provided with three envelopes marked "A" "B" and "C" and

then given instructions to complete a computer program consisting of seven puzzle-like

questions. Upon proceeding with the computer task participants were led to believe that


they would receive task-feedback on their relative success compared to over 5000

university students who have completed the same task. The computer task consisted of 7

questions, two examples of the questions are: (1) List as many male names as you can

that begin with the letter "B", and (2) Find and list the 15 most common words found in

the word "acknowledgement". Participants were given 60 seconds is which to complete

each question. Following each question, participants were given feedback on their

performance The nature of the feedback was, in no way related to actual task

performance; instead, feedback was designed to modify self-esteem levels. Participants

assigned to the high self-esteem condition (HSE) received positive feedback, those

assigned to the low self-esteem condition (LSE) received negative feedback and those

assigned to the control condition received no task-feedback. The subjects were not given

the answers to the questions when provided with feedback nor were they given an overall

score on their task performance.

Following the aforementioned task-feedback, participants completed the Self-

esteem Rating Scale (Nugent & Thomas, 1993) contained in envelope "A". A split-half

method was used to administer this test in order to measure self-esteem following the

exposure conditions. Participants then were instructed to open a second envelope;

labeled "B" that required the evaluation of a series of 20 (8.5 x 11", laser colour copy)

photos contained therein; specifically, (a) attractive female models (i.e., exposure

condition), or (b) attractive homes (i.e., non-exposure condition). Participants in the

exposure condition viewed and rated 20 photos of attractive female models on a 7-point

scale of attractiveness, which ranged from 1 (very unattractive) to 7 (very attractive). In

order to control for order effects, each participant received a random order of photos


within each envelope. Participants in the non-exposure condition completed a similar

requirement with the exception that the rating task was carried out on 20 photos of

attractive homes. As in the exposure condition, these participants rated the photos on a 7-

point scale of attractiveness. Following the latter rating task, participants opened a final

envelope, labeled "C", wherein was contained six measures. These scales are detailed

below.

1. Self-esteem Rating Scale (SERS). The Self-esteem Rating Scale (Nugent &

Thomas, 1993) is a self-report instrument designed to provide a clinical measure of self-

esteem. Its developers suggest that the scale can indicate both problematic and non-

problematic levels. The items assess a range of areas including self-worth, social

competence, problem solving-ability, intellectual ability, self-competence, and others'

relative-worth. The SERS gives a measure of both positive and negative aspects of self-

esteem (Fischer & Corcoran, 1994). The normative and psychometric characteristics of

the scale are acceptable, with internal consistency (Cronbach alphas) of .97. Data on

stability were not reported.

2. Body Image Avoidance Questionnaire (BIAQ). The Body Image Avoidance

Questionnaire (Rosen, Srebnik, Saltzberg, & Wendt, 1991) is a 19-item scale, which

measures behavioural tendencies usually present with body-image disturbance. The

questionnaire deals, in particular, with situations that provoke physical appearance

concerns (Fischer & Cocoran, 1994). Two examples of these items are 1) "I fast for

longer than a day", or 2) "I do not go out socially if it involves eating." This scale has

excellent internal consistency (Cronbach alphas) of .89, as well as test-retest reliability

coefficients of .87, as reported by the developers.


3. Body Parts Satisfaction Scale (BPSS). The Body Parts Satisfaction Scale

(Berscheid, Walster& Bohrnstedt, 1973) is a 25-item rating scale used to measure

satisfaction with one's own body parts as well as, overall appearance. It is scored using a

six-point Likert scale, anchored by A (extremely satisfied) and F (extremely dissatisfied),

with higher scores indicating more positive attitudes towards body parts. An example of

these items is "How satisfied are you with the way your body looks? (1) Hair, and

(2) Buttocks." Normative and psychometric data was not available for this scale.

4. Semantic Differential Feeling and Mood Scales (SDFMS). The Semantic

Differential Feeling and Mood Scales (Lorr & Wunderlich, 1988) is a 35-item scale for

measuring feeling and mood states. The scale looks at the bipolar sides of nature and

mood. The respondent checks off which mood he/she is closer to at the current time, on a

Likert —type scale (i.e., quite happy, slightly happy, neutral, somewhat sad, or quite sad).

The SDFMS has five factors, which include: (a) elated-depressed, (b) relaxed-anxious,

(c) confident-unsure, (d) energetic-fatigued, and (e) good natured-grouchy. Test-retest

reliability coefficient is .74 as reported by the scale developers. Stability and normative

data are not available.

5. Self-rating Depression Scale (SDS). The Self-rating Depression Scale (Zung,

1965) is a 20-item measurement scale examining three basic aspects of depression: (1)

pervasive affect, (2) physiological concomitants, and (3) psychological concomitants.

The scale consists of ten positive items and ten negative items. Respondents rate the

items on a sliding scale as to how it applies to them at the current time. Anchored by 1

(some or little of the time) and 4 (most or all of the time), the higher the score, the more

severe the depression; moreover, the scale developers regard scores higher than 50 as


indicating depression. Test-retest reliability coefficients, reported by the scale

developers, are .73. Little formal effort for standardization has been made.

6. Eating Attitudes Test (EAT). The Eating Attitudes Test (Garner&Garfinkel,

1979) is a 40-item test to measure symptoms of anorexia nervosa. Each item represents a

symptom frequently observed with this disorder, from 1 (Always) to 6 (Never). A score

above 30 indicates anorectic eating concerns. Two examples of these items are: (1) "Feel

extremely guilty after eating", and (2) "Feel that food controls my life". The normative

and psychometric characteristics of the scale are acceptable, with internal consistency

(Cronbach alphas) of .94 for combined subjects of anorectics and normals. The

coefficient for anorectic subjects alone was .79. Normative data using college students

reported by test developers indicates a mean score of 15.6 (SD= 13.3).

Upon completion of the six scales, participants were debriefed about the purpose

of the study and reading material was made available to them to elucidate the

relationships of self-esteem, mood, depression and eating attitudes. Furthermore,

participants were provided an opportunity to ask any questions or discuss any issues with

respect to the procedures.

Results

Self-Esteem Manipulation Check

In order to evaluate the success of our attempt to manipulate self-esteem, analysis

of the first measure of self-esteem was computed by using a one-way analysis of variance

(ANOVA), with Feedback-Type (Positive/Negative/No Feedback) as the single factor.

The results indicated no significant difference in self-esteem scores amongst the three


conditions; that is, there was no main effect of Feedback-Type, F (2,54) = 0.40, p_=0.348

Participants receiving feedback reported similar levels of self-esteem (M =19.15,

SD =18.94) as those receiving negative task-feedback (M =22.25, SD =16.97) and those

receiving no task-feedback (M=18.19, SD=14.64). The latter two groups were similar in

their self-esteem levels. It appears that our attempt to modify self-esteem was

unsuccessful perhaps due to the apparent transparency of performance success.

The means involved in the ANOVA are shown in Table 1.

Self-Esteem Rating Scale (B)

To evaluate self-esteem scores following the exposure condition, the second

measure of self-esteem was computed using a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)

with Feedback-Type (Positive/Negative/Control) and Condition (Exposure/Non-

exposure) as factors. The results indicated that is there was no main effect of Feedback

Type, F (2,55) = 0.34, p = 0.71 and Condition, F (1,55) = 3.03, p = 0.08 and no

interaction between Feedback Type and Exposure Condition, F (2,55) =1.53, p =0.196.

The results indicated no significant differences in self-esteem scores amongst the six

groups. Participants in all groups reported similar levels of self-esteem.

The means in the ANOVA are shown in Table 2.

Body Image Avoidance Questionnaire (BIAQ)

In order to evaluate changes in body image a two-way analysis of variance

(ANOVA) with Feedback-Type (Positive/Negative/Control) and Condition

(Exposure/Non-exposure) as factors. The results indicated no significant main effect of


Feedback- Type, F (2,55) = 0.64, p = 0.53 and Condition, F (1,55) = 1.38, p = 0.24 and

no interaction between Feedback-Type and Condition, F (2,55) = 0.64), p = 0.53. The

results indicated no significant differences in body image scores amongst the six groups;

that is, participants in all groups reported similar levels of body image. The means

involved in the ANOVA are shown in Table 3.

Body Parts Satisfaction Scale (BPSS)

An evaluation of change in body parts satisfaction was computed using a two-way

analysis of variance (ANOVA) with Feedback-Type (Positive/Negative/Control) and

Condition (Exposure/Non-exposure) as factors. The results indicated no main effect of

Feedback-Type, F (2,55) = 0.16, p = 0.85, and Condition, F (1,55)= 1.18, p = 0.28 and no

interaction between Feedback-Type and Condition, F (2,55) = 1.05, p = 0.35.

Participants in all six groups reported similar levels of body parts satisfaction, indicating

no significant differences. The means involved in the ANOVA are shown in Table 4.

Semantic Differential Feeling and Mood Scales (SDFMS)

An evaluation of changes in mood was conducted using a two-way analysis of

variance (ANOVA) with Feedback-Type (Positive/Negative/Control) and Condition

(Exposure/Non-exposure) as factors. The results indicated no significant no main effect

of Feedback-Type, F (2,55) = 0.21, p = 0.81, and Condition, F (1,55)= 0.06, p = 0.808

and no interaction between Feedback-Type and Condition, F (2,55) = 1.05, p = 0.35.

The results indicated no significant differences in mood scores amongst the six groups.


The participants all reported similar levels of mood. The means involved in the ANOVA

are shown in Table 5.

Self-Rating Depression Scale(SDS)

Depression was evaluated using a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with

Feedback-Type (Positive/Negative/Control) and Condition (Exposure/Non-exposure) as

factors. The results indicated no main effect of Feedback-Type, F (2,55) = 2.65, p = 0.07,

and Condition, F (1,55) = 1.06, p = 0.30, and no interaction between Feedback-Type and

Condition F (2,55) = 0.25, p = 0.77. Results indicated no significant differences in

depression scores amongst the six groups. All the participants reported similar levels of

depression. The means involved in the ANOVA are shown in Table 6.

Eating Attitudes Test (EAT)

In order to evaluate changes in eating attitudes a two-way analysis of variance

(ANOVA) with Feedback-Type (Positive/Negative/Control) and Condition

(Exposure/Non-exposure) as factors. The results indicated no significant main effect of

Feedback-Type F (2,55) = 0.06, p = 0.94, and Condition, F (1,55) = 0.98, p = 0.32 and no

interaction between Feedback-Type and Condition, F (2,55) = 1.03, p = 0.36. The results

indicated no significant differences in eating attitude scores amongst the six groups.

Participants in all groups reported similar levels of eating attitudes. The means involved

in the ANOVA are shown in Table 7.


Self-Esteem Change Scores

Analysis of variance (ANOVAs) for change, using adjusted ss for tests, with

Feedback-Type (Positive/Negative/Control) and Condition (Exposure/Non-exposure) as

factors, revealed a significant main effect of Feedback-Type, F (2,55) = 0.24, p = 0.78,

Condition, F ( 1,55) = 3.69, p < 0.05 and interaction between Feedback-Type and

Condition, F (1,55) = 0.54, p = 0.58. Participants in all groups reported different levels

of change scores, with participants in the negative/non-exposure condition having the

highest mean change scores (M = 19.0, SD =4.06), compared to the scores of the

negative/exposure group (M = -6.73, SD = 26.75), positive/exposure (M = -12.6, SD =

5.38), positive/non-exposure (M = -18.50 SD =7.21), control/exposure (M = -10.18, SD =

15.40) and control/non-exposure (M = -14.90, SD = 6.31). The means involved in the

ANOVA are shown in Table 8. The data shows that participants in the negative feedback

group had the highest increase in self-esteem after having viewed the homes (non-

exposure). Meaning, the individuals in the negative/non-exposure condition felt better

after having viewed the photos of attractive homes in contrast to the attractive models.

Discussion

Contradictory to the hypothesis, the findings indicate that high self-esteem did not

significantly reduce the negative effects of exposure to attractive female models. There

was no significant difference amongst the three feedback conditions on any of the six

dependent variables, following exposure to attractive models. Because of our

unsuccessful attempt to modify self-esteem, there was no opportunity to effectively

evaluate the moderating effects of this variable on exposure to attractive models, either


women or homes. Noteworthy, was the finding that exposure to attractive female models

(compared to attractive homes) did not result in differing (negative) levels of esteem,

anger/hostility, depression, body image, or attitudes towards eating. Several explanations

can be offered for the aforementioned findings. First, the task of rating the attractiveness

of photos deviated from the previous practice of simply exposing participants to attractive

photos; in the present study, rating of each photo was required of participants. It is likely

that this unorthodox procedure indeed allowed for more time to view the photo; however,

the procedure may have fostered more objective comparisons amongst the photos. In

contrast, a procedure requiring participants to merely view the photos may have

stimulated a "self-other" comparison, thereby reducing participant's perceptions of

himself or herself.

Research by Martin and Gentry, (1997) bears support on the aforementioned

explanation, with their findings that when females used different motives (Self-

Evaluation, Self-Improvement, and Self-Enhancement) of social comparison, the effects

of exposure varied considerably. Mainly, when one does not implement the method of

self-comparison, one does not experience the negative effects of exposure.

With respect to our inability to successfully modify self-esteem, it is possible that

the research participants were neither committed nor vested in the task; thus, feedback on

their task-success may do little to modify self-perceptions. This suggestion coupled with

the fact that research participants generally scored high on the self-esteem scale suggest

that participants may have reached a ceiling beyond which task-feedback could not

increase scores. It is possible that under circumstances where self-esteem is high, such

esteem is resilient to attempts to modify such esteem. This is an interesting finding since


it lends support to the notion that self-esteem may indeed serve a protective function for

other elements of self-perception (e.g., mood, body image, attitudes towards eating). In

fact, scores on all the scales (i.e., mood, depression, body image, eating attitudes) were

all generally positive perhaps the result of elevated esteem levels bolstering related self-

perceptions. It is not surprising, in light of this pattern of scale scores, that exposure to

the attractive female model did not deleteriously effect such scores.

It is important to note that our failure to demonstrate changes in self-esteem

following exposure to attractive female models in no way implies that exposure to

attractive images does not effect self-esteem. In this study, individuals did not feel worse

about themselves (i.e., reduced self-esteem) following exposure; these same individuals

did not feel better, however. Individuals who viewed the houses, however, were shown

to have a significant increase in self-esteem scores; in other words, it seems that when

viewing attractive (non-human) stimuli, individuals appeared to feel better about

themselves. While surprising on the surface, this finding is explicable in terms of the

varied source of comparison of the object being rated. When rating a nonhuman image,

individuals may be unlikely to compare the object being rated with themselves; in

contrast, rating other females (to a female rater) prompts "self-ideal" comparisons. In the

latter case, self-esteem would not likely be enhanced, and may be diminished In the

former case, ratings of the attractive homes do not deleteriously impact on the rater's

self-esteem because such images do not prompt a comparison process with one's self;

that is, the nonhuman image fails to provide self-relevant information. This does not

imply that the rating cannot enhance mood, which enhances self-esteem (Esser, 1989).

Looking at beautiful homes set in a pastoral setting or countryside may foster a positive


mood, which enhances how an individual feels about himself or herself. This may be the

reason why participants in the "non-exposure" condition reported increases in self-

esteem.

Taken together, the findings indicate that self-esteem of young university women

does not appear to be excessively low nor is such self-esteem amendable to simple

modification with task-feedback. Under these circumstances, exposure to attractive

females does not appear to negatively effect such self-esteem nor several other factors

related to self-evaluation; namely, mood, depression, body image and eating attitudes. It

appears that the absence of such negative self-esteem may serve a protective factor in

preserving such self-evaluation factors when exposed to stimuli that prompt "self-ideal"

comparisons; for example, other attractive women. These findings are consistent with

earlier findings (e.g., Brown & Mankowski, 1993) suggesting that elevated levels of self-

esteem may result in successful coping responses to negative events, as well as more

resilience to negative information about the self. Moreover, it appears that experimental

procedures which foster relative comparisons amongst the objects being rated, rather than

"self-ideal" comparisons may diminish the impact of exposure to attractive models on

self-evaluation factors.

It is clear that additional research is required to clarify the impact of extraneous

information, like media portrayals of ideal women, on self-esteem. It appears that the

manner in which this information is processed---for example, self-ideal comparisons

rather than relative object comparisons---plays a large role in the impact of such media on

young women. Furthermore, the suggestion that such images have a singular or negative

effect on all women appears to be overstated; that is, pre-existing levels of self-estern


appear to reduce the impact of such media portrayals on young women. Relatedly, the

suggestion that self-esteem amongst young women is malleable or easily modified is

likely exaggerated. At least in the present study, the self-esteem of our participants

appeared to be robust and resistant to attempts at modification, suggesting that individual

difference factors may supercede specific situational factors in the maintenance of self-

esteem. To be sure, it remains important to find ways to lessen the negative effects of

exposure to the constant barrage of media images depicting ideal women. However, it

appears that the most effective strategy to reduce such impact on young women would be

to assist them in enhancing their competencies in areas unrelated to their appearance.

This strategy would help create a stable and elevated level of esteem, which would

protect them from social pressures to realize an unattainable physical ideal.


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Table 1

Overall means and standard deviations for Exposure Type X Task Feedback

interaction on self-esteem (A) scores

SD

Task Feedback

Exposure Type

Positive

Exposure 23.30 12.09 10

Non-Exposure 15.0 23.93 10

Negative

Exposure 25.9 22.84 10


No Feedback

Exposure 11.82 16.20 11


Note: Within-column comparisons of means are not significantly different.


Table 2


interaction on self-esteem (B) scores

M SD

Task Feedback

Exposure Type

Positive

Exposure 35.90 11.14 10


Negative

Exposure 31.0 25.01 10


No Feedback

Exposure 22.0 16.84 11


Note: Within-column comparisons of means are not significantly different.


Table 3


interaction on body-image avoidance scores

M SD

Task Feedback

Exposure Type

Positive

Exposure 29.30 12.97 10


Negative

Exposure 27.81 9.46 10


No Feedback

Exposure 30.81 10.19 11


Note: Within-column comparisons of means are not significantly different


Table 4


interaction on body parts satisfaction scores

M SD

Task Feedback

Exposure Type

Positive

Exposure 128.70 21.21 10

Non-Exposure 127.90 23.87 10

Negative

Exposure 126.91 24.16 10


No Feedback

Exposure 119.73 21.63 11

Non-Exposure 133.90 13.38 11



Table 5


interaction on semantic differential feeling and mood scale scores

M SD

Task Feedback

Exposure Type

Positive

Exposure 16.39 8.07 10


Negative

Exposure 14.21 1.26 10


No Feedback

Exposure 14.79 1.13 11




Table 6


interaction on self-rating depression scores

SD

Task Feedback

Exposure Type

Positive

Exposure 0.54 0.07 10


Negative

Exposure 0.55 0.07 10


No Feedback

Exposure 0.51 0.04 11




Table 7


interaction on eating attitudes scores

SD

Task Feedback

Exposure Type

Positive

Exposure 15.90 11.29 10


Negative

Exposure 11.63 4.48 10


No Feedback

Exposure 15.54 8.35 11




Table 8


interaction on self-esteem change scores

SD 1-1

Task Feedback

Exposure Type

Positive

Exposure 12.60 5.38 10


Negative

Exposure 6.73 26.75 10


No Feedback

Exposure 10.18 15.40 11


Note: Within-column comparisons of means are significantly different.

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