rivera, rivere, robosa, rodas, rodriguez, rogelio, roque, ruanto
DESCRIPTION
brought to the UST ER 20 minutes after 25 year old male stabbed in the neck brought to the UST ER 20 minutes afterTRANSCRIPT
Rivera, Rivere, Robosa, Rodas, Rodriguez, Rogelio, Roque,
Ruanto
Neck Trauma Rivera, Rivere, Robosa, Rodas, Rodriguez, Rogelio,
Roque, Ruanto brought to the UST ER 20 minutes after
25 year old male stabbed in the neck brought to the UST ER 20
minutes after stab wound at the right side of the neck at the level
of the cricoid conscious, coherent, agitated; talks in
phrases
Physical Exam conscious, coherent, agitated; talks in phrases Pale
palpebral conjunctivae, anicteric sclerae VS : BP = 90/60 PR =
100/min RR = 25/min Airway is patent; no blood in the oral cavity
Crepitation in the neck; continuous bleeding from the stab wound
site Symmetrical chest expansion; equal breath sounds Abdomen soft,
nontender Background Few emergencies pose as great a challenge as
neck trauma.
Because a multitude of organ systems (eg, airway, vascular,
neurological, gastrointestinal) are compressed into a compact
conduit, a single penetrating wound is capable of considerable harm
Anatomic zones Dividing the neck into anatomic zones or regions
assists in the evaluation of injury. The sternocleidomastoid
separates the neck into anterior and posterior triangles. Most of
the important vascular and visceral organs lie within the anterior
triangle bounded by the sternocleidomastoid posteriorly, the
midline anteriorly, and the mandible superiorly. Anatomic Zones
Zone I the base of the neck, is demarcated by the thoracic inlet
inferiorly and the cricoid cartilage superiorly. Zone II
encompasses the midportion of the neck and the region from the
cricoid cartilage to the angle of the mandible. Zone III
characterizes the superior aspect of the neck and is bounded by the
angle of the mandible and the base of the skull. Structures at risk
Zone I
great vessels (subclavian vessels, brachiocephalic veins, common
carotid arteries, aortic arch, and jugular veins, trachea,
esophagus, lung apices, cervical spine, spinal cord, and cervical
nerve roots Zone II carotid and vertebral arteries, jugular veins,
pharynx, larynx, trachea, esophagus, and cervical spine and spinal
cord Zone III salivary and parotid glands, esophagus, trachea,
vertebral bodies, carotid arteries, jugular veins, and major nerves
(including cranial nerves IX-XII) Penetrating Trauma Vascular
injuries arising from penetrating trauma may occur directly,
causing a partial or complete transection of the vessel or inducing
formation of an intimal flap, arteriovenous fistula, or
pseudoaneurysm. Thrombosis 25-40% Common sites: internal jugular
vein (9%) carotid artery (7%) pharynx or the esophagus occurs in
5-15% larynx or the trachea 4-12% Major nerve injury occurs in 3-8%
of patients sustaining penetrating neck trauma. Spinal cord injury
occurs infrequently and almost always results from direct injury
rather than secondary osseous instability. Blunt Trauma motor
vehicle crashes sports-related injuries
clothesline tackle strangulation blows from the fists or feet
excessive manipulation (ie, any manual operation such as
chiropractic treatment or physical realignment or repositioning of
the spine). Direct forces can shear the vasculature.
Excessive rotation and/or hyperextension of the cervical spine
causes distention and stretching of the arteries and veins
producing shearing damage and resultant thrombosis. Intraoral
trauma may extend to the cerebral blood supply. Basilar skull
fractures may disrupt the intrapetrous portion of the carotid
artery. Impact to the exposed anterior aspect of the neck may crush
the larynx or the trachea, particularly at the cricoid ring, and
compress the esophagus against the posterior spinal column. A
sudden increase in intratracheal pressure against a closed glottis
(eg, improper wearing of a seat belt), a crush bruise (eg,
clothesline tackle), or a rapid acceleration-deceleration action
may cause a tracheal injury. Resuscitation in the ER
Assessment of Severity of the Injury Definitive Therapy Neck Injury
Zones I, II, III
Zone I angle of mandible to base of skull Zone II cricoid cartilage
to angle of mandible Important structures in this region include
the carotid and vertebral arteries, jugular veins, pharynx, larynx,
trachea, esophagus, and cervical spine and spinal cord. Zone II
injuries are likely to be the most apparent on inspection and tend
not to be occult. Additionally, most carotid artery injuries are
associated with zone II injuries Zone III (thoracic inlet) -
sternal notch to cricoid cartilage Townsend: Sabiston Textbook of
Surgery, 18th ed. Approach to the unstable patient Airway Early
orotracheal intubation Oxygenation Breathing Check for concomitant
injuries or presence of pneumothorax Circulation Digital control of
the bleeding
IV access and judicious fluid resuscitation 1L IV bolus of normal
saline, Ringers lactate or other isotonic crystalloid solution
Packed red blood cell Disability Check for neurologic signs
Exposure Check for other wounds Operation Prompt wound exploration
Resuscitation in the ER
Assessment of Severity of the Injury Definitive Therapy Clinical
Indications for Neck Exploration
Vascular Expanding hematoma External hemorrhage Diminished carotid
pulse Airway Stridor Hoarseness Dysphonia / voice change Hemoptysis
Subcutaneous air Digestive Tract Dysphagia / odynophagia
Subcutaneous air Blood in oropharynx Neurologic Lateralized
neurologic deficit consistent with injury Altered state of
consciousness not caused by head injury conscious, coherent,
agitated; talks in phrases; VS: BP = 90/60 PR = 100/min RR = 25/min
Townsend: Sabiston Textbook of Surgery, 18th ed. Penetrating Neck
Trauma Algorithm Algorithm for the selective management of
penetrating neck injuries
Penetrating Neck Injury Unstable Stable Symptomatic Asymptomatic
Angio Testing Esophageal w/u Observe Neck Exploration Immediate
Zone I Zone II Zone III Zone II/III Penetrating injury in Zone II
for Neck Exploration
Preoperative workup in this subset of patients is minimal. Patients
with penetrating injuries in zone II are generally taken directly
to surgery Patients with injuries in zone I and zone III should
undergo preoperative radiographic vascular imaging, if possible.
Preoperative workup in this subset of patients is minimal. Patients
with penetrating injuries in zone II are generally taken directly
to surgery, whereas patients with injuries in zone I and zone III
should undergo preoperative radiographic vascular imaging, if
possible. Workup of the aerodigestive tract is undertaken at the
time of surgical exploration. Neck injuries not requiring operative
exploration may need to have the aerodigestive tract evaluated with
CT, bronchoscopy, upper endoscopy, or esophagography to exclude
injury. Townsend: Sabiston Textbook of Surgery, 18th ed.
Penetrating Injury in Zone II, stable asymptomatic
Optimal approach controversial: Mandatory surgical exploration for
all penetrating injuries because of a low rate of complications and
the potentially devastating effect of delay in the diagnosis of
aerodigestive tract injuries. Selective exploration based either on
the results of extensive evaluation, including angiography,
esophagoscopy, and esophagography, or on progression of clinical
symptoms. Work-ups are usually done on patients with: Neck injury
in zone II, stable and asymptomatic Neck injury in zones I and III
Blunt neck trauma Work-ups:CT scan is advocated Townsend: Sabiston
Textbook of Surgery, 18th ed. Work-ups Some centers advocate
thin-slice CT scanning of the neck with IV contrast to determine
the track of a penetrating object, such as a knife or gunshot
wound. Knowledge of the trajectory of penetration permits
determination of anatomic structures at risk for injury. The
presence of contrast extravasation or nonvisualization of vascular
structures, or free air in the tissue planes, suggests tissue
injury. Thin-slice CT scanning may also provide information about
injuries to the cervical spine and aerodigestive tract. We favor an
aggressive CT imaging approach to asymptomatic zone II injuries.
Patients with zone I and zone III injuries who are asymptomatic
should also undergo CT imaging and be observed if this study is
negative. Townsend: Sabiston Textbook of Surgery, 18th ed. Surgical
Neck Exploration
Neck exploration should be performed in the operating room under
general endotracheal anesthesia Hemodynamically stable patient with
a patent airway intubation can be deferred until laryngoscopy and
bronchoscopy have been performed Nasogastric tube is passed to
ensure an empty stomach Chest auscultation Neck Exploration
Incisions Resuscitation in the ER
Assessment of Severity of the Injury Definitive Therapy Management
of Specific Injuries
Blood vessels most commonly injured Hemostasis should be maintained
by direct pressure or digital occlusion until proximal and distal
control of vessel is achieved Choice of graft material should be
based on size Polytetrafluorethylene is commonly used Management of
Specific Injuries: Airway Injuries
Signs of larynx or trachea injury: Voice alteration Hemoptysis
Stridor Drooling Sucking, hissing, or air frothing or bubbling
through the neck Subcutaneous emphysema and/or crepitus Hoarseness
Dyspnea Distortion of the normal anatomic appearance (eg, loss of
normal landmarks, asymmetry, flattened thyroid prominence, tracheal
deviation) Pain on palpation or with coughing or swallowing Pain
with tongue movement implies injury to the epiglottis, hyoid bone,
or laryngeal cartilage Crepitus (This hallmark sign of disruption
to aerodigestive tract is noteworthy in only one third of cases.)
Airway Injuries Penetrating injuries to the airway
either clinically overt, with bubbling and air movement through the
wound, or found at the time of neck exploration performed for other
indications. Blunt laryngotracheal injuries the diagnosis is
generally established through a combination of neck CT, direct
laryngoscopy, and bronchoscopy. The need for operative intervention
for laryngeal trauma is determined by the degree of anatomic
derangement and mucosal integrity in the larynx. Male with tracheal
laceration from masonery saw. ETT inserted through wound. Nil great
vessel damage. Required tracheostomy. Airway Injuries Lacerations
are dbrided and closed primarily
Simple lacerations of the trachea repaired by direct suture If
there is significant tissue loss, the trachea can usually be
mobilized sufficiently to allow for the loss of about two tracheal
rings without undue difficulty. Loss of a larger portion of trachea
may necessitate tracheostomy or complex reconstructive procedures.
Laryngeal injuries treated by closure of mucosal lacerations and
reduction of cartilaginous fractures careful anatomic
reconstruction, if possible, is critical difficult to treat
Management of Specific Injuries: Pharynx and Esophagus
If the diagnosis is made early primary surgical repair is generally
possible. If the diagnosis is delayed for > 12 hours primary
repair may be impractical diversion and drainage being the only
alternative The major morbidity and mortality associated with
esophageal injuries are the result of delay in diagnosis Signs of
esophagus and pharynx injury
Pharynx and Esophagus Signs of esophagus and pharynx injury
Dysphagia Bloody saliva Sucking neck wound Bloody nasogastric
aspirate Pain and tenderness in the neck Resistance of neck with
passive motion testing Crepitus Bleeding from the mouth or
nasogastric tube The basic approach to esophageal injuries:
The esophagus must be sufficiently mobilized to allow full
evaluation of the wound and careful dbridement of devitalized
tissue. The injury should be repaired primarily if possible, either
by a one-layer or two-layer technique. If the tissue loss is
sufficient to preclude primary repair, cervical esophagostomy
should be performed as a temporizing measure, with plans for
complex reconstruction of the esophagus after the initial trauma
has resolved. A drain should be left in place after all esophageal
repairs. Diagnostic Procedures
Radiography Upper and mid esophageal perforations The most frequent
site of these perforations is at the level of the cricopharyngeus
muscle,and most perforations are iatrogenic. The conventional
radiographic findings include widening of the precervical soft
tissues, air in the precervical soft tissues, widening of the
superior mediastinum, and a right-sided hydrothorax. Water-soluble
contrast study of the upper esophagus shows leakage of contrast
material after instrumentation. Cervical abscess following
esophageal injury subsequent to endotracheal intubation. Note the
increased soft tissue prevertebral space and air in the soft
tissues Diagnostic Procedures
Computed Tomography CT findings in esophageal tear/perforation:
Extraluminal air in the mediastinum or surrounding the esophagus is
the most reliable sign and, when taken in conjunction with the
clinical presentation, has a 92% accuracy. Gas may appear as a
single or multiple discrete collections, particularly with
mediastinal abscess formation. Air fluid levels may also be seen
within mediastinal abscesses. Other findings include obliteration
of fat planes in the mediastinumresulting frominflammation,
periesophageal/mediastinal fluid, esophageal thickening, pleural
effusions (usually unilateral), extravasation of oral contrast
material into the periesophageal tissues, and a tract at the site
of the tear Nonenhanced CT scan through the mid esophagus in a
patient with esophageal perforation after upper GI endoscopy shows
a false tract emanating from the esophagus (arrow). Nonenhanced CT
scan through the mid esophagus in a patient with esophageal
perforation after upper GI endoscopy shows leakage of oral contrast
material (blue arrow) and air in the posterior mediastinum (red
arrow). Diagnostic Procedures
Ultrasonography Ultrasonography has not been used in the diagnosis
of esophageal tears and perforations; however, transesophageal
endosonography has been used to evaluate posterior mediastinitis,
which is a known complication of esophageal tears DIAGNOSIS JOURNAL
Objective To assess the impact of the increasing use of MDCT
angiography in the setting of blunt and penetrating neck trauma on
the use of digital subtraction angiography (DSA) Background of the
Study
Although digital subtraction angiography (DSA) is still accepted as
the gold standard for imaging the major vessels of the neck, the
reported high number of patients with negative results and the risk
associated with performing such procedures have prompted a search
for other less invasive imaging techniques. Noninvasive techniques
that have been explored as a potential replacement for catheter
angiography in this patient population include MR angiography,
duplex sonography, and CT angiography. Background of the
Study
In recent years, CT angiography has also been reported to be useful
in the detection of injuries to the major arteries. Prior studies
using single-detector helical CT have shown high sensitivity and
specificity for detecting injuries to major vessels of the neck in
the setting of both blunt and penetrating trauma. Patient
Population In general, the patient is considered to be at risk for
having an arterial injury and a candidate for diagnostic
angiography if one or more of the following signs or symptoms are
present: active bleeding from an unknown source stable or expanding
neck hematoma neck pain with focal neurologic deficit palpable
bruit or thrill Methodology Retrospective: 36 months (Jan 2001 Dec
2003)
January 2001 to December 2003, 57 patients were referred for CT
angiography or DSA of the neck after blunt or penetrating neck
trauma All CT angiograms were acquired with a 4-MDCT scanner The
patients were divided into three groups on the basis of consecutive
12-month periods (2001, 2002, and 2003), and the initial imaging
technique was recorded The results of CT and digital subtraction
angiograms were compared with operative findings and with clinical
course, when available. Methodology Of the 57 patients, 17
underwent both MDCT angiography and DSA during the study period.
The mean age of the study population was 31 years with an age range
of 1490 years. The mechanism of injury in the study population
included gunshot wound (n=21), stab wound (n=12), motor vehicle
crash (n=12), assault with a blunt object (n=4), attempted hanging
(n=2), fall (n=3), crush injury (n=1), and twisting injury (n=2).
Methodology CT angiography examinations were reported as positive
when one or more of the following findings were present: arterial
dissection, arterial pseudoaneurysm, arterial transection, or
arterial occlusion. Findings were reported as indeterminate if
isolated IV contrast extravasation was present without an
identifiable arterial injury on the CT images Results In 2001, 12
patients were referred for imaging: nine patients were evaluated
initially with DSA and three patients were evaluated with CT
angiography and subsequently with DSA for further evaluation. In
two of these three patients, CT angiograms showed no abnormality
and this result was confirmed with catheter angiography The third
patient underwent DSA for suspected pseudoaneurysm of the superior
thyroidal branch of the external carotid artery based on findings
present on the initial CT angiography; DSA confirmed this finding
Results In 2002 and 2003, 11 and 34 patients, respectively,
underwent CT angiography as the initial imaging examination. During
these 2 years, no patient underwent DSA as the initial diagnostic
test, but five patients underwent DSA after CT angiography for the
following indications: evaluation of nondiagnostic CT angiograms
(n=1) confirmation of findings when requested by the clinical
service (n=2) and catheter-guided therapy (n=2) Results 2002 Of the
11 CT angiography examinations, one patient with a gunshot wound to
the neck was found to have an occlusion of the left internal
carotid artery and dissection of the left vertebral artery Another
patient with a large laceration from a stab wound had negative
findings on the initial CT angiogram. This patient was taken to the
operating room for wound exploration before repair of the
laceration, and a facial vein laceration was repaired Nine other
patients with negative CT angiography findings were managed
conservatively, without further intervention or diagnostic imaging
Results 2003 Of the 33 diagnostic CT angiograms, five were reported
as positive for arterial injury. pseudoaneurysm and dissection
(n=1), pseudoaneurysm and occlusion (n=1), iso- lated
pseudoaneurysm (n=1), isolated occlu- sion (n=1), and
pseudoaneurysm with occlu- sion and active extravasation (n=1)
Isolated contrast extravasation was reported as indeterminate for
arterial injury in three patients In one patient, a right common
carotid artery pseudoaneurysm was identified on initial CT
angiography, and catheter angiography was requested. On
confirmation of the findings, the patient underwent operative
repair. Results 2003 In the remaining 25 patients in whom the
initial CT angiography findings were considered negative, two
patients were explored surgically despite negative CT angiography
findings because of a high clinical suspicion for vascular injury
based on the mechanism of injury in both cases, no vascular injury
was identified Three other patients were subsequently imaged using
MR angiography of the head and neck for evaluation of suspected
intracerebral vascular pathology as a cause for persistent
neurologic systems all MR angiograms were interpreted as negative.
Summary of Results During the 3-year period of this retrospective
study, eight (14%) of 57 patients in the study population had
vascular injuries. When CT angiography was performed as the initial
im- aging examination, seven (15%) of 48 patients had cervical
arterial injuries. Discussion DSA is the generally accepted gold
standard for evaluating the major vessels of the neck and, until
recently, has also served as the initial imaging examination
requested by trauma and vascular surgeons when such injuries are
suspected However, the small but appreciable risks associated with
DSA, the extended procedure time, and the additional staff required
to perform this procedure have led to a search for other potential
imaging diagnostic techniques Discussion Unlike MR angiography, CT
angiography is generally available in most emergency radiology
departments and can be performed at the time of diagnostic imaging
for other organ systems in the patient with multiple injuries from
trauma. Even when MR angiography is available immediately, the time
needed for the examination may be prohibitive even in
hemodynamically stable patients. In addition, flow effects,
artifacts, and limited spatial resolution compared with CT may
limit the sensitivity of MR angiography for detecting clinically
significant injuries. CT angiography offers advantages over color
Doppler sonoraphy including lack of operator dependence and ability
to image patients with difficult anatomy or with neck hematomas
that are not easily amenable to sonographic scanning Conclusion The
advent of MDCT allows improved spatial resolution, and the
diagnostic potential of CT angiography in the acute trauma patient
will undoubtedly increase with the introduction of CT scanners with
more than 16 detector rows CT angiography has essentially replaced
DSA as the study of choice for the initial evaluation of the neck
vessels in the setting of blunt or penetrating trauma. Only a
minority of patients will require DSA after CT angiography for
therapeutic interventions or for further diagnostic investigation
when initial results are equivocal or nondiagnostic. CT angiography
allows appropriate triage of patients to conventional angiography
or surgery for appropriate treatment and can guide conservative
management when appropriate. John M. Tallon, MD;* Jennifer M.
Ahmed, MA; Beth Sealy, BA
TREATMENT JOURNAL Airway management in penetrating neck trauma at a
Canadian tertiary trauma centre John M. Tallon, MD;*Jennifer M.
Ahmed, MA;Beth Sealy, BA From the*Departments of Emergency Medicine
and Surgery, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, theNova Scotia
Trauma Program, Halifax, NS and theFaculty of Medicine, Dalhousie
University, Halifax, NS. CJEM2007;9(2): Objectives:The optimal
approach to airway management in penetrating neck injuries (PNIs)
remains controversial. The primary objective of this study was to
review the method of endotracheal intubation in PNI at a Canadian
tertiary trauma centre. Secondarily, we sought to determine the
incidence of PNI in our trauma population and to describe the
epidemiologic elements of this population. Methods:We conducted a
review of patients with PNIs who were enrolled in the Nova Scotia
Trauma Registry database. We included all penetrating injuries of
the neck in patients 16 years of age from April 1, 1994 to March
with an Injury severity Score (ISS) 9 or who underwent Trauma Team
activation at our Tertiary Trauma Centre (regardless of ISS) and/or
who were identified upon admission as a "major" trauma case. The
variables of interest were patient age and sex, injury mechanism,
injury location, place of intubation and method of intubation.
Results: There were 19 people who met inclusion criteria and they
were enrolled in our study. The injury mechanisms involved knife (n
= 13) or gunshot (n = 5) wounds (one patient's injuries were
categorized as "other"). Three patients (15.8%) were not intubated.
The remaining 16 patients were intubated during prehospital care (n
= 5), in the emergency department (n = 6) or in the operating room
(n = 5). Of these, 8 patients (42.1%) underwent awake intubation
and 8 (42.1%) underwent rapid sequence intubation. Conclusion:
There is clear variability of airway management in PNI. We believe
that such patients represent a heterogeneous group where the
attending physician must have a conservative yet varied approach to
airway management based on the individual clinical scenario.