Robert J. Naiman Robert E. BilbyEditors

River Ecology andManagementLessons from thePacific CoastalEcoregion

Sylvia KantorAssociate and Managing Editor

With 202 Illustrations

Springer

Contents

Preface vContributors xxi

1 River Ecology and Management inthe Pacific Coastal Ecoregion 1Robert J. Naiman and Robert E. Bilby

Defining Streams and Rivers 1A Brief History of Stream Ecology 1Recent Advances in Stream Ecology 2

Rivers as Integrators of Environmental Conditions 3Environmental Status of Streams and Rivers 4

Providing a Sense of Place 5The Pacific Northwest 5The Pacific Coastal Ecoregion 7

Science and Management 8

Part I The Physical Environment

2 Channel Processes, Classification, and Response 13David R. Montgomery and John M. Buffington

Overview 13Introduction 13Channel Processes 14Conceptual Models of Channel Response 16Examples of Channel Change 17

Sediment Supply 17Discharge 19Dams 19

Geomorphological Channel Classification 20Past Classifications 20Hierarchical Channel Classification 21

Channel Disturbance and Response Potential 31Reach-Level Response 31

IX

Contents

Segment-Level Response 32External Influences 32Debris Flow Disturbance 34

Applications for Ecosystem Analysis 36

3 Hydrology 43Robert R. Ziemer and Thomas E. Lisle

Overview 43Introduction 43Hydrology of the Pacific Coastal Ecoregion 44Runoff Processes 47

Hillslope Runoff 48Effects of Land-Use Practices on Runoff 56

Peak Flows and Floods 56Hydrologic Recovery from Land-Use Impacts 62

4 Stream Quality 69Eugene B. Welch, Jean M. Jacoby,and Christopher W. May

Overview 69Introduction 70Acid Neutralizing Capacity, pH, and Hardness 73Cations, Anions, and Conductivity 74Nutrients 75Temperature 77Biochemical Oxygen Demand and Dissolved Oxygen 78Metals 81Suspended Solids 83Water Quality and Nuisance Algae (Periphyton) 84

Nuisance Periphyton 85

Part II The Biotic Environment

5 Biotic Stream Classification 97Robert J. Naiman

Overview 97Introduction 98

Historical Concepts 98Recent Concepts 99

Classification of Physical Watershed Features (a Summary) . . . . 100Single-Scale Classification 101Hierarchical Classification 101

Classification Coupling Biological and Physical Features I l lVertebrate Community Classification I l lInvertebrate Community Classification 112Plant Classification 113An Evaluation of the Biological-Physical Approach 114

Management Based on Stream Classification 114

Contents xi

6 Microorganisms and Organic Matter Decomposi t ion . . . . 120Keller F. Suberkropp

Overview 120Introduction 120Heterotrophic Microorganisms 122Plant Litter Decomposition 127

Models for Plant Litter Decomposition 131Comparison of Fungal and Bacterial Activity 132Fungi-Shredder Interactions 133Factors Affecting Rates of Plant Litter Breakdown 134Wood 135

Dissolved Organic Matter 137Metabolism of DOM and the Microbial Loop 137

7 Primary Production 144Michael L. Murphy

Overview 144Introduction 144Forms and Typical Species 145

Benthic Algae 145Macrophytes 148Phytoplankton 149

The Primary Production Process 149Limiting Factors 150Energy Flow 153

Distribution of Primary Production in Watersheds 158Potential Response to Watershed Uses 160

Stream Macroinvertebrate Communities 169Anne E. Hershey and Gary A. Lamberti

Overview 169Introduction 169Species Assemblages 170

Macroinvertebrate Taxonomic Diversity 170Macroinvertebrate Life Histories 172Relationship of Diversity to Physical Environment 175Role of Disturbance 176Functional Feeding Groups and the RiverContinuum Concept 179

Invertebrate-Mediated Processes 183Detritivory 183Grazing 184Predator-Prey Interactions 185Macroinvertebrate Drift 187Secondary Production 189

Macroinvertebrates in Stream Food Webs 189Impact of Spawning Salmon on StreamMacroinvertebrates 192

Effects of Land Use on Community Dynamics 192

xii Contents

9 Fish Communities 200Gordon H. Reeves, Peter A. Bisson,and Jeffrey M. Dambacher

Overview 200Introduction 200Regional Diversity 201

Anadromous Life Histories 205Population Variability 206

Watershed Scale Patterns of Diversity 208Ecological Rules 208Physical and Biological Processes 209

Reach Scale Diversity 214Habitat Unit Patterns of Diversity 218Human Impacts on Fish 220

Differential Response of Species 222Disturbance 224Future Management Directions 226

10 Riparian Wildlife 235Kathryn A. Kelsey and Steven D. West

Overview 235Introduction 235Distribution and Abundance of Riparian Wildlife Species 236

Riparian Obligates 236Riparian Generalists 241Exotic Species 242

Effects of Riparian Conditions and Processes on Wildlife 243Landscape Processes 243Local Processes 245

Management Effects on Riparian Wildlife Communities 250Riparian Wildlife Management Alternatives 252

Part III Ecosystem Processes

11 Dynamic Landscape Systems 261Lee E. Benda, Daniel J. Miller, Thomas Dunne,Gordon H. Reeves, and James K. Agee

Overview 261Introduction 261Components of Dynamic Landscape Systems 263

Climate 263Topography 268Hierarchical Patterns of Channel Networks 272Basin History 273

Dynamic Landscape Systems: Populations of Elementsand Time 274

Temporal Sequencing of Storms, Fires, and Floods,and Dynamic Channel Behavior 274Effect of Hierarchical Networks and Spatial Scale onSystem Properties 277

Contents xiii

Aquatic Biology at the Landscape Systems Level 281Applications to Watershed Science and Management 283

A Field Perspective 283The Problem of Cumulative Effects, NaturalDisturbance, and Habitat Diversity 284

12 Riparian Forests 289Robert J. Naiman, Kevin L. Fetherston, Steven J. McKay,and Jiquan Chen

Overview 289Introduction 290The Physical Setting and Geomorphic Context 292

Valley Morphology 294Hillslope Processes 294Fluvial Processes 296Soil Processes 296Large Woody Debris 296

Riparian Plant Adaptations 297Morphological and Physiological Adaptations 299Reproductive Strategies 299Growth Dynamics 301

Spatial Patterns of Riparian Forests: A Mosaic 302Disturbance 302Successional Processes 304Case Studies 304

Riparian Forests and Ecosystem Functions 310Riparian Forest Microclimate 310Riparian Plant Diversity 311

Riparian Forests and Land-Use Change 311River Regulation 311Forest Practices 317

Lessons for Management 318

13 Function and Distribution of Large Woody Debris 324Robert E. Bilby and Peter A. Bisson

Overview 324Introduction 324Abundance and Distribution of LWD in Channel Networks . . . . 325Processes Controlling Input and Output of LWD 327LWD Function in Stream Ecosystems 331Influence of Land Use on LWD 338

14 Nutrient Cycles and Responses to Disturbance 347Michael E. McClain, Robert E. Bilby, and Frank J. Triska

Overview 347Introduction 348The Basics of Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Sulfur Cycling 349

Nutrient Spiraling 349Natural Forms, Distributions, and Transformations 351Input-Output Pathways and Riverine Budgets 354

xiv Contents

Controlling Variables in Nitrogen, Phosphorus,and Sulfur Cycling 357

Hydrologic Regime 357Temperature 359Biological Community Composition 359

Responses to Disturbance 363Forest Conversion and Management 363Urbanization and Agriculture 367Fire 367Climate Change 367

15 Organic Matter and Trophic Dynamics 373Peter A. Bisson and Robert E. Bilby

Overview 373Introduction 373Trophic Pathways 377

Autotrophic Production 377Allochthonous Organic Matter and HeterotrophicProduction 379Organic Matter Processing 380Organic Matter Storage and Nutrient Spiraling 384

Impacts of Human Activity 386Human Activities and Cascading Trophic Systems 386Loss of Riparian Vegetation 388Loss of Salmon Carcasses 389

Why Are Some Streams More Productive Than Others? 391

16 The Hyporheic Zone 399Richard T. Edwards

Overview 399Introduction 399Definition and Delineation 401Interstitial Volume and Surface Area 404Hydrology of Hyporheic Interactions 405Hyporheic Zone Distribution Patterns 408

Large-Scale Geologic Factors 408Watershed and Valley Segment Scales 409Channel Reach Scale 410Channel Unit Scale 410Roughness Elements Scale 411Spatial Scales of Management Actions 411Temporal Scales 412

Biogeochemical Processes 412Transient Storage 412Nitrogen Dynamics 413Organic Matter Utilization and the Role of Epilithon 417

Ecology and Structure of Hyporheic InvertebrateCommunities 419

Controls on Community Structure 421Food Sources and Trophic Structure 421Epilithic Biofilms 422Secondary Production 423

Contents xv

Implications for Management of Coastal Riversof Washington 423

17 Biodiversity 430Michael M. Pollock

Overview 430Introduction 430An Overview of Diversity in Riparian Corridors 431

General Theories of (Local) Diversity 432Common Measures of Species Richness, Diversity,Evenness, and Turnover Rates 434Describing Diversity at Multiple Spatial Scales 436

Natural Processes Influencing Biodiversity Patterns 438Hydrologic Regimes 440Herbivory 443Productivity 444Habitat Heterogeneity 444Large-Scale Spatial Heterogeneity 446

Implications for Management 448

Part IV Management

18 Statistical Design and Analysis Considerationsfor Monitoring and Assessment 455Loveday L. Conquest and Stephen C. Ralph

Overview 455Introduction 456Sampling Design 456

Sampling Approaches and Sampling Units 457Replication 461Reference Sites 461The Issue of Scale 462When n Equals One—The Argument for Case Studies 463

Choosing Parameters 464Acquiring and Maintaining Good Data 466

Intensive and Extensive Approaches 466Training Field Crews 466Quality Control and Quality Assurance 467Management of Information 467

Data Analysis 468Parametric Procedures, Regression and Correlation,and Nonparametric Tests 468Multivariate Procedures 470Exploratory Data Analysis 471Geographic Information Systems 471

19 Cumulative Watershed Effects and WatershedAnalysis 476Leslie M. Reid

Overview 476Introduction 477

xvi Contents

Problems in the Evaluation of CumulativeWatershed Effects 479

Technical Issues 480Philosophical Issues 481Sociocultural Issues 483

The Ad Hoc Approach to Cumulative Effects Evaluation 485Standardized Methods of Cumulative Effects Analysis 488

An Index Approach: Equivalent Roaded Acres 489A Mechanistic Impact Model: The Fish-Sediment Model . . . . 491Professional Judgment: The California Checklist 491Administrative Convenience Versus Technical Adequacy . . . . 492

Watershed Analysis 493Limited Assessment with Prescriptions—Timber/Fish/WildlifeWatershed Analysis 493Broad Assessment Without Prescriptions—InteragencyEcosystem Analysis 494Contrasting Goals and Methods 496Administrative Convenience Versus TechnicalAdequacy, Revisited 496

Tomorrow's Analyses 498

20 Rivers as Sentinels: Using the Biology of Rivers toGuide Landscape Management 502James R. Karr

Overview 502Introduction 503Rivers as Sentinels 503Biological Integrity and Cumulative Effects 505Evolution of Biological Monitoring 506The Index of Biological Integrity 509

Selecting IBI Metrics 510Scoring Metrics 513Integrating Multiple Metrics 513

What IBI Says About Streams and Watersheds 515Detecting the Effects of Point Source Pollution 515Identifying Multiple Sources of Degradation 515Describing Geographic Pattern and Detecting Cause 517Detecting Regional Variation in Human Influence 517Detecting Change Over Time as Human Activity Changes . . . 517Evaluating Management Efforts 517Statistical Power and Precision of IBI 520

A Benthic IBI for the Pacific Northwest 520Change and Risk Assessment 523

21 Social Organizations and Institutions 529Margaret A. Shannon

Overview 529Introduction 530

A Drop of Water 531Thinking Like Scientists and Managers 532

Key Concepts Defined 533

Contents

The Changing Policy Environment of Streams 538Forming Integrative Policy Communities 540Institutional Strategies for Collaboration 543Typology of Organizational Decision Processes 545

Computation 546Experimentation and Pragmatism 546Bargaining and Advocacy with Technical Competence 547Consensus Building and Organizational Learning 547

Future Outlook 548

22 River Law 553Robert J. Masonis and F. Lorraine Bodi

Overview 553Introduction 553Sources of Law 554Federal and State Jurisdiction 555Laws Regulating River Systems 555

Water Quantity (In-Stream Flows) 556Water Quality 558Land Use 560Biota and Habitat—Endangered Species Act 565

New Approaches 566Linking Water Quality and Water Quantity 566Controlling Nonpoint Source Pollution 567Improving Environmental Protection Underthe Federal Power Act 567

Future Outlook 568

23 Economic Perspectives 572Daniel Huppert and Sylvia Kantor

Overview 572Introduction 573Economics and Water Resources 573

Historical Perspectives 576Defining and Measuring Economic Value 576

Individual Values—Compensating andEquivalent Variations 577Categories of Economic Value 579Aggregation into "Social Value" 581Discounting and Aggregation over Time 581Economic Benefits and Competitive Markets 582Measuring Nonmarket Economic Values 584

The Role of Economics in Decision Making 585Economic Impacts of Policy Decisions 585Impact versus Benefits 586

Economic Assessment of Water Resources 587Economics and the Ecology of River Management 589

Forest Practices and Salmon Fishing 590In-Stream Flow and Recreational Values 590Sediment from Agriculture 591

xvni

Part V The Future

24 Stream and Watershed Restoration 599

Christopher A. Frissell and Stephen C. Ralph

Overview 599Introduction 599Defining Restoration—Scope and Scale 601

Interventions at the Microhabitat Scale 603Large-Scale River Restoration 606Watershed-Scale Restoration—An Example 609

Monitoring and Evaluating Restoration Projects 610A Nested Experimental Design for Monitoring 613Cost Accounting for Watershed Restoration 614

Watershed Restoration and Adaptive EcosystemManagement 617

Elements of Successful Restoration and Monitoring 619

25 Nonprofit Organizations andWatershed Management 625Bettina von Hagen, Spencer Beebe, Peter Schoonmaker,and Erin Kellogg

Overview 625Introduction 626Theories of Nonprofit Formation 626

The Limits of Government 627The Hidden Costs of Profit-Seeking 629The Emergence of Nonprofits 629Adapting Developing World Strategies to the PacificCoastal Ecoregion 631

The Role of Nonprofits in Watershed Management 632Social and Economic Aspects of thePacific Coastal Ecoregion 632Nonnprofits Building Institutional Capacity 633Nonprofits Providing Access to Information 634Nonprofits Restoring Degraded Watersheds 635Nonprofits Promoting Market Incentives forWatershed Conservation 635

The Future of Nonprofit Organizations 638

26 Watershed Management 642Robert J. Naiman, Peter A. Bisson, Robert G. Lee,and Monica G. Turner

Overview 642Introduction 642Fundamental Elements of Watershed Management 643

The Natural System: Variability in Time and Space 643A Holistic Perspective: Persistence and Invasiveness 644Connectivity and Uncertainty 645Human Cultures and Institutions 646

Contents xix

Practical Approaches for Implementing WatershedManagement 646

Quantitative Analyses 646Accepting Risk and Addressing Uncertainty 651How Can Organizations Deal with Risk? 652Addressing Institutional Organization and theParadox of Scale 653Formulating Shared Socioenvironmental Visions 654Public Stewardship in Watershed Management 655

Fundamental Principles 658

27 Paradigms, Policies, and Prognostication about theManagement of Watershed Ecosystems 662Michael C. Healey

Overview 662Introduction 663Why Watersheds? 664What Can and Cannot Be Known about WatershedEcosystems? 666The Process of Watershed Management 667

The Role of Science 667Values 669Accepting Limits 671

Achieving Goals 672Evolving Paradigms in Watershed Management 673

Watershed Engineering 673Environmental Assessment and Mitigation 674Adaptive Management 675

Looking to the Future 675Ecosystem Management 675Setting Goals for Ecosystem Management 677From Incrementalism to Adaptive Rationalism 678A New Class of Problems 679

Appendix: Reviewers 683

Index 689