rhetoric in the visual arts - ernest j. enchelmayer

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Conference of the International Journal of Arts and Sciences1(19): 59 79 (2009)

CD-ROM. ISSN: 1943-6114

InternationalJournal.org

Rhetoric in the Visual Arts

Ernest J. Enchelmayer,Arkansas Tech University, USA

Abstract: This study reveals, through an extensive archival investigation of rhetorical

iconography, the wealth of images available for original examination. The major goal ofthis work is to map the iconography as a beginning of the investigation into the visual

representations of rhetoric. This discourse is designed to showcase various locations of

personified rhetoric iconography so that others may identify these icons.

1. Rhetoric in the Visual Arts

Scholars have studied rhetoric as both the art of persuasion and as an art of inventing

arguments since classical times. The familiar works of Plato (Phaedrus, Gorgias),

Aristotle (On Rhetoric), Cicero (De Oratore), and Quintilian (Institutio Oratoria), forexample, begin a tradition of critiquing and elaborating the nature and practice of the art,

and that tradition continues unabated today, having experienced a renaissance of its own

in the late twentieth century in the disciplines of rhetoric and composition andcommunication.

However, even as our attention has remained more or less firmly fixed on rhetoricstradition, scholars have yet to say much, if anything, about rhetorics artistic appearance

in particular, its representation in iconography, art, and architecture even though that

history may be as complex and interesting as one based solely on the ways that peoplehave represented rhetoric verbally. In this era of the visual turn, it makes sense to

examine the history of rhetorics visual representation to possibly discover what theiconography of rhetoric may offer to the field. Because rhetorics visual history is largely

unexplored territory, it must be mapped before future scholars can examine and developit more resolutely. The purpose of this paper is to sketch the first outlines of this map by

focusing attention on the persistent and emergent iconology in rhetorics representation,

by suggesting its relevance to our notions of rhetoric, and by advancing perspectives onwhat difference it makes that rhetoric has been represented visually.

2. Defining Rhetorical Elements Related to th is Study

From Corax to Plato and Aristotle, from Ramus to Perelman and Burke, rhetoric has beendefined variously as a universal art of enchanting the mind by argumentsgood and bad

alike (Plato sec. 261) as well as truth plus its artful presentation (Weaver, 1985).

Whatever definition we embrace the point is simple and clear: a goal of rhetoric is theimperative; the essential. That is to say, there is an ought or a should toward which

the rhetor wishes to move his or her audience.

In more modern times, it has come to be viewed as a broad field encompassing any useof language as a symbolic means of inducing cooperation in beings that by nature


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respond to symbols (Burke, 1969). Richard Cherwitz and James Hikins (1986) see

rhetoric as the art of describing reality through language. They basically believe arhetorical act stakes out a claim about reality:

At the heart of this definition is the assumption that what renders discourse potentiallypersuasive is that a rhetor (e.g., a speaker or writer) implicitly or explicitly sets forth

claims that either differ from or cohere with views of reality held by audiences (e.g., a

specific scholarly community, a reader of fiction, or an assembly of persons attending apolitical rally). (p. 62)

This view by Cherwitz and Hikins embraces the virtues of specificity and resembles the

definition of rhetoric that may be related to how an artist might create a discipline-specific work such as a visual depiction of rhetoric. Specifically, artisans between theperiod of 900 1700 were crafting images reflecting a myriad of subject matters,

including the liberal arts. The iconographic artifacts of rhetoric left to contemporaryviewers, as represented in my research, constitute some of the best known rhetorical

iconography from the European medieval and European Renaissance and were the most

accessible images for this research1

Imitation also plays a role in this visual exploration of Lady Rhetoric. Rhetoric has

always been an art that valued imitation

. Rhetoric, as personified by Dame Rhetoric,

represents an idea that is the result of an artist employing a rhetorical strategy asdescribed above by setting forth claims that cohere with what the liberal arts-educated

citizenry of the medieval and Renaissance world expected. Further, the modern

application of this personification of Lady Rhetoric held by an artistic and scholarlycommunity is found in the myriad sightings of this Lady on websites, book covers, and

T-shirts. I view the term rhetoric as the study of such descriptive discourse.

2

. Many artists imitated each others work, andsuch imitation suggests consistency, not just in artist to artist training, but in the view of

representing rhetoric. Imitation benefits readers by matching their experiences andexpectations (Kostelnick, 2003). The representation of rhetoric in art is like rhetorical

education because the images often reflect similar configurations just as classical

rhetoricians espoused imitation. Kostelnick notes that

Rhetors were trained to win arguments by imitating methods of invention and by

selectively implementing a range of stylistic devices and patterns of arrangement, which

they learned from masters such as Cicero, Seneca, and Quintilian. (p. 74)

The sense of imitation is significant to appreciating the depictions of Lady Rhetoric

because imitation of the form as reflected in personifications of rhetoric fits within thecontext of the scholarly community of rhetoricians and helps explain how similar the

visual representations of rhetoric are across the centuries and even across European

1Brief research outside of European boundaries and before and after the 900 1700 period reveals very

little to develop.2InRhetoric in Greco-Roman Education(1957), Donald Lemen Clark gives an account of classical

imitation and analyzes the rationale for the imitation exercises.


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borders. These shared values communicate the idea of rhetoric in visual conventions

employed in creating these images.

In a rhetorical sense, the artists who created the icons of rhetoric must have had specificgoals in mind for those who would confront the icon, such as its use to enhance theunderstanding of rhetoric for the viewer. An icon can sum up ideas in ways more easily

accessible to less-verbal thinkers and can sum up precepts fast and efficiently. To

cultivate learning and coach new or more obscure associations, the artist designed imagesthat displayed not only elements the viewer would understand, but elements that were

less easily grasped or more distantly associated with the subject. Representations of

rhetoric often were accompanied by or situated with depictions of speaking, of course,

but also of reading and listening. In some respects, we also perceive in theserepresentations the attitudes of the artist toward rhetoric itself, for instance, whether it isan art of high nobility or common deception. Either way, rhetorical choices are

employed in the design of the icon.

3. Popularity and Purpose of the Icon

Objects can lose their sense of value and meaning through the repetition of daily viewing.

For reasons not uncovered thus far, images of Rhetorica (or Lady Rhetoric, DameRhetoric, etc.) did eventually taper off in the 1700s. However, as we seek to represent

our association with rhetoric, scholars and teachers drawn to this nearly forgotten visual

history should pursue images that may represent rhetoric but that are labeled as

Eloquence or some rhetorically related name. In recent years, particularly in the mid-1990s, images of the Seven Liberal Arts and particularly Rhetorica began appearing

on websites of various rhetoric and composition faculty. Notably, these first few popularimages were those of Drer or Mantegna and Giarda. An image of Lady Rhetoric evenadorns a few scholarly books like Andrea LunsfordsReclaiming Rhetorica. One image

appears on a Penn State conference T-shirt. And, while these images have been hanging

on the walls of museums and embedded in the architecture and stained-glass of Europe,they are something new to American rhetoricians and certainly a way of reclaiming our

past through newfound associations with traditional icons.

4. Purpose of the Research

Research related to what I undertake in this study has parallel efforts. By parallel efforts,

I mean that there are other important recovery efforts taking place, led by scholars in thehistory of rhetoric, particularly where women are concerned but also in rhetorical history

generally. Much has been done in areas of finding spaces for women spaces that havebeen traditionally limited and sometimes complicated.

In this study I showcase a small portion of the images my research has revealed. Thisstudy could have been done in chronological fashion, but I chose to look at the images I

collected and try to discover unique items in the iconography that could then be


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researched and treated. I asked such questions as, Where do we find these images? and

How do we analyze these images today? and What is their function?.Clearly, the study of rhetoric held a prominent place in intellectual inquiry and the

popular imagination of the day as illustrated by the historical context of rhetoricalimagery in the Seven Liberal Arts.

The Dame Rhetoric images achieve icon status because of their representative quality and

their repetition over centuries. Noting consistencies and inconsistencies in the iconicrepresentations of rhetoric over time may point to commercialization of icon

development, or it might point to the commercial impact of educating the populace

whether that education is written, visual, oral or some combination of the three. The

survival of rhetoric icons and the history of rhetoric, as it is tied to icons in this study,will be scrutinized through the examination of select iconography of Rhetorica.Through the informative function of this work, contemporary rhetoricians can perhaps

envision new applications, new spaces or turns through which an image can beexperienced, and cultivate purpose.

There is also an element of fragmentation in the way rhetoric is visually represented

because it is not straightforward by just searching for Rhetorica because otherassociations with rhetoric arise, such as eloquence and persuasion. Illustrating this

fragmentation, in the most comprehensive overview of rhetorics visual representation at

the time, Jutta Tezman-Siegel (1985) offers a list of all of the important literature up toand around 1500. In the case of theIconologiaby Ripa, for example, she limits her

search to the main word or lemmaRettorica while neglecting that Ripas work also

suggests headings for Eloquenza and Persuasione3

. A comprehensive search would

turn up an image like LEloquence (see Figure 1). Her open palm may be a directreference to Zenos open hand for rhetoric as opposed to dialectic or logics closed fist.

The personification of eloquence is richly dressed, with an open palm, and holding thecaduceus all three are very important features in the iconography of rhetoric. However,

this image of a rhetoric-related subject serves to demonstrate the range of images

associated with the iconography of the art and how focused this particular research is on

rhetoric.

This image of LEloquence acknowledges the tendency to split rhetoric into parts4. In

her work, Tezman-Siegel notes that splitting up the area of rhetoric is a feature of almostall Iconologies of the early modern times

5

. Any meta-comprehensive iconography of

rhetoric in the medieval and Renaissance periods will not only have to take the possibility

of a variety of personifications into account, but also the images of Rhetorica within theliberal arts and all of the possible names.

3This researcher is only investigating those images where the word Rhetoric, Rhetorica, or some R

derivative (Retorica, Rhetorick, Rhtorique, etc.) appears in the name or description of an image.4canons or separate studies5Tezman-Siegel advises to see Norma Cecchinis:Her Dizionario sinottico di iconologiafrom 1982.


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(Figure 1 LEloquence6

Beyond the classical personifications there are visual representations of rhetoric in the

pre-Tudor and Tudor periods. Artists of that time were extensive travelers. Bruce Cole

(1983) writes that the artists livelihood was based on obtaining commissions;consequently they were willing, and indeed eager, to work almost anywhere (p. 21).

Because of this tendency to travel the lands, painters, sculptors, engravers, and other

artists helped disseminate knowledge not only of their styles, but also of whatfundamental associations should be exhibited with which composition (p. 22). This idea

of resemblance and associative meaning is important because the artists, through their

)

6By Paolo Caliari (Paolo of Verona),(1528-1588), in Muse des Beaux-Arts de Lille

(Museum of Fine Arts in Lille, France). From a photo taken by Ernest J. Enchelmayer, June 2000. Also

found in Secolo di Paolo Veroneseby Pignotti, 1976 andMontemezzano von Hadelnby Schweikhart, 1978,

page 142. Eloquence personified here has a regal look; looking like a woman dressed for a formal affair.


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design, production and sharing of artistic rudiments, were shaping the images of religion,

government, and education that were on display for the populace.

5. The Researcher Lens for Looking at Rhetoric Icons

Art historian Ernst H. Gombrich (1995) believes that works of art7

represent reality by

copying the world through its physical resemblance with the subject it portrays (pp. 15-37). In the context of iconographical art, particularly that of rhetoric, this semblance of

rhetoric suggests just how closely related the artistic representation may be to the subject

it is believed to portray. Going further, Gombrich (1995) maintains that an image cannotbe separated from its purpose and circumstances. Images are born of the society in which

the given visual image has currency. In other words, the image needs to be studied from

the perspective of its social, economic, and historical context. Further, its meaning

cannot be divorced from other images in the surrounding culture (pp. 369-74). But the

purpose of an icon is to convey a message, usually within a specific discourse communityknown in advance to the user, which limits the possible interpretations.

Every image created by the Renaissance artist was viewed through the spiritual, magical,

mysterious lens of that time. According to Cole (1983), a painting or carving carried

with it a cargo of associative meaning. It embodied some of the essence or being ofwhatever it represented or symbolized, holding a magic of the same order that informs

the prehistoric cave paintings of game animals or the masks of African tribesmen (p.

11). This idea of symbolism is significant to the iconography of rhetoric because the

images provide another way for a learner to grasp rhetoric. Included in any associativemeaning is the fact that these images reflect an early inclusion of women in the visual

depiction of rhetoric.

The purpose of an icon can also be so complex as to depict the spiritual, mystical, and

cosmic significance of the subject portrayed or to just simplify communication by

eliminating the need for text by providing a shorthand (image) that is easily recognizedand understood. One example of this from personified rhetoric icons is that of the open

palm. Several images illustrated have open palms displayed. There is a complex

historical context involved in the open palm illustration that goes back to Zeno.However, displaying an open palm in a rhetorical context signifies openness and

willingness on the part of the speaker; it is non-threatening. The empty-handed sign does

not imply that rhetoric is empty, but instead, it signals that anything is open for

discussion. As well, the open palm conjures up the Aristotelian idea that rhetoric mustalways consider audience. InRhetoric, Aristotle says that the reason for using

enthymemes (associated with rhetoric) instead of examplesor paradigms (associated with

dialectic or logic) is that audiences respond better to them8

7In this case, he distinguishes art with a capital A.

(Book I, Chapter 2, 1356b).

8Speeches that rely on examples are as persuasive as the other kind, but those which rely on enthymemes

excite the louder applause. The sources of examples and enthymemes, and their proper uses, we will


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Dialectic is concerned with establishing truth, regardless of audience. Rhetoric is

concerned with persuasion and the audience is fundamental.

While I acknowledge many research projects reveal and/or resolve a particular problemin a discipline, I wish to acknowledge that my inquiry arises from a desire to explore. Inother words, this project, while historical, is important because history is important to the

study of rhetoric, at least from the standpoint of possible revelation and certainly from the

standpoint of enrichment. My first goal is to initiate the exploration of rhetorics iconicpast with the hope that understanding is enhanced. As part of developing an

understanding of rhetoric, it is important to recognize that the visual images of rhetoric

may draw together the disparate parts of rhetoric . The image of rhetoric is a unifying

principle as well, just as an architects rendering of verbal description reveals a buildingor a sketch artist draws together descriptive words for a police composite. The imagesleftover from rhetorics historical discourse can serve as a focal point that has a lasting

effect on the historical perception of the field that may far outweigh its significance interms of actual contribution to the development of rhetoric. That is, the images

exaggerate by standing in for a lot of rhetoric. And, for later generations, they become

convenient representations that serve decorative purposes. The point is, that we need to

unpack their meaning so that their function is more than iconic, but that they function asclues to how the wider culture conceptualizes rhetoric at an important moment in

rhetorics history (i.e., a visual turn). Clearly, for example, Rhetorica represents a regal,

high art, judging from some of the images and descriptions we have of rhetoricpersonified .

(Figure 2 The Seven Liberal Arts 16th century )

The iconographic images of education, especially in the Renaissance, are the Seven

Liberal Arts (see Figure 2 The Seven Liberal Arts). This image by Solis shows all of

the Seven Liberal Arts lined up in a row and seemingly sharing the same space. Each hasthe paraphernalia typically associated with the Art represented. Rhetorica has the

emblems of the Art she represents, such as the open book, but her back is turned. One

hand is occupied with some sort of wand (like LEloquence), but the other hand, instead

of being open, now holds a book. Perhaps this shift to a book-wielding image reflects the

discuss later. Our next step is to define the processes themselves more clearly.

http://www.public.iastate.edu/~honeyl/Rhetoric/


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shift of rhetoric from a largely oral tradition in the classical era to a print tradition in the

Renaissance with the advent of the printing press.

6. Rhetoric Located - Images of Weaponry in Holy andEducational Settings

Lady Rhetoric is powerful and grand, brilliant and purposeful. Rhetorica is sometimes

located within and without classroom settings. Rhetoric has always been associated with

pedagogy and instruction in the arts of oratory and writing, so it is not surprising todiscover a genesis of Rhetorica depicted teaching.

Lady Rhetoric appears in a text format, similar to the preceding images, as is drawnsometime after 900 A.D. She appears on the lower right-hand side of a page in one

edition of The Marriage of Philology and Mercury, Martianus Capella's extensive

allegory of the liberal arts written sometime around c. 450 A.D. In this case, theconnection between the idea and the encounter of that idea symbolized in art isinterpreted to pertain to memory and learning. The influence of Martianus Capellas text

is quite important to the iconography of rhetoric. His text is the earliest description of the

Liberal Arts, and the influence of his description is revealed in forthcoming images.Images carried with them spiritual and educational weight. Cole (1983) describes the

Renaissance society as based on sacred principles, probably biblical and/or catholic in

nature (p. 37). Certainly the image of Lady Rhetorica at cathedrals, where, incidentally,collegiate-level instruction first took place, is a perfect example of how the Liberal Arts

supported and reflected theology. One well-known medieval personification of Rhetorica

graces the south portal of Chartres Cathedral's west faade (see Figure 3 and Figure 4 of

Chartres Rhetoric). For almost 1800 years, they have continually, visually clarified theidea that "man's striving for knowledge is dependent on, anddirected towards, Divine

Wisdom" and, in this case and many others, Divine Wisdom9

is given the support of a

female form (Katzenellenbogen, 1961). The Arts are not presented as icons to worship,but are presented to illustrate their support of and the importance of acquiring knowledge

in the pursuit of spirituality.

Carved alongside of the other liberal arts and their most famous and well-known human

counterparts from classical antiquity, the image of Rhetorica seated above Cicero was

installed toward the middle of the twelfth century (c. 1140-45) when Thierry de Chartreswas both master of the Cathedral school and in charge of the composition of the

Cathedral. Placing the artes liberaleson a church portal was an architectural innovation.It was also a visual statement: the Trivium and the Quadrivium collectively could now be

seen to offer a way into sacred space without fighting to gain admittance(Katzenellenbogen, 1959; Gabriel, 1969). Around 1244, Jacob of Vitry (cited in

Compayr 1893) when comparing the seven liberal arts with theology, had this to say:

9Also, see the Book of Proverbs in the Bible. Wisdom is depicted as female.


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Logic is good for it teaches us to distinguish truth from falsehood, grammar is good for it

teaches how to speak and write correctly; rhetoric is good for it teaches how to speakelegantly and to persuade[]But far better is theology which alone can be called a liberal

art, since it alone delivers the human soul from its woes (p. 200).

(Figure 3 Chartres Rhetoric located at Chartres Cathedral, West Faade, Right Portal.)

All of the personifications of the Seven Liberal arts are shown on the west faade with

their male counterparts. In this case, Rhetoric is shown with Cicero beneath. Why is

Cicero beneath Rhetoric? For one thing, Cicero is indebted to rhetoric for his greatness

and place among the learned population. For another, visually, Cicero is beholden to thegoddess of rhetoric in much the same manner as religious art of the day. Cicero is

beneath the supreme art as are biblical depictions, certainly found at Chartres and othercathedrals, where persons in a scene are situated beneath or subservient to the Supreme

Being.

(Figure 4 Chartres Rhetoric located at Chartres Cathedral, West Faade, Right Portal.)


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Yet the ties were easily made in other ways: the Liberal Arts surrounded the Virgin Mary

as seven. Mary was associated with the Seven Liberal Arts, and seven comprises thethree elements of the Trinity and four of the earthly world: four seasons, four directions,

four winds and four rivers of paradise.

Why is the Chartrain Rhetoric the only liberal art shown with an extended hand and open

mouth? Why is Rhetoric often armed with some sort of striker, be it a sword or club?

Two reasons stand out as probabilities. First, rhetoric, with grammar, was traditionallyrecognized as the foundational subject of the curriculum. It was foundational in two

senses. Knowledge of Latin and rhetoric, in the Ciceronian (classical) sense, was

germane to education of a citizen (Holmes, 1961). It was also largely taught using the

spoken word until later years or when taught at the university (cathedral) level, hence theopen mouth (p. 16). It was the teacher of the Trivium studies who instructed theyoungest, least experienced students. Involvement with the mind of the student at such a

young age placed a special burden of socialization on those who taught these subjects.The task at hand was to mold the mind and develop proper skills. Habits of concentration,

memory, and subordinating impulses and appetites to study had to be fostered.

Wandering attention had to be disciplined. And, what better way to instill order than to

have a teacher armed with a sword, club, or some other instrument? Certainly manystudents remember a teacher armed with a paddle, ruler, or switch to enforce learning and

train the mind with the threat of corporal punishment looming.

A second plausible reason for arming Rhetorica with an instrument of combat relates to

the fact that rhetoric was part of the Trivium the first phase of the curriculum and the

study to which moral instruction was assigned. Studies of medieval textbooks and

curriculum descriptions have confirmed this position (Paetow, 1910; Katzenellenbogen,1939; Corbett, 1965). To make this point, Camargo notes that the study of rhetoric was

probably transmitted to the Middle Ages and benefited from significant status becauseof Church Fathers, most of whom were trained in Roman schools whose curricula were

still dominated by rhetoric (pp. 102-103). Further, Camargo (1983) observes that St.

Augustine is the best example of the influence of rhetoric though he cut short a brilliant

career as a rhetorician in order to take up the Christian ministry (p. 103). Thus theicons of rhetoric found in churches the early cathedral schools in particular armed

with some sort of striker to enforce not only learning, but possibly moral instruction, is

appropriate.

Rhetorica iconography of the Cathedral of Freiburg i., B. Mnster Cathedral in Germany

is consistent with the idea of the Arts religious and educational connections. While theimage is iconographically distinct from that of French Chartres (Figures 3 and 4) there

are commonalities with the other cathedral images and a mystical similarity in terms of

positioning (see Figure 5 and Figure 16 Rhetorica, Freiburg). The faces of the Freiburg

and Chartres Rhetoricas are very similar, particularly with the eyes and the slim-lippedmouths. Rhetorica of Freiburg, much like that of Chartres, is in a position of offering

forth; both images illustrate the lady with her hands in a forward position. Yet the


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placement of attributes is different. Rhetorica holds both hands in an open-cup manner,

and they appear to be filled with gold coins (this is different from the Chartres image thathas only one hand open and the other holding a striker). One might consider this to be

associated with the convincing action of giving and receiving such as giving tithes tothe church. The statue displays the richness of rhetoric (giving of coins; giving ofinstruction; giving/receiving gesture) in addition to having the beautiful robe adorning

her body which is oft-associated with images of personified rhetoric. The dress of the

Freiburg Rhetorica is richly done with an elegant and elaborate pattern. The border of thedress, particularly near the feet, is reminiscent of a crown.

(Figure 5 Rhetorica Freiburg in the Mnstervorhalle of the Freiburg Mnster)


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(Figure 6 - Rhetorica Freiburg in the Mnstervorhalle of the Freiburg Mnster)

The visual element of gender reveals itself in the educational iconography of the age.

Several images of Rhetorica from this timeframe show similar qualities such as theRhetorica by Pencz (Figure 7) and the Rhetorica of Cort (Figure 8). Each features a

female figure in an authoritarian posture as marked by standing above a pupil while

tutoring (Pencz) or consulting with a rhetorician (Cort).

The Pencz image (Figure 7) focuses on the role of a female as teacher. Rhetoric

personified is teaching a cherub. She is seated, like many depictions of rhetoric, and she

is a very compassionate woman with both arms spread wide and open palms, in themanner of Zeno, as she oversees a students education in rhetoric. A choker of some

fashion is displayed tight against her neck, but it is difficult to discover if the charm


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hanging from it is a Christian cross (like that of the Wassenhove Rhetoric in Figure 10) or

some other sort of symbol. The cherub with her is holding a book and studying it closelywhile she offers instruction. Her femininity is evident in the way the breasts are clearly

shown through her attire. The image embracing educational authoritarian posturesreflects the changing gender ideology in politics that allows for limited roles inauthoritarian positions. Much like Queen Elizabeth I, some women had to adopt

masculine traits in order to acquire their authority. And, in several images of Lady

Rhetoric there are familiar male attributes coupled with them, such as swords, but alsothere are images of handsome women.

Cornelius Corts image (Figure 8) also depicts rhetoric as teacher. She is seated with her

feminine features stressed and holding a caduceus as she oversees instruction takingplace, perhaps from one of the ancients or at least an elder, to a younger pupil. Theaffirmation of the ancients in this scene is definite because she extends one leg toward a

stack of books that have the names of classical rhetoricians inscribed upon them. Further,two birds sit on the booksand one of them might be a crow in reference to Corax, the

earliest known rhetorician10

.

In many of these images, the femininity of the women is exposed. Either Rhetoricasbreasts are visible through material or one side of her bosom is bare, accentuating her

femaleness; but strangely enough, what exposes the maternal feature of her anatomy is

the absence of a pin fastening the doric chiton-type of garment which she wears, whichalso makes her otherwise characteristically female garb resemble a masculine warriors

tunic. In a break from ancient gender dress codes, the chiton fastened on both shoulders,

which was the most characteristic part of a womans otherwise ambiguous dress in the

classical world, is brought uncannily close to the costume of a warrior at arms.

10In notes on CapellasMarriage, there is reference to a black crow perched on Tisias shoulder. The

black crow signifies Corax (Corax is Greek for crow) who is the other Sicilian traditionally referred to as

one of the inventors of rhetoric (Johnson & Stahl p.156). Tisias employed Corax to teach him rhetoric on

the condition he win his first case. Corax instructs Tisias. Tisias refuses payment. Corax sues Tisias. The

judge eventually threw out the case citing, Kakou korakos kakov wov (a bad egg from a bad crow). See

George A. Kennedy (1994),A New History of Classical Rhetoric, Princeton University Press or Edward

Schiappa (1999), The Beginnings of Rhetorical Theory in Ancient Greece, Yale University Press.


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(Figure 7 Rhetorica by George Pencz c.1541 in the The Saint Louis Art Museumlocation number 69:1914)


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(Figure 8 Rhetorica by Cornelis Cort after Frans Floris c.1565 in the Museum Boijmans

Van Beuningen, Rotterdam)

The prepared warrior-like Rhetorica, who must either defend a position or wish to take aposition, was found in the composition of other holy settings. Both challenging and

compassionate images of Rhetorica can be found in northern Italy. A formidable image ofRhetoric intimidates onlookers on Giotto's campanile (1334-1337) beside the Cathedral

of Florence (Figure 9 Rhetorica, Giotto).

Space intentionally left blank


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(Figure 9 Rhetorica on Giottos Campanile

11

Here she is cast much differently from the Rhetorica icons of the preceding century

designed by Nicola and Andrea Pisano on the pulpit bases of the Cathedrals of Siena

(1266/68) and Pisa (13th c.), and to the Fontana Maggiore in Perugia (c. 1278). In thesevisual representations, teaching and protecting are composed as similar in spirit. The

Rhetorica in the Giotto gives nothing away in her expression. She is seated, but this

should not be taken for any sort of complacency. Instead, she looks more like she isseated at the ready because her bodys position on the seat is forward, almost as if she

is about to stand up or is at least ready to stand up from a seated position with the sword

resting on her lap. This posture invites discourse because her face and the position of her

sword arm are non-threatening though the armament warns of potential combat ordiscipline; she is willingly inviting dialogue that may influence her. This is reminiscent

of the advice from Socrates when he suggests to Phdrus to become an accomplishedfighter which can also mean a pleader, debater, champion, actor, or master of rhetoric.

The image can mean rhetoric is ready to debate (orally) or fight (physically). Similar to

the 15th

century Capella Rhetorica, this Rhetorica has a sword that belies her strength and

a shield worthy of deflecting, but not to hide behind; she is no coward.

)

7. Arming the Nobili ty

Similar to the readiness of Rhetorica to engage in verbal or physical combat, pupils must

also be instructed on how to employ rhetoric with discretion. Another image of Rhetoric

11The Campanile di Giotto in Florence, Italy. The work was begun by Giotto in 1334 and he died in

1337. Work was then carried out by Andrea Pisano until his death in 1348. Pisano finished the first two

levels. The double row of tiles on the first level (allegories of manual labor, symbolic figures of planets,

the Virtues, the Liberal Arts and the Sacraments) and the sixteen statues on the second story have now all

been replaced by copies (the originals are contained in the Museum of the Opera del Duomo). See:

Trachtenberg, Marvin. (1971) The Campanile of Florence Cathedral. New York: NYU Press. Figure

126.


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depicts a young woman, as Rhetoric, seated in a high-backed chair on a dais (see Figure

10 Rhetoric by Ghent). She is bedecked in a royal, elegant gown with a cross on achain draped about her gracefully tilted neck and resting beneath her fair face. She holds

a book open in her lap and points out a passage to a young man as if instructing him. Theseries Wassenhove did of the Seven Liberal Arts was for Federico da Montefeltro, Dukeof Urbino (1422-82). The other works in the series include Federico in the painting. In

this image of Rhetoric, however, there is an inscription across the background that only

refers to him, but does not name him in the portrait. The kneeling youth may be intendedto represent the Duke's son Guidobaldo, perhaps in the complementary role of Cicero.

This human complement is receiving rhetorical knowledge from the Art herself to share

with or use (judiciously in the role of a leader) among humankind. One might also

assume that the depiction implies Guidobaldo has exceptional communication skills andis, at the very least, following his father in educational training meant to equip him forleadership. Because Federico also appears in other images of the Liberal Arts for this

series, it seems clear that the images meant to establish his training for leadership to betrue since his son, Guidobaldo, would just be beginning his mastering the arts and his

father would certainly be ahead of him in educational studies. The appearance of

Guidobaldo in the image of Rhetorica just beginning his training lends sufficient

credibility to the theory that he is following after his father and would then be assumed tobe at least as good a leader from his education, thus serving the continuation of

patriarchy (Kahn 13). It should also be noted that in the Wassenhove (or Ghent) series,

Lady Rhetoric is cast among the royalty.


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(Figure 10 Rhetoric by Justus of Ghent (Joos van Wassenhove) Image c. 1480)12

Just as in the Wassenhove Rhetoric, depictions of Lady Rhetoric often illustrate her

mothering, tutoring, or engaged in some kind of teaching act. Nurturing images, likethose in Chapter 3, might foster the idea of moving the iconography of rhetoric beyondbasic symbolism of warring with (s)words because like the ad HerenniumorInstitutes

those images would require viewers to delve deeper in uncovering meaning.

Theoretically, then, being more informed and seeing more in rhetorical situations equipsstudents to better confront others in written and verbal discourse. As a soundly trained

student of rhetoric, the practice of confronting or warding off verbal attacks from early

years through adulthood could steadily become refined. This idea of readiness, born out

of the nurturing image, probably also reflects the nature of humans in the sense ofbeginning something, like life, in a protective environment, and then having to exerciselearning in the larger world and come to grips with self awareness in human interactions.

Among the warrior-like and mother-like Rhetorica icons thus far identified, the tender

Rhetoricas are usually engaged with one student, whereas the tougher, more commanding

images are combative, whether alone or when working with more than one student.

Some rhetoric instructional scenes set in classrooms depict Rhetorica as gentle, deprivedof body strikers. The instruction of rhetoric may arm the pupils enough instead of

implying that physical combat is an option through displaying a weapon. This fits the

oft-repeated pronouncement that knowledge is power. It may be a reinforcement of thepower of rhetoric to defend against or slay ones enemies.

8. Conclusion

These images of rhetoric as they are discussed in the context of the time and with thepopular convention of expression suggest that the female form was used because the

interweaving of rhetoric with the female body displaces the association between women

and rhetoric from the level of history to the transcendent and static or constant level ofallegory and iconography. In the textual displays, rhetoric is seen as a helper without

threatening female dominance. However, the iconography of Rhetorica on public display

repeatedly shows her armed and suggesting rhetorics alliance not only with power, butits association with coercion by force. It is an association suggesting the power of the

word to compel action, much as a sword signifies the holders willingness to bend the

will of the opponent.

Apparently, for the student of medieval and Renaissance education, the visual aspect was

expected, i.e., it was endemic. My study of the iconography of Dame Rhetoric might

stimulate similar research into the iconography of other disciplines, including the othersix liberal arts

13

12Series of Seven Liberal Arts. National Gallery London. Work for Federico da Montefeltro, Duke of

Urbino. http://www.philipresheph.com/a424/gallery/flemish/flemish1.htm

. The iconography of rhetoric has been lost to modern scholars for all of

13Ayers Bagley has begun such a study with the iconography of Grammar at the University of Minnesota.


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these years but the recovery and further investigations may yield benefits for modern

study.

The importance of this brief study to the field of rhetoric can be just as simple as having astarting point to document the images that once dominated this branch of learning. Or,the significance of this research can be as complicated as striving to revive a (re)turn to

prominence of visual imagery and visual communication within the art of rhetoric and the

educational use of icons that are subject appropriate.

There are numerous icons or allegories of rhetoric to be uncovered. My work, as stated at

the outset, dealt primarily with images that have the name Rhetorica or some derivative

thereof either inscribed upon the work or ascribed to it. Another possibility for furtherstudy would be to broaden the range beyond the titles of Rhetoric, Eloquence, or Orationto include the myriad classical representations of Hercules Gallicus, Mercury, and

Hermes. As well,some of the Hercules images are allegories of rhetoric. There arenumerous renderings of Mercury and Hermes that are worthy of consideration as

rhetorical images in the sense of iconic symbols of the art. Broadening the scope further

could include a study of the nine muses from their classical birth by Zeus and

Mnemosyne.


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References

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Cole, Bruce. (1983). The Renaissance Artist at Work. New York: Harper & Row.

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Corbett, Edward P.J. (1971). Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student. Second

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rhetoric in the visual arts - ernest j. enchelmayer

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