Rhetoric and Rhetorical Devices This class focuses on the study of rhetoric,

or the use of language to be persuasive. To be persuasive NOT a superficial task, but

instead it relies on deep-seeded, unspoken, and universal human commonalities (character traits, mindsets, etc).

Understanding those universal traits can help us to better understand how appeals reach their audience.

Appeals and ClaimsUnderstanding tropes and scheme, as a part

of the style canon of rhetoric, help us understand the complexities of an argument.

Generalization and other warrants allow arguments to work at an unspoken, subconscious level.

If we reveal the way tropes, stereotypes and archetypes work for authors and speakers, we can understand how they work as a part of layered appeals.

Answer and Define each: Answer: How do each of these terms

relate to one another? How are they different? How are they alike? ◦Ideology◦Identity◦Tropes (specifics of category also) ◦Schemes (specifics of category also) ◦Archetypes◦Motifs ◦Stereotypes

Ideology: Ideologies are defined

◦ as networks of interpretation, ◦ a coherent set of beliefs that people use to understand

events and behaviors of other people; these beliefs are also used to predict behaviors and events

Ideologies exist in language, but are worked out in practice ◦ Personal experience is not the only thing that informs your

image of yourself, as it is also influenced by the beliefs of your family and friends, the beliefs circulated by the media, and the beliefs common in the community you live in.

Ideologies are the “stuff” with which rhetors work

Ideology Continued… Ideologies are a set of statements that

◦tell us how to understand ourselves and others. ◦tell us how to understand nature and our

relation to it, as well.

Ideologies help us decide how to value what we know – they tell us what is thought to be true, right, good, or beautiful in a community

Identity, Tropes, Archetypes, and

Stereotypes… Driving Questions for Lesson: • How do tropes, schemes and archetypes relate to our

understanding of writing? • How can understanding tropes and schemes help us

understand rhetorical appeals? • How do tropes and schemes impact our thinking? How

do they work to persuade?

IdentityConsider this quote from a character in Sherman

Alexie’s book “Absolutely True Diart of a Part-Time Indian”: ◦ “I realized that, sure, I was a Spokane Indian. I belonged to

that tribe. But I also belonged to the tribe of American immigrants. And to the tribe of basketball players. And to the tribe of bookworms. And the tribe of cartoonists. And the tribe of chronic masturbators. And the tribe of teenage boys. And the tribe of small-town kids. And the tribe of Pacific Northwesterners. And the tribe of tortilla chips-and-salsa lovers. And the tribe of poverty. And the tribe of funeral-goers. And the tribe of beloved sons. And the tribe of boys who really missed their best friends. It was a huge realization. And that's when I knew that I was going to be okay. (217)”

IdentityThe character’s identity is layered with all the

things he participates in, what he likes to do, the people he chooses and the people he doesn’t choose, the area he’s from, and the circumstances of his life.

All contribute to his personal identity… ◦Rather than just identifying with one of those “tribes” aka

groups of people, he identifies instead with all of them. How many of the “tribes” that he named also have a set of

beliefs or ideologies that go along with them? How many are informal identifiers, descriptors that contribute

to his perceived identity?

IdentityIdentity is defined in two ways:

◦The collective aspect of the set of characteristics by which a thing is definitively recognizable or known

◦The set of behavioral or personal characteristics by which an individual is recognizable as a member of a group Chosen ideologies are a part of someone’s

identity…

Identity in RhetoricWhen we talk about the act of definition or

“defining the audience”, we attempt to assume the audiences identity.

By doing so we can better understand how the appeals that are used are specific to the audience

Take a second to write down details of your own identity, and ideologies with which you subscribe (or recognize have influence who you are today).

What is an Archetype?In literature, films, etc. an archetype is a typical

character, an action or a situation that seems to represent such universal patterns of human nature.

Character Archetype: a very typical example of a certain person or thing; types that fit fundamental human motifs.◦ A motif is a recurring subject, theme, etc. especially in a

literary work or artistic or musical work

Examples of Character Archetypes: The Hero, The Villain, The Innocent Youth, The Mother Figure, the Scapegoat

Why do authors use archetypes? The use of archetypical characters gives a

literary work a universal acceptance, as readers identify the characters and situations in their social and cultural context.

By using common archetypes, the writers attempt to impart realism to their works, as the characters are drawn from the experiences of the world.

What is a Trope?Tropes are devices (rhetorical not literary

devices) and conventions that a writer can reasonably rely on as being present in the audience members’ minds and expectations.◦A trope is also any rhetorical device, as metaphor,

metonymy, synecdoche, and irony, that consists in the use of words in other than their literal sense. (ie: figures of speech)

Tropes are different from archetypes because they are typically culturally specific.

Character TropesTropes, like character archetypes, are used

to help readers identify with characters, but exist only in specific cultural contexts.

For example, “The Nerd” is a trope seen in movies, television, and literature. It is not an archetype because it is typically seen in Western culture. As an archetype this character may be seen as “The Scholar”. 

Tropes Cont. Trope is a word that can be used for a lot of different instances,

thought the meanings is the same, the application of the word is different.

◦ Trope can be used to describe the actual language devices a speaker or writer is using

◦ Trope can be used to describe the reoccurrence of specific language to represent something else – metonymy and synecdoche, types of tropes, can also be represented by images or people (in this case characters) IE: The nerd in glasses…

Tropes are widely associated with schemes (defined on next slide)

Tropes vs. Schemes: Scheme is defined as “figures of speech that deal with word order, syntax,

letters, and sounds, rather than the meaning of words.”

Trope is defined as “figures of speech with an unexpected twist in the meaning of words.”

Tropes and schemes are both figures of speech that add color and interest to language, are categories of devices used in speech and writing, and fall under the canon of “style” of rhetoric

These are devices (though not literary devices) that contribute to the style of the author and can help to get the point across. One way they do this is by appealing to the emotions of the recipient.

The main difference between a trope and a scheme is:◦ A trope changes the meaning of an expression◦ A scheme changes the order of the words

StereotypesStereotype: A widely held but fixed and

oversimplified image or idea of a particular type of person or thing.

Stereotypes can be offensive when directed at certain gender, racial, cultural, and social groups. ◦For example: The Dumb Blonde, Dumb Jock, etc.

are stereotypes that exist in society and are often represented in different forms of media. 

Stereotypes cont.It is important to note that stereotypes are not

literary, but stereotypes can exist about characters and are often a theme when discussing identity particularly when discussing subjects like race and culture.◦Stereotypes are the literary cousin of tropes.

Racial and cultural stereotypes may be seen as a conflict in some works… ◦…can be seen an accumulated advantage or

disadvantage on the road to success (remember our discussion on privilege)

Stereotypes Vs. TropesCharacters such as the "Dumb Blonde" or

"Dumb Jock" when represented in media and literature are actually character tropes in the context.

Tropes may include things that are seen as stereotypical because they are representing commonly used characters in the context of a specific culture. 

Types of TropesReference to One Thing as AnotherMetaphor Reference to one thing as another,

implying a comparison.Simile Explicit comparison of one thing to another.Synecdoche A whole is represented by naming

one of its parts.Metonymy Reference to something or someone by

naming one of its attributes.Personification Reference to abstractions or

inanimate objects as though they had human qualities or abilities.

Types of TropesWordplay and punsAntanaclasis Repetition of a word in two

different senses.Paronomasia Using words that sound alike

but that differ in meaning (punning).Syllepsis Using a word differently in relation

to two or more words that it modifies or governs (sometimes called zeugma).

Onomatopoeia Use of words whose sound correspond with their semantic value.

Types of TropesSubstitutionsAnthimeria Substitution of one part of

speech for another.Periphrasis Substitution of a descriptive

word or phrase for a proper name or of a proper name for a quality associated with the name.

Types of TropesOverstatement/UnderstatementHyperbole Use of exaggerated terms for

emphasis or effect.Auxesis Reference to something with a

name disproportionately greater than its nature (a kind of hyberbole).

Litotes Understatement used deliberately.Meiosis Reference to something with a name

disproportionately lesser than its nature (a kind of litotes). 

Types of SchemesStructures of BalanceParallelism Similarity of structure in a pair or series

of related words, phrases, or clauses.◦Isocolon A series of similarly structured elements having

the same length.◦Tricolon Three parallel elements of the same length

occurring together.Antithesis Juxtaposition of contrasting ideas (often

in parallel structure).Climax Generally, the arrangement of words,

phrases, or clauses in an order of increasing importance, often in parallel structure.

Types of SchemesChanges in word order

◦ Anastrophe Inversion of natural word order.◦ Parenthesis Insertion of a verbal unit that interrupts normal

syntactical flow.◦ Apposition Addition of an adjacent, coordinate, explanatory

element.Omission

◦ Ellipsis Omission of a word or words readily implied by context.◦ Asyndeton Omission of conjunctions between a series of

clauses.◦ Brachylogia Omission of conjunctions between a series of

words.◦ (Polysyndeton) Opposite of asyndeton, a superabundance of

conjunctions

Types of Schemes Repetition Alliteration Repetition of initial or medial consonants in

two or more adjacent words. Assonance Repetition of similar vowel sounds, preceded

and followed by different consonants, in the stressed syllables of adjacent words.

Polyptoton Repetition of words derived from the same root.

Antanaclasis Repetition of a word in two different senses. Anaphora Repetition of the same word or group of words

at the beginning of successive clauses. Epistrophe Repetition of the same word or group of words

at the ends of successive clauses.

Types of TropesSemantic InversionsRhetorical Question Asking a question for a

purpose other than obtaining the information requested.

Irony Using language in such a way as to convey a meaning opposite of what the terms used denote (often by exaggeration).

Oxymoron Placing two ordinarily opposing terms adjacent to one another. A compressed paradox.

Paradox An apparently contradictory statement that contains a measure of truth.

Types of Schemes Epanalepsis Repetition at the end of a clause of the word

that occurred at the beginning of the clause. Anadiplosis Repetition of the last word of one clause at the

beginning of the following clause. Climax Repetition of the scheme anadiplosis at least three

times, with the elements arranged in an order of increasing importance.

Antimetabole Repetition of words, in successive clauses, in reverse grammatical order. (Sometimes mistaken as chiasmus)

Chiasmus Repetition of grammatical structures in reverse order in successive phrases or clauses (not to be mistaken with antimetabole).

Schemes and Tropes: Features of text

From the next slide, create a tree map for kinds of tropes and kind of schemes. The definitions for each are d the answers.

Schemes and tropes both have to do with using language in an unusual or "figured" way:◦Trope: An artful deviation from the ordinary or

principal signification of a word. “I work like a slave" [trope: simile]

◦ Scheme: An artful deviation from the ordinary arrangement of words. "I don't know if I'm working my job or my job, me" schemes: ellipsis, personification]

So here’s the breakdown: Stereotypes: Not literary. We avoid using this term to talk

about classifying characters, settings, plot points, etc.. Archetypes: The broad, all-encompassing norms of the stories

humanity tells. The same archetypes can be found in all or nearly all cultures.

Tropes: Culturally-specific norms in storytelling. Tropes are cultural classifications of archetypes. There can be many tropes found under the umbrella of one archetype. Literary devices are not tropes (i.e. narrators, foreshadowing, flashbacks, etc.).

Clichés: Overused and hackneyed phrases, characters, settings, plot points, etc.. Archetypes do not become clichéd. Tropes can become clichés if they are used too often and readers get bored of them. Clichés are defined by a loss of the meaning or as a distraction from the story.

Use of Concepts in Rhetoric When students are asked to rhetorically analyze something

they need to identify:◦ the rhetorical situation, including the exigence and the primary

audience This is where ideologies and identity play a huge role, as they work to

contribute to context of the rhetorical situation. ◦ the appeals used by the speaker, and how those appeals work together

This is where understanding stereotypes, archetypes, motifs, etc. is helpful, as they appeal to mass audiences.

◦ the features of the text used to appeal to the audience This is where being able to identify tropes and schemes will be helpful, but

students also need to know why the trope or scheme is used (which appeal it supports, and why it is successful for the audience)

Naming the trope and scheme is not as important as identifying the strategy used by the author or speaker◦ (Meaning: Knowing what the “named” trope or scheme does is more important than

the name of the trope or scheme.)