rfid technology full report
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INTRODUCTION
Almost every product in the market has a barcode printed on it. Barcodes are machine-readable
parallel bars that store binary information, revealing information about the product. Thus, it acts as the
product fingerprint. As we go to the supermarket to buy things, the checkout person runs our selection over
the scanner to scan the barcode, theres an audible beep, and we are told how much money we owe.
But the days of barcode are numbered. The reason is that a technology called radiofrequency
identification (RFID) is catching on.RFID tags are being used by corporations to track people and products
in just about every industry. They transform everyday objects like cargo containers, car keys, and even
clothes on the rack at a shopping mall into mini nodes on a network. Databases then record the location and
status of these network nodes to determine product movements. [4], [3]
This technology can completely replace barcodes.
The automotive industry makes use of small RFID tags that offer a high level of security at low cost.[7]
A lot of developments are taking place in RFID technology that will change the course of the industry,
particularly in the supply chain area.
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TRANSPONDER
A tag is any device or label that identifies the host to which it is attached. It typically does not
hinder the operation of the host or adversely affect its appearance.
The word transponder is derived from the words transmitter and responder. The tag responds to a
transmitted or communicated request for the data it carries.
Fig.1 Transponder Block Diagram
The transponder memory may comprise of read-only (ROM), random access (RAM), and non-
volatile programmable memory for data storage depending on the type and sophistication of the device. The
ROM-based memory is used to accommodate security data and the transponder operating system
instructions which in conjunction with the processor or processing logic deals with the internal house-
keeping functions like response delay timing, data flow control and supply switching. The RAM-based
memory is used for temporary data storage during transponder interrogation and response. The non-volatile
programmable memory may be of several types of which the electrically erasable programmable read-only
memory (EEPROM) is the most common. It is used to store the transponder data and needs to be non-
volatile to ensure that the data is retained when the device is in its quiescent or power-saving sleep state.
2
ANALOG CIRCUITRY DATA TRANSFER
POWER SUPPLY
DIGITAL CIRCUITRYCONTROL LOGICSECURITY LOGICINTERNAL
LOGIC/MICROPROCESOR
EEPROM
ROM
RAM
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Data buffers are further components of memory used to temporarily hold the incoming data
following demodulation and outgoing data for modulation and interface with the transponder antenna. The
interface circuitry provides the facility to direct and accommodate the interrogation field energy for
powering purposes in passive transponders and triggering of the transponder response. The transponder
antenna senses the interrogating field and serves as the means for transmitting the transponder response for
interrogation.[6]
CLASSIFICATION OF TAGS
On the basis of the presence of battery, tags can be classified into active or passive tags.
Active tags are powered by an internal battery and are generally read/write devices. They contain acell having a high power to weight ratio and are capable of operating over a temperature range of -50 to +70
degree Celsius. Active tags have a finite life time. A suitable cell coupled to suitable low power circuitry
can ensure functionality of ten or more years depending on operating temperatures, read/write cycles and
usage. They have greater size and increased cost compared to passive tags.
Passive tags operate without an internal battery source, deriving the power to operate from the field
generated by the reader. They are hence lighter than active tags and have greater life time. They have
shorter read ranges compared to active tags. They are also constrained in their ability to store data and
perform well in electromagnetically noisy environments.[2],[5]
RFID tags can also be classified on the basis of coupling into inductively and capacitively coupled
tags.
Inductively coupled RFID tags consist of the silicon microprocessor which vary in size depending
on their purpose and metal coil which is made of copper or aluminum wire that is wound into a circular
pattern on the transponder. This coil acts as the tags antenna. The tag transmits signal to the reader with the
read distance determined by the size of the coil antenna. It also consists of an encapsulating material of
glass or polymer that wraps around the chip and coil. Inductively coupled RFID tags are powered by the
magnetic field generated by the reader .The tags antenna picks up the magnetic energy and the tag
communicates with the reader. The tag then modulates the magnetic field in order to retrieve and transmit
data back to the reader. Data which is transmitted back to the reader is directed to the host computer. These
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tags are expensive due to the silicon, the coil antenna and the process that is needed to wind the coil around
the surface of the tag.
Capacitively coupled RFID tags consist of an RFID chip and an antenna made from two plate
electrodes. The reading mechanism between the tag and the reader is through capacitive coupling. Placing
the tag in an electric field powers the tag. The field gradient across the tag results in a charge buildup
between the plates and hence a potential difference which is used to energize the small silicon IC at its
center.[6],[8]
Data stored in data carriers require some organization and additions like data identifiers and error
detection bits to satisfy recovery needs. This is known as source encoding. Standard numbering systems
such as UCC/EAN can be applied to data stored in tags. Tags are basically used to carry
1.identifiers, in which a numeric or alphanumeric string is stored for identification purposes or as an access
key to data stored in a computer or information management system.
2. Portable data files in which information is organized for communication. Tags can be obtained that can
store single bits to kilobits. The single bit devices are used for surveillance purposes. Retail electronic
article surveillance (EAS) is the typical application which activates an alarm in the interrogating field. They
can also be used for counting applications.
Devices characterized by data storage capacities upto 128 bits are sufficient to hold a serial or
identification number together with parity check bits. These devices may be manufacturer or user
programmable. Tags with data storage capacities upto 512 bits are user programmable and suitable for
accommodating identification and other specific data like serial numbers, package content, key process
instructions and results of earlier interrogation/response transactions. Tags with storage capabilities of 64
kilobits are carriers of portable data files. By increasing the capacity, facility can be provided for organizing
data into fields or pages that may be selectively interrogated during the reading purpose. Data transfer rates
are linked to carrier frequency. The higher the frequency, the higher the transfer rates. Depending on the
memory, the tag contains data that can be read-only; write once read many (WORM) or read /write. Read-
only tags are low capacity devices programmed at source usually with an identification number. WORM
devices are user programmable devices. Read/write devices are also user programmable but allow the user
to change data stored in a tag. Portable programmers may also be present that allows in-field programming
of the tag while attached to the item being identified or accompanied.[6]
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READER/INTERROGATOR
The reader/interrogators can differ considerably in complexity depending on the type of tags being
supported and functions to be fulfilled. The overall function is to provide the means of communicating withthe tag and facilitating data transfer. Functions performed by readers include signal conditioning, parity
error checking and correction. Once the signal from a transponder has been correctly received and decoded,
algorithms can be applied to decide whether the signal is a repeat transmission and may then instruct the
transponder to stop transmitting. This is known as Command Response Protocol and is used to circumvent
the problem of reading multiple tags in a short span of time. Using interrogators in this way is also referred
to as Hands Down Polling. A more secure, but slower tag polling technique is called Hands Up Polling
which involves the interrogator looking for tags with specific identities and interrogating them, in turn. A
further approach uses multiple readers, multiplexed into one interrogator but results in cost increase.[6]
RANGE AND POWER LEVELS
The range that can be achieved in an RFID is determined by:
1. The power available at the reader/interrogator to communicate with the tags.
2. The power available within the tag to respond.
3. The environmental conditions and structures, the former being more significant at higher frequencies
including the signal to noise ratio.
Although the level of available power is the primary determinant of range, the manner and
efficiency in which that power is deployed also influences the range. The field or wave generated from an
antenna extends into space surrounding it and its strength diminishes with respect to distance. The antenna
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design determines the shape of the field or propagating wave delivered so that range is also influenced by
the angle subtended between the tag and antenna.
In the space free of any obstruction or absorption mechanism, the strength of field reduces in inverse
proportion to the square of the distance. For a wave propagating through a region in which reflections can
arise from the ground and from obstacles, the reduction in strength can vary as an inverse fourth power of
the distance. Where different paths arise in this way, the phenomenon is called multi-path attenuation. At
higher frequencies, moisture presence can cause absorption which can further affect the range. Where a
number of reflective obstacles are to be encountered within the applications under consideration, which
may vary from time to time, it may also be necessary to establish the implications of such changes through
an appropriate environmental evaluation.
The power within the tag is generally much less than that from the reader, requiring sensitivedetection capability within the reader to handle the return signals. In some systems, the reader constitutes a
receiver and is separate from the interrogation source or transmitter, particularly if the up-link (from
transmitter to tag) carrier is different from the down-link (from tag to reader).
100-500mW power are values quoted for RFID systems, whereas the actual values should be
confirmed with the appropriate regulatory authorities in the countries where the technology is being
applied. The form in which the power is delivered, pulsed or continuous, and the associated values are also
indicated by the authority.[6]
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RFID SYSTEM
An RFID system consists of RFID tags ,a means of reading or interrogating the tags and a means of
communicating the data to a host computer or information management system. The system will also
include a facility for entering or programming data into tags, if it is not done at the source by the
manufacturer. There may also be present antennas for communication between the ag and the reader.
Fig.2. RFID System
The reader sends out a radio frequency wave to the tag and the tag broadcasts back its stored data to
the reader. The system has two antennas, one for the tag and the other on the reader. The data collected
from the tag can either be sent directly to a host computer through standard interfaces or it can be stored in
a portable reader and later updated to the computer for data processing. The automatic reading and direct
use of tag data is called automatic data capture.[8]
When the tag which is battery free,is to be read ,the reader sends out a power pulse to the antenna lasting
for about 50ms.The magnetic field generated is collected by the antenna in the transponder that is tuned to
the same frequency. This received energy is rectified and stored on a capacitor within the transponder.
When the power pulse has finished, the transponder immediately transmits back its data, using the energy
stored within its capacitor as its power source. The data is picked up by the receiving antenna and decoded
by the reader unit. Once all the data has been transmitted, the storage capacitor is discharged resetting the
transponder to make it ready for the next read cycle. The period between transmission pulses is called sync
time and lasts between 20ms and 50ms depending on the system set up.
The transmission technique between the transponder and the reader is FSK.This approach has good
resistance to noise and is cost effective to implement.[7],[6]
7
RF MODULE CONTROL
MODULE
HOST COMPUTER
READERANTENNA
TRANSPONDER (TAG)
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SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
Reading distance: The actual reading distance depends on the transponder type, electromagnetic noise,
transponder orientation, antenna type. In general, a 32mm glass transponder can be read with a stationary
reader and gate antenna from a distance of about 1m.Larger transponders can achieve ranges upto 2m with
handheld readers offering lower ranges upto 250mm.
Data accuracy: A 16-bit cyclic redundancy check algorithm is used to ensure that only valid data is sent
from the reader to its associated controller.
Antenna selection: Of the antenna types, the one giving larger read ranges is selected. Electromagnetic
noise affects the readout pattern.
Transponder orientation: For maximum range, the antenna orientation with respect to the transponder
must be optimized for maximum coupling. The orientation in line with a ferrite antenna produces the largest
read ranges from 2mm glass transponder.
Reading speed: Many applications require that that transponder must remain in the reading range. Since a
standard stationary reader completes one cycle in abut 120ms, transponders must remain in the boundaries
of a readout pattern for at least that amount of time.[7]
IMMOBILIZER SYSTEM
Immobilizers are the security systems in automobiles. The latest generation of RFID transponders
called crypto transponders can be used as the chief part of immobilizers.
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Fig. 3. IMMOBILIZER TRANSPONDER
Key-based immobilizer systems consist of four main components. The core of the system is the
transponder, a batteryless device which is available in various form factors and with different
functionalities. For operation, the transponder has to be supplied with energy from an external source. The
transceiver generates a high frequency magnetic field which is radiated by an antenna coil. The energy
activates the transponder and it sends a data stream in form of a modulated RF signal. This signal is
demodulated by the transceiver and then passed to the controller for data processing. Different physical
principles for RFID systems have been established on the market. Concerning the transmission of energy,
two different systems can be distinguished.[7]
Full Duplex Systems. The energy for the transponder and the data signal generated by the transponder are
transmitted at the same time.
Half Duplex Systems. The transmission of the energy for the transponder and the data signal from the
transponder are done consecutively. The transponder stores energy in a capacitor and as soon as the
transmitter is switched off, the energy is used to transmit data. The different techniques have an impact on
system design and reading range, but have no impact on the system.[7]
Cryptographic Background
From the cryptographic point of view, the problem of immobilization consists of two different tasks,
the identification of the driver and proving his identity, the authentication. Several cryptographic means are
applicable for driver authentication.
Knowledge
The authentication is based on the knowledge of a secret, for example a password or PIN (Personal
Identification Number) that has to be presented to proof the identity. For automotive applications any
method using a keyboard is unacceptable for most of the users. In addition the level of security is
unacceptable.
Biometrics
Biological attributes, such as fingerprints, voice, retinal or face patterns could theoretically be used
for authentication of the driver. However, the technical effort for such systems is still high compared to
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key-based immobilizers and not acceptable for automotive applications. In addition, the problem of renting
a car to someone else and emergency use of a vehicle becomes a critical issue.
Possession
Authentication by means of possession is the most common method and will also be widely spread
in future. The simplest implementation is the possession of a mechanical key. A much higher security is
offered if the key contains an electronic tag such as a transponder. To start the vehicle, the mechanical key
and the code in the transponder must match.
All cryptographic systems described above are based on static authentication procedures, that means
the security system of the car can verify the identity of the key but the electronics in the key cannot check
the identity of the communication partner. A mutual authentication procedure which also allows the key to
verify the identity of the communication partner is one feature that would improve the security level of thesystem.
A much higher level of security can be achieved with a simple symmetrical algorithm known as
challenge / response protocol. The security system of the vehicle can check the identity of the key by
sending a question (a challenge) and verifying the answer (response). The correct answer can only be given
if a secret is known that is shared by both partners. This challenge/response
concept has several advantages. During normal use, the secret is not exchanged and both challenge and
response vary from cycle to cycle.[7]
Standard Security Architectures using RFID
Various security systems using RFID transponders have been established on the market.
Fixed Code Systems are the most commonly used. During initialization, the controller learns
different identification codes stored in the transponders that belong to a vehicle. When the driver places the
ignition key in the lock cylinder, the fixed code in the transponder is read and compared to the codes stored
in the memory of the controller.
The level of security depends to a great extend on the type of transponder used. There are write once
transponders on the market which are delivered unprogrammed. Programming is done by the user.
Commercially available readers/writers allow to pick up the code in the transponder while away from the
vehicle and to program an unprogrammed unit. Thus a copy of the fixed code has been generated which
cannot be distinguished from the original. True Read Only systems on the market are factory programmed
with a unique identification number. These systems do not allow copies. However, it is possible to emulate
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the data signal on the radio frequency level. The effort to design an emulator is considerable and requires
RF design knowledge.
Rolling Code Systemsoperate in the same way as fixed code systems except that the secret code in
the key is only valid for a certain period of time, typically from one ignition cycle to the other. The System
Security Controller reprograms the transponder (which is a Read/Write type) periodically. The secret is
changed, but in terms of cryptographics the procedure is still a static authentication. To guarantee the
reliability of the system, resynchronization procedures have to be implemented in case the transponder
programming fails or the transponder is reprogrammed by mistake while away from the vehicle. Especially
these procedures for resynchronization are the most critical issues in such systems.
A simple mutual authentication can be provided by password protected transponders. The
transponder will deny access to the secret data information stored in its memory unless a password ispresented and thus the identity of the reader proven. The length of the password can vary depending on the
required security level. The password is usually transmitted in plain text and can be picked up or guessed if
the transponder is available. Depending on the length of the password, the time to guess the password can
vary from several minutes to several years. A limitation of the system is the total transaction time which can
be unacceptable for practical use in the application.
Combined Rolling Code / Password Systems can also be implemented using password protected
Secured Read Write Transponders. They provide a higher level of security.
Crypto Transponders
Crypto Transponders are the second generation of transponders for use in immobilizers. The new
generation of crypto transponders developed by Texas Instruments are based upon the TIRIS TM half
duplex RFID technology and are compatible to all standard RF interfaces of the TIRIS TM product range.
System Overview
The Digital Signature Transponder (DST) is a crypto device which offers the challenge/ response
functionality. During initialization, the vehicle security system and the transponder exchange a secret
encryption key. The key cannot be read out, only the transponder response to a challenge sent by the
transceiver can be read. In a typical application, the vehicle security system generates a 40 bit random
number (the challenge), and sends it to the transponder using Pulse Width Modulation (PWM). In the
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transponder the challenge is shifted into the challenge register. For a short period of time, energy is
provided by the transceiver and the encryption logic generates a 24 bit response (signature).
Fig. 4. Crypto
Transponder System
The response R is a function of the encryption key Ke , the challenge RAND and the cryptographic
algorithm Fc. R=f(Fc, RAND, Ke ).
The response is returned to the transceiver using Frequency Shift Keying (FSK).
The security system calculates the expected response using the same algorithm and the same
encryption key and compares the response received from the transponder to the calculated one. The
calculation of the expected response can be done simultaneously to the communication between
transponder and reader or after reception of the transponder response. If expected and calculated response
are equal, the information is sent to the engine management computer. In time critical applications, the
challenge and the response can be generated after immobilization and stored for the next cycle.
The advantages of this system are obvious:
Depending on the challenge the response is different every time. The authentication procedure is
dynamic.
No portion of the encryption key is ever transmitted after initialization of the transponder
The encryption key cannot be read out
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The transponder cannot be duplicated
The encryption key can be irreversibly locked or altered if desired.
The transponder is a complex logical and mechanical micro system designed to operate at very low
power. During energy transfer less than 1A is consumed by the transponder IC. This allows a capacitor to
be charged over a considerable distance within a reasonable amount of time, typically less than 50ms. Even
during the encryption process, the current consumption is below 16A. Therefore, the typical maximum
read range is comparable to standard Read Only systems.
Fig. 5. Plastic Wedge Transponder
Design Objectives
The Digital Signature Transponder was based on many established circuit blocks and assembly
techniques to ensure compatibility to existing transceiver hardware and to keep existing qualified automated
production lines.
Apart from the design challenges for the IC design:
Maintain low power consumption despite the large number of gates for encryption
Keep wiring of the encryption circuitry to a minimum
Keep chip size to a minimum,
A considerable effort has been spent to ensure
A high level of cryptographic security
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Fast transaction times for the challenge/response cycle
Low data processing effort for the encryption algorithm in the car security system
Reliability in the application in terms of highly sophisticated supervision circuitry in the
transponder.
Encryption
All encryption algorithms are theoretically breakable. An algorithm is computationally secure if it
cannot be broken within a reasonable amount of time respectively with reasonable resources. In this context
reasonable is open to interpretations. Current assumptions for attacks against immobilizer systems are:
The attacker will not spend more than five minutes in the vehicle
The key is not longer than ten days available for analysis
The key is not longer than ten days available for analysis
The attacker is familiar with cryptoanalytical techniques.
Dictionary attacks can be used if the key was available to the attacker for a
certain period of time to build a dictionary of challenge response pairs. In the vehicle, the attacker hopes for
a challenge that is already in his dictionary to reply with the correct response and start the engine.
Statistical calculations show that even if the key is available for 10 days and the dictionary is built at
a rate of four responses per second, the probability for a successful attack within five minutes in the car is
only 0.47%. Taking into consideration that this effort has to be repeated for each vehicle, it can be
understood that this method is uneconomic for the thief.
Cryptoanalysis makes use of the knowledge of the algorithm. Those attackers try to find amathematical solution to the problem of finding the encryption key with a limited amount of challenge
response pairs. The algorithm in the Digital Signature Transponder has been developed to frustrate these
cryptoanalytical methods.
Read/Write Crypto Transponder for Short Cycle Time
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The TK5561A-PP is a complete transponder integrating all important functions for immobilizer and
identification systems. It consists of a plastic cube which accommodates the crypto IC and the antenna
realized as tuned LC-circuit. It is a R/W crypto transponder for applications which demand higher security
levels than those which standard R/W transponders can fulfill. For this reason it has an additional
encryption algorithm block which enables a base station to authenticate the transponder. Any attempt to
fake the base station with a wrong transponder will be recognized immediately. For authentication, the base
station transmits a challenge to the transponder. This challenge is encrypted by both IC and base station
.Both should posses the same secret key. Only then the result can be expected to be equal. The on-chip 320
bit EEPROM(10 blocks of 32 bits)can be read and written blockwise by a base station Two or four blocks
contain the ID code and six memory blocks are used to store the crypto key as well as the read or write
options.125 kHz is the typical operational frequency of a system using this transponder.
Transponder Antenna
The antenna consists of a coil and a capacitor for tuning the circuit to the nominal carrier frequency
of 125kHz.The coil has a ferrite core for improving the distance of read, write and programming operations.
Fig. 6. Analog Front End (AFE)
The AFE includes all circuits directly connected to the coil. It generates the ICs power supply and
handles the bidirectional data communication with the base station. It consists of the following blocks:
Rectifiers to generate a DC supply voltage from the AC coil voltage
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Clock extractor.
Field gap detector for data transmission from the base station to the IC.
Controller
The controller has the following functions:
Control memory access.
Handle correct write data transmission.
Error detection and error handling.
Control encryption operation.
Control adaptation of resonance frequency.
Power on reset
It is a delay reset which is triggered when the supply voltage is applied.
Adapt
The IC is able to minimize the tolerance of the resonance frequency between the base station and the
transponder by on-chip capacitors in parallel to the LC circuit of the transponder.
Bitrate Generator
The bitrate generator can deliver bitrates of RF/32 and RF/64 for data transmission from the IC to
the base station.
Bit Decoder
The bit decoder forms the signals needed for write operation and decodes the received data bits in
the write data stream
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Modulator
The modulator consists of two data recorders. Manchester and biphase modulation are possible.
HV Generator
Voltage pump which generates about 18V for programming of the EEPROM.
Memory
The memory is a 320-bit EEPROM which is arranged in 10 blocks of 32 bits each. All 32 bits of a
block are programmed simultaneously. The programming voltage is generated on-chip.
Crypto Circuit
The crypto circuit uses an algorithm to encrypt the challenge which is written to the chip. The
computed result can be read by the base station. Comparing the encryption results of the base station and
the IC, a high security authentication procedure is established.[7]
Writing Data into the IC
A write sequence of the IC is shown below.
Writing data into the transponder occurs by interrupting the RF field with short gaps. After the start
gap the write op-code (10) is transmitted. The next 32 bits contain the actual data. The last 4 bits denote the
destination block address. If the correct number of bits has been received, the actual data is programmed
into the specified memory block. [7]
Fig. 7. Write protocol to program the EEPROM
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Write Data Decoding
The time elapsing between two detected gaps is used to encode the information. As soon as a gap is
detected, a counter starts counting the number of field clock cycles until the next gap will be detected.
Depending on how many field clocks elapse, the data is regarded as 0 or 1.The required number of field
clocks is shown in figure .A valid 0 is assumed if the number of counted clock periods is between 16 and
32, for a valid 1 it is 48 or 64 respectively. Any other value being detected results in an error and the
device exits write mode and returns to read mode.[7]
Fig. 8. Write data decoding scheme
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APPLICATIONS
Principle areas of applications of RFID include:
1. Transportation
2. Manufacturing and processing.
3. Security.[4]
Texas Instruments Radio Frequency Identification (TI-RFid) Systems has introduced its new RFID
tag for textile rental and dry cleaning applications. TI-RFid tags provide more accurate identification and
greater accountability as well as improved handling through each stage of cleaning and processing to final
customer delivery.
RFID system allows booksellers to gain such information as the range of books a shopper hasbrowsed, the number of times a particular title was picked up, and even the length of time spent flipping
through pages. Gillete ,Wal-Mart, and Tesco will install specially designed shelves that can read RF waves
emitted by microchips embedded in millions of their products. The shelves can scan the contents of the
shelves and, via computer, alert store employees when supplies are running low or when theft is detected.
[4]
RFID tags loaded with biometric information will be embedded in passports to ensure travelers comply
with security regulations.
RFID technology is also being used to improve luggage handling in airports.
Certain specific applications of RFID include:
1. Fleet management.
2. Inventory and asset management.
3. Warehouse automation.
4. Hazardous material management.
5. Packaging, security and access control.
6. Smart card payment systems.[4]
ADVANTAGES
RFID technology permits no line of sight reading.
Robustness and reliability under difficult environmental conditions.[5],[3]
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These tags can be read through water, snow, concrete, bricks, plastics, wood, and most non-
metallic materials
Available in a wide variety of physical forms, shapes, sizes and protective housings.
RFID tags can be read at very high speeds.
In most cases the response time is less than 100ms.
Difficulty in duplicating, offers a high degree of security. [5]
DISADVANTAGES
Cost
RFID solutions cost much higher than the conventional barcodes. A large fraction of its cost lies inthe software infrastructure and the enterprise application and integration[4]
Lack of standardization.
Standardization has not been provided across many fronts, ranging from the different data formats
used to interoperatability between RFID readers and tags from different vendors to interference between
RFID products from different manufacturers.[4],[2]
RFID will hurt privacy
RFID transponders are forever part of the product, and designed to respond when a signal is
received.[4],[1]
CONCLUSION
RFID tags will soon be tracking millions of consumer products worldwide. Manufacturers will
know the exact location of each product they make from the time it is made until it is used and tossed in the
recycle bin or trash can. The crypto transponders will be well suited for future generation vehicle entry
systems.[3]
The RFID tagging will take off when the cost of the tags drops to one percent of the cost of the
product it is applied to, and that date is somewhere near.
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2005 is the date that researchers say when radio frequency tagging becomes viable and until then,
we must wait and see.[8]
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REFERENCES
[1] Jay Warrior, Eric McHenry, Kenneth McGee, They know where you are, IEEE Spectrum, July
2003, pp.21-25
[2] Ankit Khare, RFID challenges barcoding, PC Quest, April 2003, pp.46
[3] Andy Emmerson, Tiny tags talk volumes, Everyday Practical Electronics, May 2001, pp.322
[4] Uma Gupta, RFID and beyond, Electronics For You, October 2003,
pp.36-40.
[5] Ulrich Kaiser, Wolfgang Steinhagen, A low-power transponder IC for high- performance
identification systems. IEEE Journal Of Solid-State Circuits.Vol.30, March 1995, pp306-310
[6] http://www.aimglobal.org
[7] http://www.ti.com[8] http://www.howstuffworks.com
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ABSTRACT
Long checkout lines at the grocery store are one of the biggest complaints about the shopping
experience. This is mainly due to the time consuming use of UPC barcodes. These codes act as product
fingerprints made of machine-readable parallel bars that store binary data.
Created in 1970s to speed up the checkout process, barcodes have certain disadvantages:
It is a read-only technology, which means it cannot send information.
It can easily be forged.
Barcode scanning is time consuming.
To overcome these, the barcodes are being replaced by smart labels, also called radiofrequency
identification tags.
RFID tags are intelligent barcodes that can literally talk to a networked system to track every
product that is bought.
The automotive industry also makes use of RFID batteryless transponders that offer a high level of
security at low cost. The theft of vehicles with electronic immobilizers decreased to about one-tenth
compared to those without immobilizers. This is based on the RFID technology.
RFID is a technology that uses radio signals for automatic identification by transmitting data in a
machine-readable form using radiofrequency as the carrier medium.
This paper gives an in-depth knowledge about RFID technology and its applications
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 1
TRANSPONDER 2
CLASSIFICATION OF TAGS 3
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READER/INTERROGATOR 6
RANGE AND POWER LEVELS 6
RFID SYSTEM 8
IMMOBILIZER SYSTEM 10
APPLICATIONS 23
ADVANTAGES 24
DISADVANTAGES 24
CONCLUSION 25
REFERENCES 26
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