Revolution Comes to Russia

Before the end of World War I, one of themajor Allied nations, Russia, dropped out of theconflict, suing for a separate peace with Germany.This serious move was made by the leaders of anew Russian government, which came to power in1917 through a revolution thatoverthrew the last of the Romanovleaders—TsarNicholas II (1894-1917).

This revolution brought acommunist-controlled governmentto power that year, that wouldbecome one of the significantpowers of the twentieth century.Russia would become part of alarger communist state knownas the United Soviet SocialistRepublics (U.S.S.R.), whichwould dominate much of worldforeign policy from 1917 until the collapse ofcommunism in the Soviet Union in 1991.

The story of Soviet-led communism is acomplicated one. For centuries prior to 1900, theRussian people had been led by a series of politicalmonarchs called tsars. Traditionally, such leaderswere autocratic, holding the majority of the Russianpeople in serfdom and poverty.

Throughout much of the nineteenth century,while many of the western European nations wereexpanding their economic base through the industrialrevolution, Russia lagged behind. Its people livedin extreme rural poverty. By the 1880s, however,Russia began to industrialize rapidly. Between1880 and 1900, Russian railroads were built, ironproduction increased six-fold, and coal productionexpanded from 3.6 million tons to nearly 18 million.But this economic development was inadequate.Even as late as 1914, Russia was still largely ruraland poor, having less foreign trade than even smallEuropean powers such as Belgium.

With a poor economy and a repressive tsar,political reformers began to demand change.Socialists rallied dissatisfied groups of workers,bringing Marxism to Russia. Such politicaldemonstrators and reformers formed the SocialDemocratic Party in Russia in 1898. By 1903,this socialist party split between two factions. The

Mensheviks believed that Russia needed seriouspolitical reform and economic change in the form ofa socialist revolution of the working class (those thewriter Karl Marx had referred to as the proletariat.)The other group, the Bolsheviks, did not favor

liberal reforms, but wanted tooverthrow the tsarist governmentby whatever means necessary.One significant Bolshevik leaderwas Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924).

In 1905, Russia witnessed aspontaneous uprising of workers,most of whom wanted to forcethe tsar to invoke politicalreforms. When a demonstratingmob marched on the tsar'swinter palace, Russian troopsloyal to Nicholas II fired upon

its members. The incident became known as BloodySunday. Under such pressure, Nicholas relented.

He created an elected body of advisors called aDuma. When this step did not satisfy the workers, thetsar yielded again and granted the Duma legislativepowers. Nicholas also expanded personal civilrights for many of his people. Yet socialist radicalswere not satisfied. Revolts continued throughout1905, led by the urban working class and by ruralpeasants. Ultimately, these protests failed to bringfurther concessions from the tsar. In fact, by 1906,Nicholas renounced his reforms and announced theFundamental Laws, which reinstated his tyrannicalpower and limited the powers of the Duma. Socialistsand other reformers gained little ground in the yearsbetween 1906 and the beginning of World War I.

However, the war changed much for Russiaand for the future of Tsar Nicholas. Unable to keepRussian soldiers clothed, armed, and fed, the warhad a demoralizing effect on the Russian people.Nearly 10 million Russians were sent to fight andapproximately 1.5 million deserted. The Russianeconomy was on the brink of collapse. The tsar wasgrowing desperate as political agitators at home,critical of his war effort, gained in popularity.

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The Rise of Russian Communism

The years of Russian involvement in World WarI caused great strains at home. The war caused theRussian economy to spiral out of control. Politically,the war caused the tsar's government to become arevolving door for advisers. Between 1915 and 1917,the tsar appointed and replaced four prime ministers,six ministers of the interior, and four war ministers.

To add to the unpopularity of the tsar's rule, astrange, mystical monk named Grigori Rasputin[ras POO tin] (1872-1916) wasaccused of controlling the tsarand his family. Russians hatedRasputin, whom the tsar's wife,Alexandra, adored. (He claimed tohave the power to heal, a "talent"he used to treat the tsar's youngson, who was a hemophiliac.)This odd man began to extend hisinfluence over the tsar and tsarinaby meddling in political affairs.He even advised Nicholas on whatministers to select. (Rasputin wasso despised, he was assassinatedin 1916 by Russian noblemen whowere fearful that his unpopularitywould cause the downfall of the tsar.)

But Tsar Nicholas was doomed. In March1917, Russia witnessed a spontaneous outbreakof rioting and bread strikes throughout the streetsof St. Petersburg. Within days, Russian troopsmutinied. A week after the beginning of the breadriots, Tsar Nicholas abdicated his throne, turning thegovernment over to leaders selected from the Duma,headed by a moderate liberal nobleman namedPrince George Lvov (1861-1925). Other key leadersincluded Alexander Kerensky (1881-1970). Thisprovisional government promised civil liberties andother social changes.

In no time, the new government faced rivals,especially the Mensheviks and the Bolsheviks. Theleader of the Bolsheviks was Vladimir Ulianov,known as V. I. Lenin (1870-1924). When the tsarruled, Lenin had remained in exile in Switzerland formost of the time between 1900 and 1917. (When thetsar abdicated, German leaders shipped Lenin backto Russia, in hopes that he would lead a Russianrevolution and sue for a separate peace, giving the

Grigori Rasputin

Germans the opportunity to concentrate their wareffort on the western front, rather than having tofight a two-front war.)

Lenin arrived in Russia in time to open a newstage in the Russian Revolution. He spoke at rallies,encouraging Bolshevism, an end to the war, land forthe poor, and worker control of industry. When theBolsheviks attempted taking control of the Russiangovernment in the summer of 1917, they failed,

and Lenin left Russia for Finlandonce more. In September, whenthe military attempted a takeoverof the government, the provisionalgovernment fought them with helpfrom the Bolsheviks themselves.In November, the Bolsheviksoverthrew the provisionalgovernment.

A new Russian governmentwas formed on November 7, calledthe Russian Congress of Soviets.The leaders of this revolution wereLenin, a close associate, Leon

Trotsky (1879-1940), and JosephStalin (1879-1953). By December,

Russia and Germany had agreed to quit the fighting,and by March 1918, the two sides agreed to theTreaty of Brest-Litovsk, under which Russia lostone-third of its farmland, half its industry, and ninetypercent of its coal mines.

Despite taking Russia out of the Great War,Lenin soon found himself and his fellow Bolsheviksat war with other Russian forces opposed toCommunism, in a civil war which lasted from1918 to 1921. The Bolshevik (or Red) Armyfought primarily the White (anti-Bolshevik) forces.Ultimately, it was a war won by the forces of Lenin.

By 1921, the Communist forces of Lenin hadgained complete control of Russia, as well as theUkraine, Siberia, White Russia, and Trans-Caucasia.In 1922, the Communists established the Union ofSoviet Socialist Republics. Over the next sixty years,Soviet Communism attempted to spread its influencethroughout the world, proving a threat to free stateseverywhere.

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