revised as on 27th oct 2012 ph.d. rakesh kumar.doc

8/10/2019 Revised as on 27th Oct 2012 Ph.D. Rakesh Kumar.doc

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Human Security and Civil SocietyConcepts and Implications in Dark Continent

Dr. Rakesh Kumar

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Dedicatedto

My Parents

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My present dissertation work is my earnest approach towards

perfection and it would not have been possible without the

admirable support, kind co-operation, and active participation of my

teachers, friends and well wishers who have made this research

work a reality.

I am extremely grateful to my respected supervisor Dr. A. .

!aringum whose able guidance, intellectual ingenuity and avid

suggestion helped me in completing this academic exercise.

I am also indebted to all the faculty members of our Departmentwho shaped my thought and knowledge. I also got support from Dr.

"ribhuwn #rasad, Dr. uresh $umar, Dr. %ashmi $apoor and all the

faculty members of our department. I am also thankful to our

Department sta& for their cooperation.

May 'od relieve my parents( pain that shaped my destination in a

positive direction without whose support it would not have been

possible for me to arrive at this highest centre of excellence.

I am thankful to all sta& of Delhi )niversity *ibrary, +awaharlal

ehru )niversity *ibrary, Indian ouncil of orld A&airs and

Institute of Defence tudies and Analysis /IDA0 library, without

whose support this work would not have been completed.

I am thankful to my Abhishek, hailesh, Dharmendra, Dibya,

Arshad, %a1endra, Duregsh, ankar, Ashok, %obinson, $anhiya, whoalways extended all kinds of support in every possible way in my

endeavour to complete this work.

2aving been privileged in receiving such love and support, I own

responsibility for all the errors or omissions that might have crept

into the work.

Dr. %akesh $umar

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CONTENTS

Chapter Pae No

!. "ntroduction !!#$%

&. "ntroduction o' Human Security and Civil Society $!#((

$. Human Security and Civil Society in )'rica (*#!&(

+. Human Security and Civil Society in ,ots-ana !&*#!*

/. Human Security as Human Development in ,ots-ana !*0#&%+(. Conclusion &%/#&!!

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1ist o' )22reviations

ADF------------------Allied Democratic Forces (Uganda)

AGOA --------------Arican Gro!t" and O##ort$nit% Act

A&' ----------------Arican &$man 'ec$rit% nitiatie

A*+, ---------------Arican *eer +eie! ,ec"anism

AU -------------------Arican Union

A.A---------------ots!ana Ad$lt .d$cation Association

D/---------------o0onong rigades Deelo#ment /r$st

-----------------ots!ana "ristian o$ncil

D-----------------ots!ana o$ncil or t"e Disa0led

F/U---------------ots!ana Federation o /rade Union

GGA--------------ots!ana Girl G$ides Association

--------------ots!ana ational o$t" o$ncil

OA*-----------ots!ana "ristian AD' nterention *rogram

O,----------ots!ana onederation o ommerce nd$str% and ,an#o!er

OOGO-------ots!ana o$ncil o onGoernmental Organiations

OA'O----------ots!ana et!or o AD' 'erice Organiations

O.A----------ots!ana et!or on .t"ics a! and &9AD'

:O----------------ots!ana :orcam# Organiation

O+D.------------o-o#eration or +esearc" Deelo#ment and .d$cation

+D.---------------oo#eratie or +esearc" Deelo#ment and .d$cation

'&DO----------omm$nit% 'el-&el# Deelo#ment Organiation o ots!ana

'O -----------------iil 'ociet% Organisation

D':--------------De#artment o $lt$re and 'ocial :elare

DFD ---------------De#artment or nternational Deelo#ment (U;)

D+ ----------------Democratic +e#$0lic o ongo

.:A--------------.mang asadi :omen


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+A ----------------ord$e de ?te d


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Chapter3 One

"ntroduction

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"ntroduction

&$man 'ec$rit% is #o#$laried 0% instit$tions s$c" as t"e United ation

Deelo#ment *rogramme (UD*) 0% t"e goernments o so called middle #o!ers

(anada Ea#an and or!a%) and 0% a o0el *rie !inning academic s$c" as

Amart%a 'en &$man sec$rit% conce#t rame!or area o st$d% or #olic% agenda

remains #oorl% consens$all% deined or delineated .ac" actor and academic

#roesses "is o!n deinition !"ic" leads +oland *aris to #roess t"at t"e content o

"$man sec$rit% reall% is in t"e e%e o t"e 0e"olderH Dr ,a"0$0 $l &a> irst dre!

glo0al attention to t"e conce#t o "$man sec$rit% in t"e United ations Deelo#ment*rogrammeIs 1==4 &$man Deelo#ment +e#ort and so$g"t to inl$ence t"e UIs

1==5 :orld '$mmit on 'ocial Deelo#ment in o#en"agen /"e UD*Is 1==4

&$man Deelo#ment +e#ortIs deinition o "$man sec$rit% arg$es t"at t"e sco#e o

glo0al sec$rit% s"o$ld 0e eJ#anded to incl$de t"reats in seen areasK .conomic

sec$rit% Food 'ec$rit% &ealt" 'ec$rit% omm$nit% 'ec$rit% *olitical 'ec$rit%

.nironmental 'ec$rit% and *ersonal 'ec$rit% 4S. Neil 5ac6ralane and 7en 6oon

Khon8 &%%(9.

&$man sec$rit% is an emerging #aradigm or $nderstanding glo0al $lnera0ilities

!"ose #ro#onents c"allenge t"e traditional notion o national sec$rit% 0% arg$ing t"at

t"e #ro#er reerent or sec$rit% s"o$ld 0e t"e indiid$al rat"er t"an t"e state &$man

sec$rit% "olds t"at a #eo#le-centered ie! o sec$rit% is necessar% or national

regional and glo0al sta0ilit% /"e conce#t emerged rom a #ost-old :ar m$lti-

disci#linar% $nderstanding o sec$rit% inoling a n$m0er o researc" ields

incl$ding deelo#ment st$dies international relations strategic st$dies and "$man

rig"ts /"e United ations Deelo#ment *rogrammeIs 1==4 &$man Deelo#ment

+e#ort is considered a milestone #$0lication in t"e ield o "$man sec$rit% !it" its

arg$ment t"at ins$ring Lreedom rom !antL and Lreedom rom earL or all #ersons

is t"e 0est #at" to tacle t"e #ro0lem o glo0al insec$rit% Fre>$entl% reerred to in a

!ide ariet% o glo0al #olic% disc$ssions and sc"olarl% Mo$rnals "$man sec$rit% is

oten ta$g"t in $niersities as #art o international relations glo0aliation or "$man

rig"ts st$dies

&istoricall% t"e idea o ciil societ% taes t!o er% im#ortant orms n t"e irst ciil

societ% is #olitical comm$nit% encom#assing a state $ndierentiated rom societ%&ere ciil societ% is cotermino$s !it" t"e stateN t"at is #o!er relations ordered

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#rod$ction and amil% lie on t"e one "and and #olitical and militar% a$t"orit% on

t"e ot"er "and :it" t"e dissol$tion o e$dal relation t"ese t!o areas o social lie

0ecome more clearl% demarcated in modern conditions as societ%< and state


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coo#eratie serice organiations comm$nit% gro$#s and %o$t" organiations as

!ell as academic instit$tions and ot"er (http3::---.undp.or9.

O$tside o Arica ciil societ% deelo#ment "as oten "as oten #receded

democratiation and #roided t"e im#et$s or esta0lis"ing elections as !ell as t"e

leaders"i# and reco$rses or #olitical #arties contesting t"ese elections :it" t"eeJce#tion o 'o$t" Arica and #ossi0le Cim0a0!e t"e emergence o ciil societ% "as

t"$s ar 0een minimal in Arica 'ocial organiations are too !ea to 0ring do!n

a$t"oritarian regimes olonial r$le did not c"ange t"e relations"i# 0et!een

ots!ana state and ciil societ% /"e ritis" #erceied t"e c"ie and "eadman as t"e

#rimar% re#resentaties o /s!ana #o#$lation een incor#orating t"e c"ie on an

adisor% co$ncil at one #oint /"e traditional a$t"orities also sered as goernment$are ilometres a0o$t t"e sie o France or ;en%a /"e enironment is mostl% arid

and 84P o t"e co$ntr% is ;ala"ari sand s$##orting t"orn 0$s" saannas egetation

8P o t"e #o#$lation lies in a long stri# in t"e east o t"e co$ntr% along t"e line o

rail !"ic" lins 'o$t" Arica !it" Cim0a0!e and !as originall% 0$ild 0% +"odes

ritis" 'o$t" Arica om#an% A0o$t 4P o all t"e land can 0e easil% c$ltiatedN t"e

0$l o land incl$ding t"e desert areas is rangeland s$ita0le or seasonal graing

/"e ancestors o t"e modern /s!ana tri0es migrated into t"e area o modern da%

ots!ana in t"e eig"teent" cent$r% rom t"e so$t"-east (modern 'o$t" Arica) and

are closel% related to t"e asot"o o modern da% esot"o (ant"ro#ologists reer to

/s!ana-'ot"o lang$age and c$lt$re) /"e% con>$ered t"e indigeno$s 'an and ot"er

tri0es !"o !ere 0asicall% amalgamated into t"e /s!ana % 18s seeral related

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/s!ana societies !ere esta0lis"ed and oer time ne! ones !ere created as gro$#s

0roe a!a% rom t"e eJisting ones For instance t"e ang!ato res$lted rom a s#lit

in t"e a!ena and t"e ata!ana !as created as a res$lt o a s#lit in t"e ang!ato

'eeral eat$res o /s!ana #olitical and economic organiation stand o$t /"e c"ie

!as t"e central #olitical ig$re in t"ese societies !it" #o!er to allocate land or

graing cro#s and residences &is a$t"orit% !as eJercised t"ro$g" a "ierarc"% o

relaties and oicials and !ard "eadmen A s#ecial t%#e o !ard !as or o$tsiders

!"o t"e /s!ana amalgamated into t"eir tri0al str$ct$res Alongside t"is "ierarc"%

!as a series o #$0lic or$ms /"e gotla !as an assem0l% o ad$lt males in !"ic"

iss$es o #$0lic interest !ere disc$ssed ot" !ards and t"e !"ole societ% itsel "ad

gotlasand t"o$g" t"e% !ere s$##osed to 0e adisor% t"e% seem to "ae 0een an

eectie !a% or commoners to criticie t"e ing /"e% also !ere t"e en$e !"ere

t"e ing "eard co$rt cases and la! !as dis#ensed

/o stim$late ind$str% t"e goernment introd$ced in 1=7 t"e ots!ana Deelo#ment

or#oration and in 1=82 t"e% created t"e Financial Assistance *olic% to s$0sidie

ind$strial ent$res /"o$g" t"ese "ae not led to large scale ind$strialiation it is

signiicant t"at man$act$ring as 5P !"ic" >$ite an ac"ieement is gien t"e

dominance o reso$rces in t"e econom% As eit" notes t"e gro!t" o t"e ots!ana

econom% is not sim#l% a stor% o a mineral enclae !it" an eer gro!ing

Goernment attac"ed to a stagnating traditional econom%H n general nearl% eer%

as#ect o ots!ana economic #erormance is s#ectac$lar nlation "as rarel% 0eena0oe 1P inestment "as 0een 0et!een 2P and 3P o GD* and t"ere "as 0een

"$ge inestment in "$man ca#ital /"e 0alance o #a%ments "as t%#icall% 0een in

s$r#l$s and t"ere are large acc$m$lated reseres /"e goernment "as not needed t"e

serices o t"e nternational ,onetar% F$nd or :orld an /"o$g" t"is gro!t" #at"

"as 0een $elled 0% diamonds t"e income rom !"ic" "as largel% accr$ed directl% to

t"e goernment t"ese reso$rces rents "ae 0een inested

Political Security

*olitics o ots!ana taes #lace in a rame!or o a #residential re#resentatie

democratic re#$0lic !"ere0% t"e *resident o ots!ana is 0ot" "ead o state and

"ead o goernment and o a m$lti-#art% s%stem .Jec$tie #o!er is eJercised 0% t"e

goernment egislatie #o!er is ested in 0ot" t"e goernment and t"e *arliament

o ots!ana 'ince inde#endence t"e #art% s%stem is dominated 0% t"e ots!ana

Democratic *art% /"e E$diciar% is inde#endent o t"e eJec$tie and t"e legislat$re

ots!ana is ormall% a m$lti#art% constit$tional democrac% .ac" o t"e elections

since inde#endence in 'e#tem0er 1=66 "as 0een reel% and airl% contested and "as

0een "eld on sc"ed$le /"e co$ntr%Is small !"ite minorit% and ot"er minorities

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#artici#ate reel% in t"e #olitical #rocess /"ere are t!o main rial #arties and a

n$m0er o smaller #arties &o!eer ots!ana is also a dominant #art% state in t"at

t"e ots!ana Democratic *art% "as neer lost #o!er since inde#endence 'ome

arg$e t"at t"e o#enness o t"e co$ntr%Is #olitical s%stem "as 0een a signiicant actor

in ots!anaIs sta0ilit% and economic gro!t" General elections are "eld at least eer%

ie %ears /"ere are a n$m0er o o##osition #arties and dissenting oices are "eard

and isi0le in t"e media .lections in t"e co$ntr% are re#orted to meet international

standards o ree and air elections t"o$g" t"ere !ere some com#laints made 0%

o##osition mem0ers a0o$t $ne>$al access to state o!ned teleision d$ring t"e

cam#aigning #rocess in t"e election /"ere is a i0rant comm$nit% o ciil societ%

organiations in ots!ana /"ese organiations are come $nder ots!ana o$ncil o

on-Goernment Organiations Alt"o$g" ciil societ% is >$ite actie ocal

criticism o t"e goernment is relatiel% rare n recent %ears it "as 0ecome

increasingl% diic$lt or non-goernment organiation to o0tain international

$nding d$e to t"e de#art$re o donors as a res$lt o co$ntr%


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and mining is #roMected to 0egin 0% 21 'eeral international mining cor#orations

"ae #ros#ected in ots!ana or diamonds gold $rani$m co##er and een oil

Health Security

&o!eer economic deelo#ment s#ending !as c$t 0% 1P in 22-23 as a res$lto rec$rring 0$dget deicits and rising eJ#endit$re on "ealt"careserices ots!ana

"as 0een "it er% "ard 0% t"e AD' e#idemicN t"e aerage lie eJ#ectanc% in

ots!ana at 0irt" 1==K 64 %ears 25K 34 %ears /"is is 0arel% "al t"e 5=-%ear

aerage or lo!-income co$ntries and ots!ana residents along !it" t"ose o

'!ailand "ae t"e s"ortest aerage lies#anin t"e !orld A##roJimatel% one in siJ

ats!ana"as & giing ots!ana t"e second "ig"est & inection rate in t"e

!orld ater '!ailand /"e goernment recognies t"at &9AD' !ill aect t"e

econom% and is tr%ing to com0at t"e e#idemic incl$ding ree Anti-retroiral dr$gtreatment and a nation-!ide *reention o ,ot"er to "ild /ransmission #rogram

ots!ana "as made Mo0 creation a to# #riorit% o goernment #lanning in t"e #ast e!

%ears Alt"o$g" em#lo%ment rates "ae gro!n $nem#lo%ment is ormall% estimated

at 21P 0$t is closer to 4P in $noicial estimates in 22 /"e goernment "as a

long-standing #olic% o #romoting "$man ca#ital deelo#ment and "ealt" care All

ed$cation t"ro$g" t"e $niersit% leel is ree 0$t 3P o t"e #o#$lation oer 15 in

22 !as illiterate Great im#ortance is #laced on t"e deelo#ment o r$ral areas so

as to red$ce r$ral-$r0an migration n lig"t o t"e limited reso$rces ots!anaIsgoernment no! ollo!s Lood sec$rit%L agric$lt$ral #olic% o #romoting onl% t"ose

oodst$s !"ic" can 0e gro!n economicall%

ots!anaIs long-term economic #ros#ects are "ig"l% de#endent on 'o$t" Arica and

its ot"er 'o$t"ern Arican neig"0o$rs /"e goernment "as 0een a strong #ro#onent

o economic integration among t"e o$rteen mem0ers o t"e 'o$t"ern Arican

Deelo#ment omm$nit% ('AD) /"e organiationIs 2 /rade *rotocol called or

t"e elimination o all tari and nontari 0arriers to trade 0% 212 among t"e 11

co$ntries signing t"e #rotocol ots!ana "as 0een rated t"e least-corr$#t co$ntr% in

Arica according to /rans#arenc% nternational /"e co$ntr% aims to diersi% its

econom% a!a% rom minerals and ecoto$rism is 0eing #romoted ots!ana "as 0een

a ictim o t"e &9AD' #andemic and t"e goernment "as taen ste#s to tacle t"e

ir$s t"ro$g" #reention #rograms and t"e #roision o adanced dr$g t"era#ies to

t"ose inected n 23 t"e ational Deelo#ment *lan ine !as ort"coming $nder

!"ic" economic deelo#ment #roMects !ere d$e to 0e t$rned oer to t"e #riate

sector

Community Security

1=
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIDShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_expectancyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_life_expectancyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tswanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIVhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiretroviral_drughttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIDShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_expectancyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_life_expectancyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tswanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIVhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiretroviral_drug


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/raditional ie!s o male dominance are #erasie in ots!ana $stomar% la!

allo!s men to #"%sicall% #$nis" t"eir !ies or !rongdoings and s#o$sal a0$se is

common 'eJ$al "arassment ra#e and ot"er iolence against !omen are !ides#read

:omen are accorded t"e same ciil rig"ts as men 0$t $nder traditional marriage

la!s t"e% re>$ire t"eir "$s0andsI consent to 0$% or sell #ro#ert% o0tain a loan or

sign a contract /"ere are legal #roisions "o!eer t"at allo! !omen to marr% Lo$t

o common #ro#ert%L and t"ere0% retain t"eir legal rig"ts *ol%gam% is legal 0$t is

not !idel% #racticed :"ile et"nic minorities are not s$0Mect to discrimination some

gro$#s remain marginalied and $nderre#resented in goernment &$man rig"ts are

generall% res#ected in ots!ana &o!eer t"ere are still re#orts o a0$sie #olice

tactics and #rison conditions remain #oor

Personal and 6ood Security

.ac" %ear since 1== t"e &$man Deelo#ment +e#ort "as #$0lis"ed t"e "$man

deelo#ment indeJ !"ic" loos 0e%ond GD* to a 0roader deinition o !ell-0eing

/"e &D #roides a com#osite meas$re o t"ree dimensions o "$man deelo#mentK

liing a long and "ealt"% lie (meas$red 0% lie eJ#ectanc%) 0eing ed$cated

(meas$red 0% ad$lt literac% and enrolment at t"e #rimar% secondar% and tertiar%

leel) and "aing a decent standard o liing (meas$red 0% #$rc"asing #o!er #arit%

*** income) /"e indeJ is not in an% sense a com#re"ensie meas$re o "$man

deelo#ment t does not or eJam#le incl$de im#ortant indicators s$c" as gender orincome ine>$alit% and more diic$lt to meas$re indicators lie res#ect or "$man

rig"ts and #olitical reedoms :"at it does #roide is a 0roadened #rism or ie!ing

"$man #rogress and t"e com#leJ relations"i# 0et!een income and !ell-0eing /"e

&D or ots!ana is 654 !"ic" gies t"e co$ntr% a ran o 124 t" o$t o 177

co$ntries 4;NDP Human Development Report &%%*:%9.

Revie- o' 1iteratures

Shahr2anou Tad=2akhsh8 )nuradha 5 Chenoy8 4&%%(98 Human SecurityConcepts and Implications,Routlede8 1ondon and Ne- 7ork.

/"is 0oo traces t"e e% eol$tions in t"e deelo#ment o t"e conce#t o "$man

sec$rit% t"e ario$s deinitions and criti>$es "o! it relates to ot"er conce#ts and

!"at it im#lies or #olities #olitics and #olic% &$man sec$rit% is an im#ortant

s$0Mect or t"e !"ole !orld in #artic$lar Asia as it deals !it" interactions among

ields o social c"ange s$c" as deelo#ment conlict resol$tion "$man rig"ts and

"$manitarian assistance n a glo0aliing !orld in !"ic" t"reats 0ecome trans-national and states lose #o!er sec$rit% can no longer 0e st$died in a one-dimensional

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as"ion :ritten 0% a$t"ors !"o are eJ#erts in t"is ield and !it" case st$dies rom

dierent regions #resented t"ro$g"o$t t"is 0oo contri0$tes to t"is ne!

m$ltidimensional conce#tion o sec$rit% anal%es its strengt"s and !eanesses and

oc$ses on its im#lications or anal%sis and action

Heather Deaar8 4&%%098 Africa Today: culture, economic, religion, security8

Rouutlede8 1ondon and Ne- 7ork.

/"is 0oo disc$ssed a0o$t t"e contem#orar% #ro0lems acing Arica /"e 0oo

contains detail disc$ssion a0o$t t"e deelo#ment democrac% terrorism as !ell as

diseases and "$man sec$rit% /"e 0oo "as $se deelo#ment indicators rom

international organisations lie United ations One o t"e c"a#ter o t"is 0oo gae

s#ecial em#"asis on "$man sec$rit% !"ic" is er% inormatie /"e 0oo is er%

$se$l or m% researc" !or

Caroline Thomas and Peter >ilkin 4eds.98 4!00098 Globalisation, Human Security

and the African !perience""" ,oulder3 1ynne Reinner Pu2lications.

/"is 0oo aims to eJ#lore sec$rit% rom a "$man #ers#ectie (as o##osed to t"e more

ort"odoJ state #ers#ectie) and to ill$strate t"is #ers#ectie 0% dra!ing on case

material rom s$0-'a"aran AricaL !it" t"e o0Mectie to "el# generate Lan alternatiede0ate and $nderstanding o sec$rit% in a glo0al econom% /"e "$man sec$rit%

#ers#ectie is #$t or!ard as emanici#ator% oc$sing on t"e "o$se"old (as o##osed

to t"e neo-li0eral indiid$al) and collectiit% (rat"er t"an indiid$al maret c"oice)

t centers on 0ot" 0asic s$rial needs and li0eration rom o##ressie str$ct$res as

necessar% or "$man sec$rit% roadl% s#eaing t"is a##roac" is designed to

encom#ass non-conentional concerns s$c" as ecolog% "$man rig"ts and social

ca#ital

Elliot8 Carolyn 5. 4&%%*98 Civil Society and Democracy3 ) Reader8 O?'ord

;niversity Press.

/"is 0oo disc$sses t"e idea o ciil societ% and its relations"i# !it" democrac% and

goernance in ndia t eJ#lores "o! t"e conce#t o ciil societ% deelo#ed in

!estern tradition o #olitical t"o$g"t and com#ares ndia


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@hils8 Paul8 International Ci#il Society: International $on%go#ernmental

&rgani'ation in the International System, "nternational Social Science Aournal,

Bolume ++8 No.!$$ 4)uust !00&98 pp +!*#+$!

/"is article deals a0o$t t"e role and $nction o international non-goernmental

organiation in deelo#ment sector /"e article contains a lot o inormation a0o$tinternational non-goernmental organiation regarding t"eir origin $nding

categoriation !oring !it" goernment and acco$nta0ilit% /"ese international non-

goernmental organiations are !oring !it" sometime goernment and sometime

against goernment /"is article also #oint o$t t"e contradiction 0et!een

international non-goernmental organiations !it" local non-goernmental

organiation

5olustsi8 Patrick P. Holm Aohn D.8De#eloping Democracy (hen Ci#il Society is(eak: The Case of )ots*ana, )'rican )''airs8 Bolume 08 No.$/( 4Auly!00%98

pp.$&$#$+%

/"is article$e /"e% are to 0e o$nd in een t"ose co$ntries !"ic" are la0eled more

#rogressie s$c" as /anania and 'enegal o#ing !it" t"ese #ro0lems is a realit% o

democratic deelo#ment in Arica

Holm8 Aohn D 5olusti8 Patric P Somolekae8 @loria8 The De#elopment of Ci#il

Society in a Democratic State: The )ots*ana +odel, )'rican Studies Revie-8

Bolume $08 No.&. 4Septem2er !00(98 pp +$#(0

/"is article "as !ritten a0o$t #olitics in t"e #re-colonial colonial and #ostinde#endence #eriod reoled aro$nd elite com#etition oc$sed on #ersonal

comm$nal and intra- 0$rea$cratic str$ggles t"is conlict !as not drien 0%

a$tonomo$s social organiation co$ld organie to inl$ence goernment #olic% iil

societ% in ots!ana can 0est 0e descri0ed as moing rom intermittent actiit% to

instit$tionalied str$ct$res /"is deelo#ment is more adanced in gro$#s enMo%ing a

geogra#"ic concentration o mem0ers"i# #ermanent sta reg$lar circ$lation o

leaders"i# close association !it" similar organiation in neig"0oring states and

minimal goernment reg$lation Gro$#s !it"o$t t"ese c"aracteristics are more liel%to oc$s on rec$rring reials o dormant str$ct$res

22


23/217

Terrance Carroll ,ar2ara >ake Carroll8 The rapid emergence of ci#il society in

)ots*ana, Common-ealth Comparative Politics, Bolume +&8 "ssue $

4Novem2er &%%+98 pp.$$$#$//

iil societ% !as almost noneJistent in ots!ana in t"e late 1=8s 0$t it deelo#ed

eJtraordinaril% ra#idl% in sie and inl$ence in t"e decade t"at ollo!ed % t"e t$rno t"e cent$r% ots!ana "ad an actie i0rant and inl$ential ciil societ% /"ere are

t!o im#ortant modiications to t"e conentional conce#tion o ciil societ% t"at

increase its $tilit% in ots!ana and in man% ot"er deelo#ing co$ntries t t"en

identiies actors t"at #ermitted t"e ra#id emergence o ciil societ% in t"at co$ntr%

and it anal%ses t"e conse>$ences o s$c" a ra#id gro!t" /"e $t$re #ros#ects o ciil

societ% in ots!ana and a disc$ssion o t"e eJtent to !"ic" its eJ#erience ma% 0e

releant to ot"er deelo#ing co$ntries

)rea o' Study

/"e researc" !o$ld anal%sis o "$man sec$rit% and ciil societ% o Arican continent

in general and #artic$lar o ots!ana /"e researc" "as coered t"e t"eoretical

as#ects o &$man 'ec$rit% and iil 'ociet% :"% Arica "ae #oor &$man 'ec$rit%

and !ea ciil societ%R :"at is t"e stat$s o &$man 'ec$rit% in Arica in general and

ots!ana in #artic$larR /"e area o researc" !ill coer Arica in general and main

oc$s !ill on ots!ana

Relevance and Scope o' Study

/"ese da%s "$man sec$rit% is er% signiicant in nation state de0ate eca$se o

democratiation t"e co$ntr% #ro0lem o "$mans are not sole 'o t"ese da%s "$man

sec$rit% is more im#ortant in com#arison to inde#endence soereignt% /"e main aim

o an% st$d% is to gat"ering inormation a0o$t o &$man 'ec$rit% and iil 'ociet%

in Arica in general and !it" #artic$lar to ots!ana /"en t"e inormation ma% 0e

$se as $rt"er st$d% as !ell as #roiding #ro#er sol$tions i t"ere eJits some t%#e o#ro0lems n t"is st$d% m% aim is to searc" a0o$t ots!ana


24/217

Hypothesis

n centralied state lie ots!ana t"e roles o actie ciil societ% are

signiicant or ostering &$man 'ec$rit%

n s#ite o #olitical sta0ilit% in ots!ana t"e stat$s o "$man sec$rit% is not ingood #osition

n international #olitics "$man sec$rit% iss$e is $se as 0argain #olitical !ea#on

or Arican co$ntries 0% !estern co$ntries

&$man sec$rit% is more im#ortant or Arican co$ntries in com#arison to

national sec$rit%

Research O2=ectives

1 /o anal%sis t"e reasons 0e"ind Arican co$ntries "ae #oor national sec$rit% as

!ell as "$man sec$rit%R

2 :"% "as ots!ana !ea "$man sec$rit% in s#ite o strong national sec$rit%

eJits t"ereR

3 /"e "$man sec$rit% concern initiated !it" t"e emergence o ciil societ% in

late 1==


25/217

Research 5ethodoloy

/"e st$d% "as 0een 0ased on #rimaril% 0ased on secondar% so$rces o inormation

/"e inormation "as gat"er t"ro$g" dierent 0oos articles Mo$rnals goernment!e0sites dissertation as !ell as t"esis /"e st$d% "as also anal%ed t"e data o United

ation Deelo#ment *rogramme +e#ort as !ell as Glo0al iil 'ociet% +e#ort

!"ic" is #$0lis"ed rom ondon &istorical anal%tical descri#tie met"ods "ae also

a##lied in t"is st$d% /"is anal%sis o t"ese so$rces s"all 0e done 0% 0ot" ind$ctie

and ded$ctie met"ods

Chapteriation

!. "ntroduction

/"is c"a#ter !ill disc$ss a0o$t t"e origin o &$man 'ec$rit% since t"e re#ort

o United ations Deelo#ment *rogramme 1==4 to ontem#orar% #eriod t

also ela0orates o "$man sec$rit% in dierent sc"ool o t"o$g"ts lie UD*

and anadian 'c"ool &o! "$man sec$rit% is dierent rom traditional

sec$rit% /"is c"a#ter !ills also anal%sis t"e origin o ciil societ% in t"ird

!orld co$ntries :"at are t"e dierent #erce#tions o #olitical t"iners a0o$t

ciil societ%R :"at are its relations"i#s !it" stateR :"at are t"e nat$res ociil societ%R s ciil societ% #roiding deelo#ment s$##ort to stateR /"is

c"a#ter !ill deal t"eoretical as#ects o "$man sec$rit% as !ell as ciil societ%

&. Human Security and Civil Society in )'rica

/"is c"a#ter !ill st$d% a0o$t t"e general stat$s o "$man sec$rit% and ciil

societ% in Arican continent :"% Arican states "ae !ea ciil societ% as

!ell as "$man sec$rit%R /"e c"a#ter !ill disc$ss a0o$t ciil societ% in Arica

rom dierent #ers#ectie lie colonial and #rotectorate s%stem n t"is sectionst$d% !ill relate t"e role o international organiations and regional

organiations in #romoting "$man sec$rit% in Arica

$. Human Security and Civil Society in ,ots-ana

n t"is c"a#ter t"e main oc$s !ill on "$man sec$rit% and ciil societ% in

ots!ana ots!ana is "ig"l% centralied and #olitical sta0le co$ntr%N in s#ite

o t"at t"e role o ciil societ% in ostering "$man sec$rit% is signiicant n t"is

section st$d% !ill relate t"e role o international organiations and regional

organiations in #romoting "$man sec$rit% in ots!ana /"e role non-

25


26/217

goernmental organiation !ill also coer in t"is section in ostering "$man

sec$rit%

+. Human Security as Human Development in ,ots-ana

ots!ana "as m$c" 0etter #osition in Arican states in terms o socialeconomic and #olitical deelo#ment /"e social and economic indicators are

er% m$c" im#ressie or $s n s#ite o t"at t"ere "ae #ro0lems lie

&9AD' enironment degradation dis#lacement centralied #olitical

instit$tions $nem#lo%ment and one #art% domination r$le /"is c"a#ter !ill

coer on *olitical +ig"ts *olitical Deelo#ment and democratiations t"ro$g"

i0rant o ciil societ% in ots!ana

/. Conclusion

/"is c"a#ter !o$ld "ae oer all anal%sis o "$man sec$rit% and ciil societ%

in Arica in general and ots!ana in #artic$lar

26


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Re'erences

,ooks

1 aroline /"omas and *eter :ilin (eds) (1===) Glo0alisation &$man

'ec$rit% and t"e Arican .J#erience o$lderK %nne +einner *$0lications

2 "and"oe eera (1==5) 'tate and iil 'ociet%K .J#lorations in *olitical

/"eor% 'age Del"i

3 la%ton Andre! (ed) (1==6) GOs iil 'ociet% and t"e 'tateK $ilding

Democrac% in /ransitional 'ocieties OJord Uniersit% *ress U;

4 omaro EoMn and Eean omaro (1===) iil 'ociet% and t"e *olitical

magination in AricaK ritical *ers#ecties Uniersit% o "icago *ress"icago

5 Deagar &eat"er (2=) Arica /oda%K c$lt$re economic religion sec$rit%

+o$$tledge ondon and e! or

6 .lliott , arol%nm (ed) (27) iil 'ociet% and Democrac% A +eader e!

Del"iK OJord Uniersit% *ress

7 ;a0iraM '$di#ta and ;"ilnani '$nil (26) iil 'ociet% &istor% and*ossi0ilit%,e! Del"iK am0ridge Uniersit% *ress

8 ,cgre! Ant"on% and *o$ ana ; (eds) (27) Glo0aliation

Deelo#ment and &$man 'ec$rit% *olit% *ress U;

= '"a"r0ano$ /adM0a"s" and An$rad"a , "eno% (26) &$man 'ec$rit%

once#ts and m#lications,+o$tledge

1' eil ,acFralane and en Foong ;"ong (26) &$man 'ec$rit% and t"e

UK A ritical &istor% loomingtonK ndiana Uniersit% *ress

11Osler &am#son .en (22) ,adness in t"e ,$ltit$deK &$man 'ec$rit% and

:orld Disorder OJord Uniersit% *ress ondon

)rticles

1 a%art Eean-Francois (1=86) iil 'ociet% in Arica< in *atric "a0al (ed)

*olitical Domination in Arica am0ridge Uniersit% *ress U;

27


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2 ratton , (1==4) iil 'ociet% and *olitical /ransition in Arica ,a"0$0 $l (1==4) e! m#eraties o &$man 'ec$rit%K ar0ara :ard

ect$re 1=72HDevelopment ol 2 ## 4-43

= &olm Eo"n DN ,ol$sti *atric *N 'omoleae Gloria /"e Deelo#ment o iil

'ociet% in a Democratic 'tateK /"e ots!ana ,odelAfrican Studies Review,

ol$me 3= o2 ('e#tem0er 1==6) ## 43-6=

1e!is * (1==2) *olitical /ransition and t"e Dilemma o iil 'ociet% in

AricaJournal of International Affairs,ol46 o1 ##31-54

11,a$ndeni C (1==6) ots!ana 'till at rossroadsAfrica Quarterly ol$me

36 o3 e! Del"i

12,ol$stsi *atric *N &olm Eo"n D (1==) Deelo#ing Democrac% :"en iil

'ociet% is :eaK /"e ase o ots!anaAfrican Affairs,ol$me 8= o356

E$l% ##323-34

13O0assi and // ,ori0ame (25) nestigation o t"e inl$ence o GOs

in *$0lic #olic% maing and m#lementation in ots!ana *$laK Botswana

Journal of African Studies, 1=(1)28


29/217


30/217

3


31/217

Chapter3 T-oHuman Security

and Civil Society

31


32/217

32


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Human Security and Civil Society

One o t"e #rimar% roles o t"e state is to #roide #eace and sec$rit% or its

citiens 0ot" !it"in t"e nation state and to ens$re t"eir #rotection against t"reats rom

o$tside A maMor so$rce o militar% conlict t"at #roided oc$s or t"e !estern

!orld$ate

conce#t$aliation o "$man sec$rit% &$man sec$rit%$ate

"o$sing and ed$cation e%ond t"e more traditional t"reats o $nderdeelo#ment eg

#oert% "$nger access to ood disease #oll$tion and str$ct$ral iolence is alsoincl$ded in t"e deinition o insec$rit% Food sec$rit% deined as not onl% t"e

aaila0ilit% o ood 0$t also t"e ca#acit% to gain access to it t"ro$g" lieli"oods

co$ld also 0e in t"is categor% /"is dimension !"ic" can 0e meas$red >$antitatiel%

is generall% associated !it" reedom rom !ant in t"e 0roadest sense

*ersonal sec$rit% t"reats are t"ose !"ic" are attri0$ted 0e%ond criminalit% to

indiid$al #erce#tions and earsN or eJam#le ear o losing access to "ealt" serices

in t"e #rocess o "ealt" ins$rance reorm or ear o losing a Mo0 in t"e #rocess o

restr$ct$ring contri0$te to #ersonal leels o insec$rit% /"e% encom#ass t"reats rom

t"e state t"ro$g" #"%sical tort$re t"reats rom ot"er states rom international or

cross-0order terrorism rom ot"er gro$#s and rom indiid$als or gangs domestic

iolence iolence against c"ildren and een iolence against one


34/217

instit$tional settings a #oorl% $nction M$diciar% t"e lac o enorcement o t"e r$le

o la! etc generall% associated !it" reedom rom ear n t"is categor% co$ld also

0e incl$ded t"e UD* 1==4 deinition o comm$nit% sec$rit% dimension !"ic"

designates 0ot" t"e sec$rit% o t"e comm$nit% as regards its identit% and #ractices

and t"e sec$rit% o t"e indiid$al against #ossi0le t"reats rom t"e comm$nit% s$c" as

discriminator% #ractices

/"e 1==4 UD* &$man Deelo#ment +e#ort s%nt"esied t"reats to "$man sec$rit%

in seen com#onentsK economic ood "ealt" enironmental #ersonal comm$nit%

and #olitical sec$rit% as ollo!s 4S. Neil 5ac6ralance and 7en 6oon8 &%%(93

6conomic security,!"ere t"e main t"reat is #oert% re>$ires an ass$red 0asic income

eit"er rom #rod$ctie and rem$neratie !or or rom goernment inanced social

saet% nets

3ood securityre>$ires t"at all #eo#le at all times "ae 0ot" #"%sical and economic

access to 0asic ood According to t"e United ations t"e oerall aaila0ilit% o ood

is not a #ro0lemN rat"er t"e #ro0lem oten is t"e #oor distri0$tion o ood and a lac

o#$rc"asing #o!er n t"e #ast ood sec$rit% #ro0lems "ae 0een dealt !it" at 0ot"

national and glo0al leels &o!eer t"eir im#acts are limited According to U t"e

e% is to tacle t"e #ro0lems relating to access to assets !or and ass$red income

&ealth Security,!"ere t"e t"reats incl$de inM$r% and disease re>$ires access to"ealt" care and "ealt" serices incl$ding sae and aorda0le amil% #lanning /"e

t"reats to "ealt" sec$rit% are greater or #oor #eo#le in r$ral areas #artic$larl%

!omen and c"ildren !"o are eJ#osed to disease

6nvironmental securityaims to #rotect #eo#le rom t"e s"ort- and long-term raages

o nat$re man-made t"reats in nat$re and deterioration o t"e nat$ral enironment

n deelo#ing co$ntries lac o access to clean !ater reso$rcesis one o t"e greatest

enironmental t"reats n ind$strial co$ntries one o t"e maMor t"reats is #oll$tionGlo0al ca$sed 0% t"e emission o green"o$se gases is anot"er enironmental

sec$rit% iss$e

#ersonal securityaims to #rotect #eo#le rom #"%sical iolence !"et"er rom t"e

state or eJternal states rom iolent indiid$als and s$0-state actors rom domestic

or rom #redator% ad$lts For man% #eo#le t"e greatest so$rce o anJiet% is crime

#artic$larl% iolent crime

34
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purchasing_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_resourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gaseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purchasing_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_resourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gaseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime


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!ommunity security,!"ere t"e t"reat is to t"e integrit% o c$lt$ral diersit% re>$ires

sec$rit% rom o##ressie traditional #ractice treating !omen "ars"l% discriminating

against et"nic or indigeno$s gro$#s and re$gee gro$# re0ellion and armed conlicts

#olitical security,!"ere t"e t"reat is #olitical re#ression re>$ires res#ect or "$man

rig"ts #rotection rom militar% dictators"i#s or a0$se rom #olitical or statere#ression rom t"e #ractice o tort$re ill treatment or disa##earance and rom

#olitical detention and im#risonment

T-o Schools o' Thouht on Human Security

/"e "$man sec$rit% agenda "ae led to t"e emergence o t!o maMor sc"ools o

t"o$g"t on "o! to 0est #ractice "$man sec$rit% Freedom rom Fear and Freedom

rom :ant :"ile t"e UD* 1==4 re#ort originall% arg$ed t"at "$man sec$rit%

re>$ires attention to 0ot"freedom from fearandfreedom from want,diisions "ae

grad$all% emerged oer t"e #ro#er sco#eo t"at #rotection (eg oer !"at

t"reatsindiid$alss"o$ld 0e #rotected rom) and oer t"e a##ro#riate mec"anisms

or res#onding to t"ese t"reats

6reedom 'rom 6ear

/"is sc"ool sees to limit t"e #ractice o &$man 'ec$rit% to #rotecting indiid$als

rom iolent conlicts !"ile recogniing t"at t"ese iolent t"reats are strongl%associated !it" #oert% lac o state ca#acit% and ot"er orms o ine>$ities

4http3::---.humansecurityreport.in'o9. /"is a##roac" arg$es t"at limiting t"e

oc$s to iolence is a realistic and managea0le a##roac" to!ards &$man 'ec$rit%

.mergenc% assistance conlict #reention and resol$tion #eace-0$ilding are t"e

main concerns o t"is a##roac" anada or eJam#le !as a critical #la%er in t"e

eorts to 0an landmines and "as incor#orated t"e Freedom rom Fear agenda as a

#rimar% com#onent in its o!n oreign #olic% &o!eer !"et"er s$c" narro!

a##roac" can tr$l% sere its #$r#ose in g$aranteeing more r$it$l res$lts remains to0e an iss$e For instance t"e conlicts in Dar$r are oten $sed in >$estioning t"e

eectieness o t"e +es#onsi0ilit% to *rotect a e% com#onent o t"e Freedom rom

Fear agenda

6reedom 'rom >ant

/"e sc"ool adocates a "olistic a##roac" in ac"ieing "$man sec$rit% and arg$es t"at

t"e t"reat agenda s"o$ld 0e 0roadened to incl$de "$nger disease and nat$ral disasters

0eca$se t"e% are inse#ara0le conce#ts in addressing t"e root o "$man insec$rit%

andt"e% ill ar more #eo#le t"an !ar genocide and terrorism com0ined Dierent rom

35
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scopehttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/threathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individualshttp://www.humansecurityreport.info/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scopehttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/threathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individualshttp://www.humansecurityreport.info/


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Freedom rom Fear it eJ#ands t"e oc$s 0e%ond iolence !it" em#"asis on

deelo#ment and sec$rit% goals

Fig$reK &$man sec$rit% as t"e neJ$s 0et!een reedom rom ear !ant and r$le o

la! 4Tad=2askhash8 Shahr2anou and Chenoy8 )nuradha 58 &%%*9

Human Security and State Security

&$man sec$rit% com#lements state sec$rit% in o$r res#ectsK

ts concern is t"e indiid$al and t"e comm$nit% rat"er t"an t"e state

,enaces to #eo#le


37/217

t"reats

'ec$rit% 0%

!"at means

Force as a secondar%

instr$ment

to 0e $sed #rimaril% or

cosmo#olitan ends and

collectiel%N sanctions "$man

deelo#ment and "$mane

goernance as e% instr$ments

o indiid$al centered sec$rit%

alance o #o!er is o limited

$tilit%N sot #o!er is

increasingl% im#ortant

oo#eration 0et!een states

international organiations and

GOs can 0e eectie and

s$stained

orms and instit$tions matterN

democratiation and

re#resentatieness in

instit$tions en"ance t"eir

eectieness

+etaliator% orce or t"reat o its

$se 0alance o #o!er militar%

means strengt"ening o

economic mig"t little attention

#aid to res#ect or la! or

instit$tions

Force as t"e #rimar%

instr$ment o sec$rit% to 0e

$sed $nilaterall% or a state$ated

!it" militar% ca#a0ilities

oo#eration 0et!een states

is ten$o$s 0e%ond alliance

relations

orms and instit$tions are

o

limited al$e #artic$larl% in

t"e sec$rit%9militar% s#"ere

*romoting "$man

deelo#mentK 0asic needs

#l$s e>$it% s$staina0ilit%

and greater democratiation

and #artici#ation at all

leels

*romoting "$man rig"ts

*romoting #olitical

deelo#mentK glo0al norms

and instit$tions #l$s

collectie $se o orce as

!ell as sanctions in case o

genocide coo#eration

0et!een states reliance on

international instit$tions

37


38/217

net!or and coalitions and

international organisations

Source3 4"ndependent Commission on "nternational Development "ssues3

,rand Report8 !0%3!$9

The )pproaches o' Human Security

5ah2u2 ul HaG )pproach

/"e idea o "$man sec$rit% is generall% t"o$g"t to go 0ac to t"e United ations

Deelo#ment *rogramme +e#ort o 1==4 losel% associated !it" t"e idea rom t"e

late ,a"0$0 $l &a> !"o "ad earlier #la%ed a e% role in t"e constr$ction o t"e

&$man Deelo#ment ndeJ (&D) and !"o !as s$0se>$entl% t"e moing orce

0e"ind t"e more recent &$mane Goernance ndeJ &a> ans!ers t"e >$estion osec$rit% or !"om >$ite sim#l% &$man sec$rit% is not a0o$t states and nations 0$t

a0o$t indiid$als and #eo#le /"$s "e arg$es t"at t"e !orld is entering a ne! era o

"$man sec$rit% in !"ic" t"e entire conce#t o sec$rit% !ill c"ange and c"ange

dramaticall% n t"is ne! conce#tion sec$rit% !ill 0e e>$ated !it" t"e sec$rit% o

indiid$als not M$st sec$rit% o t"eir nations or to #$t it dierentl% sec$rit% o

#eo#le not M$st sec$rit% o territor%

F$ndamentall% "$man sec$rit% !ill 0e ac"ieed t"ro$g" deelo#ment not

t"ro$g" armsH n #artic$lar ie rat"er radical ste#s are necessar% to gie lie to t"e

ne! conce#tion o sec$rit%K a "$man deelo#ment conce#tion !it" em#"asis on

e>$it% s$staina0ilit% and grassroots #artici#ationN a #eace diidend to $nder!rite t"e

0roader agenda o "$man sec$rit%N a ne! #artners"i# 0et!een ort" and 'o$t" 0ased

on M$stice not c"arit% !"ic" em#"asies e>$ita0le access to glo0al maret

o##ort$nities and economic restr$ct$ringN a ne! rame!or o glo0al goernance

0$ilt on reorm o international instit$tions s$c" as t"e ,F :orld an and United

ationsN and inall% a gro!ing role or glo0al ciil societ%

,a"0$0 $l &a> o$tlines a long list o tr$l% ar-reac"ing #ro#osals or glo0al "$man

sec$rit%

:"ic" are as ollo!ingK

DevelopmentallyK s$staina0ilit%N e>$it% o o##ort$nities (0etter distri0$tion o

#rod$ctie assets incl$ding land and creditN o#en access to maret o##ort$nitiesN Mo0

creationN social saet% nets)N and glo0al M$stice ia a a maMor restr$ct$ringH o t"e

!orld


39/217

MilitarilyK red$cing arms eJ#endit$resN closing all militar% 0asesN conerting militar%

aid to economic aidN sto##ing arms transersN eliminating arms eJ#ort s$0sidiesN

retraining !orers in deence ind$stries

/orth8South restructurinK e>$ita0le access to glo0al marets or t"e #oor co$ntries

0$ilt on t"e remoal o trade 0arriers (es#eciall% in teJtiles and agric$lt$re)N inancialcom#ensation rom t"e ric" co$ntries in ret$rn or immigration controls and or

oer$se o glo0al enironmental reso$rcesN and a glo0al #a%ment mec"anisms or

ario$s serices rendered (eg enironmental serices control o narcotics and

disease) or damagesH in cases o economic inM$r% and or 0ad economic cond$ct

(eg enco$raging t"e 0rain drain restricting migration o lo!-sill la0o$r eJ#ort

restrictions)

InstitutionallyK t"e res$scitation and restr$ct$ring o t"e ,F :orld an and U tooc$s more on "$man deelo#mentN economic adM$stments !"ic" target t"e ric" more

t"an t"e #oorN ne! goernance #atterns eer%!"ere !"ic" em#o!er t"e #oorN ne!

instit$tions s$c" as a !orld central 0an a glo0al taJation s%stem a !orld trade

organiation an international inestment tr$st a !orld treas$r% and a0oe all a

re#resentatie and eto-less .conomic 'ec$rit% o$ncil in t"e U !"ic" !o$ld 0e

t"e "ig"est decision maing or$m to deal !it" all iss$es conronting "$manit%H

incl$ding ood and enironmental sec$rit% #oert% and Mo0 creation migration and

dr$g traicing

The evolution of a lo-al civil society5 all o t"e a0oe !o$ld re>$ire grassroots

#artici#ation and a c"ange rom a$t"oritarian to democratic goernment

;NDP )pproach

/raditional notions o sec$rit% !ere concerned !it" sec$rit% o territor% rom eJternal

aggression or as #rotection o national interests in oreign #olic% or as glo0al

sec$rit% rom t"e t"reat o n$clear "oloca$st t "as 0een related more to nation-statest"an to #eo#le :"at t"is conce#tion oerlooed !as t"e legitimate concerns o

ordinar% #eo#le !"o so$g"t sec$rit% in t"eir dail% lies &$man sec$rit% on t"e ot"er

"and is #eo#le-centred /"$s t"e &$man Deelo#ment +e#ort (1==4) insists as did

&a> t"at t"e reerent o0Mect o "$man sec$rit% is indiid$al or #eo#le n s$##ort o

t"is contention t"e re#ort cites t"e o$nding doc$ment o t"e U and its original

delineation o sec$rit% as reedom rom earH as also reedom rom !antH and t"e

e>$al !eig"t to territories and to #eo#leH t"at t"at distinction im#lied Unort$natel%

d$ring t"e cold !ar sec$rit% t"ining "ad tilted oerl% to!ards t"e #rotection o

3=


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territor%N ater t"e cold !ar t"e re#ort #ro#oses it is time to redress t"e 0alance and

incl$de t"e #rotection o #eo#le

/"e &$man Deelo#ment +e#ort t"e re#ort notes t"at t"e traditional conce#tion

o sec$rit% in oc$ssing on territorial integrit% t"e adancement o t"e national

interest and n$clear deterrence ignored clear and more #resent dangers aced at

eer% t$rn 0% ordinar% men and !omen For man%sec$rit% s%m0olied #rotection

rom t"e t"reat o disease "$nger $nem#lo%ment crime social conlict #olitical

re#ression and enironmental "aards ess a0stractl% "$man sec$rit% is a c"ild !"o

did not die a disease t"at did not s#read a Mo0 t"at !as not c$t an et"nic tension t"at

did not eJ#lode in iolence a dissident !"o !as not silenced &$man sec$rit% is nota concern !it" !ea#onsN it is a concern !it" "$man lie and dignit% t is concerned

!it" "o! #eo#le lie and 0reat"e in a societ% "o! reel% t"e% eJercise t"eir man%

c"oices "o! m$c" access t"e% "ae to maret and social o##ort$nities and !"et"er

t"e% lie in conlict or in #eace &$man sec$rit% also encom#asses a sense o

#ersonal c"oice and s$ret% a0o$t t"e $t$re and o #ersonal eicac% and o##ort$nit%

/"$s in dra!ing attention to t"e dierence 0et!een "$man sec$rit% and its cognate

"$man deelo#ment t"e +e#ort arg$es t"at t"e latter is a 0roader conce#t and reers

to a #rocess o !idening t"e range o #eo#le


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comm$nit% #eace !it"in !"ic" an indiid$al lies and gro!s Finall% #olitical

sec$rit% reers to #rotection against "$man rig"ts iolations

According to t"e +e#ort t"e more localied t"reats can 0e $nderstood in relation to

t"e seen al$es o "$man sec$rit% /"ese are s$mmaried 0elo!K

/"reats to economic sec$rit%K lac o #rod$ctie and rem$neratie

em#lo%ment #recario$s em#lo%ment a0sence o #$0licl% inanced saet%

nets

/"reats to ood sec$rit%K lac o ood entitlements incl$ding ins$icient

access to assets !or and ass$red incomes

/"reats to "ealt" sec$rit%K inectio$s and #arasitic diseases diseases o t"e

circ$lator% s%stem and cancers lac o sae !ater air #oll$tion lac o access

to "ealt" care acilities

/"reats to enironmental sec$rit%K declining !ater aaila0ilit% !ater

#oll$tion declining ara0le land deorestation desertiication air #oll$tion

nat$ral disasters

/"reats to #ersonal sec$rit%K iolent crime dr$g traicing iolence and

a0$se o c"ildren and !omen

/"reats to comm$nit% sec$rit%K 0reado!n o t"e amil% colla#se o

traditional lang$ages and c$lt$res et"nic discrimination and strie genocide

and et"nic cleansing

/"reats to #olitical sec$rit%K goernment re#ression s%stematic "$man rig"ts

iolations militariation

n addition to t"e more localied t"reats listed a0oe t"e +e#ort cites a n$m0er omore glo0al or transnational t"reats !"ose s#read or eects go !ell 0e%ond an%

gien national 0o$ndaries /"ese are gro$#ed into siJ areasK

*o#$lation gro!t" !"ic" increases t"e #ress$re on non-rene!a0le reso$rces

and is lined intimatel% to glo0al #oert% enironmental degradation and

international migration

Gro!ing dis#arities in glo0al income leading to oercons$m#tion and

oer#rod$ction in t"e ind$strialied co$ntries and #oert% and enironmental

degradation in t"e deelo#ing !orld

41


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ncreasing international migration as a $nction o #o#$lation gro!t" #oert%

and t"e #olicies o t"e ind$strial co$ntries "ae contri0$ted to t"e lo! o

international migrants as also an increase in re$gees and internall% dis#laced

#ersons

ario$s orms o enironmental deca% (t"at among ot"er t"ings ca$se acid rain

sin cancer and glo0al !arming) as !ell as red$ced 0iodiersit% and t"e

destr$ction o !etlands coral rees and tem#erate orests as !ell as tro#ical

rainorests

Dr$g traicing !"ic" "as gro!n into a glo0al m$ltinational ind$str%

nternational terrorism !"ic" "as s#read rom atin America in t"e 1=6s to a

glo0al #"enomenon

The Canadian and 5iddle Po-ers< )pproach

/"e anadian led middle #o!ers< a##roac" to "$man sec$rit% oerla#s

!it" t"e UD* a##roac" 0$t oer t"e %ears "as dierentiated itsel rom it

Disentangling t"e 0asics o Otta!a$estions reeals t"at t"e t!o sc"ools are >$ite distinct in some res#ects anada "as

made t!o maMor statements o its #osition 4!00*8 !0009 and along !it" or!a%

organied a middle #o!ers< conerence in 1ysoen in Nor-ay 4!0009!"ic" largel%airmed its ie!#oint For anada as m$c" as t"e UD* "$man sec$rit% im#lies

sec$rit% or t"e indiid$al a #eo#le-centred ie! o sec$rit% e%ond sec$rit% or

!"om is t"e iss$e o sec$rit% o !"at al$es As noted a0oe "$man sec$rit% al$es

incl$de an acce#ta0le >$alit% o lieH and a g$arantee o $ndamental "$man

rig"tsH ,inimall% it im#lies 0asic needs s$stained economic deelo#ment

"$man rig"ts and $ndamental reedoms t"e r$le o la! good goernance

s$staina0le deelo#ment and social e>$it% /"e 1ysoen declaration arg$es t"at t"e

$ndamental al$es o "$man sec$rit% are reedom rom ear reedom rom !antand e>$al o##ort$nities /"e core al$e o a "$man sec$rit% conce#tion t"o$g" is

reedom rom #erasie t"reats to #eo#le


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$nderdeelo#ment and a $nsta0le #rotectionist international trading s%stem

Glo0aliation is anot"er actor !"ic" "as 0ro$g"t in its !ae iolent crime dr$g

trade terrorism disease and enironmental deteriorationH and internal !ar o$g"t 0%

irreg$lar orces o et"nic and religio$s gro$#s e>$i##ed !it" small arms /"e decline

o state control and t"e gro!t" o organied crime dr$g traicing and #riate

sec$rit% orces all t"ese "ae increased iolence against indiid$als n addition a

0roadening range o transnational t"reats renders indiid$als more $lnera0leK

economic glo0aliation and 0etter comm$nications and trans#ortation increase

#oll$tion disease ectors and economic insta0ilities !orld!ide

n 1==7 anada s$ggested t"at #eace0$ilding #eaceee#ing disarmament es#eciall%

t"e a0olition o anti-#ersonnel landmines saeg$arding t"e rig"ts o c"ildren and

economic deelo#ment t"ro$g" r$les-0ased trade !ere e% areas o t"e "$man

sec$rit% endeao$r or Otta!a /o moe t"is agenda or!ard anada !o$ld "ae torel% increasingl% on sot #o!er t"e art o disseminating inormation in s$c" a !a%

t"at desira0le o$tcomes are ac"ieed t"ro$g" #ers$asion rat"er t"an coercion anada

and ario$s ot"er middle #o!ers !ere ideall% s$ited to net!or 0$ild coalitions and

0ring ot"ers ro$nd to $nderstand t"e im#ortance o "$man sec$rit% Goernments

GOs academics 0$sinesses and ordinar% citiens !ere all #otential #artners in t"is

endeao$r

/"e 1=== anadian #a#er am#liies t"e 1==7 a##roac" 0% listing siJ 0roader

#rinci#les t"at mig"t g$ide actions om0ined t"ese 0oil do!n to t"ree maMor

#rinci#les

First t"e international comm$nit% m$st consider coercion incl$ding t"e $se o

sanctions and orce i necessar% 'econd national sec$rit% #olicies t"emseles m$st

0e altered to gie d$e consideration to t"e #romotion o "$man sec$rit% goals

ntegral to t"e ne! sec$rit% #olic% agenda m$st 0e t"e #romotion o norms o

instit$tions and t"e $se o deelo#ment strategies norms9instit$tions (eg "$manrig"ts "$manitarian and re$gee la!) !o$ld set standards o cond$ctN and

deelo#ment strategies !o$ld #res$ma0l% 0ring a0o$t conditions !it"in !"ic" it

!o$ld 0e easier or states and non-state actors to o0sere t"ose norms /"e 1ysoen

declaration !"ic" anada "el#ed drat lists ten areas in !"ic" norms !ere re>$iredK

anti-#ersonnel landmines small arms c"ildren in armed conlict international

criminal co$rt #roceedings eJ#loitation o c"ildren saet% o "$manitarian

#ersonnel conlict #reention transnational organied crime and reso$rces or

deelo#ment Also im#ortant t"o$g" are im#roements in goernance ca#acities0ot" !it"in states and internationall% /"e ormer im#lies democratiation and t"e

43


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45/217

6iure3 The de'initional mappin tool o' Human Security o' di''erent school.

/"e sim#lest deinition o "$man sec$rit% is a0sence o insec$rit% and t"reats ie

reedom rom 0ot" ear and !ant &$man sec$rit% t"ereore deals !it" dierence

t"e ca#acit% to identi% t"reats or aoid t"em !"en #ossi0le and mitigate t"eir

eects !"en t"e% do occ$r /"is 0roadened $se o t"e !orld sec$rit% encom#assest!o ideasK one is t"e notion o saet% t"at goes 0e%ond t"e conce#t o mere #"%sical

sec$rit% in t"e traditional sense and t"e ot"er t"e idea t"at #eo#le


46/217

s#"ere in !"ic" social relations !ere 0ased on t"e ree association o indiid$als

rat"er t"an a iJed "ierarc"% o legal instit$tion For classical !riters lie t"e

#"iloso#"er George &egel and t"e reol$tionar% t"eorist ;arl ,arJ ciil societ% !as

an incl$sie conce#t o societ% min$s t"e state iil societ% !as declined 0% t"e

emergence o a distinct #olitical econom% in !"ic" indiid$al related to eac" ot"er as

inde#endent agents rat"er t"an as #eo#le !"o illed #rescri0ed social roles

iil societ% is a conce#t o im#ortant strategicall% at t"e cross section o im#ortant

strands o intellect$al deelo#ment in t"e social sciences iil societ% reers to arena

o $ncoered collectie action aro$nd s"ared interests #$r#ose and al$es n t"eor%

its instit$tional orms are distinct rom t"ose o t"e state amil% and maret t"ro$g"

in #ractice t"e 0o$ndaries 0et!een state ciil societ% amil% and maret are oten

com#leJ 0l$rred and negotiated iil societ% commonl% em0races a diersit% o

s#aces actors and instit$tional orms ar%ing in t"eir degree o ormalit% a$tonom%and #o!er iil societies are oten #o#$lated 0% organisation s$c" as registered

c"arities deelo#ment nongoernmental organisation comm$nit% gro$#s !omen


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The ;NDP and type of activity% They include church related roups, trade unions,

cooperative, service oranisations, community roups and youth oranisations as

well as academic institutions and other%

The 1ondon School o' EconomicsCentre 'or Civil Societys -orkin de'inition

o' civil society is as 'ollo-K

!ivil society refers to the arena of uncoerced collective actionaround

shared interests, purposes and values% In theory, its institutional forms are distinct

from those of thestate,familyand mar7et, thouh in practice, the -oundaries

-etween state, civil society, family and mar7et are often comple:, -lurred and

neotiated% !ivil society commonly em-races a diversity of spaces, actors andinstitutional forms, varyin in their deree of formality, autonomy and power% !ivil

societies are often populated -y orani


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coordination t"ese 0odies ma% no! 0e easil% designated as glo0al goernance

agencies nternational ,onetar% F$nd and :orld an are #$rs$ing t"eir inancial

and deelo#ment agendas !"ic" at times are not consistent !it" t"e ie!s o modern

nation states ,aret instit$tions are #la%ing increased role in !orld aairs illing in

t"e ga#s let $nattended 0% #$0lic sector agencies o modern states glo0al iss$es and

concerns related to s$staina0le deelo#ment ecological degradation "$man rig"ts

gender e>$it% and t"e lie are increasingl% coming $nder t"e #$rie! o non-state

instit$tions and organisations A nota0le conse>$ence o glo0alisation #ertains to t"e

emergence o non-state non-#roit t"ird sector o glo0al ciil societ% itiens all

oer t"e !orld "ae mo0ilised to orm ol$ntar% organisations to s"a#e glo0al

#olicies and dee#er str$ct$res o relations among dierent societies irres#ectie o

nation states /"ese ciic associations are glo0al in nat$re since t"e% address

trans!orld #ro0lems and #$rs$e deelo#mental "$manitarian and ot"er ca$ses 0%

"arnessing t"e in"erent #otential o glo0alisation /"e #rec$rsors o contem#orar%

trans0order ol$ntar% organisations date 0ac to t"e nineteent" cent$r%N "o!eer

t"eir c$rrent actiities inole a ar larger n$m0er o #eo#le greater instit$tional

reso$rces and 0igger im#acts in t"e glo0al arena 'ome o t"e ol$ntar% ciic

moements are glo0al in t"e sense t"at t"e% !or t"ro$g" trans!ord net!ors lie

Amnest% nternational OJam are and Deelo#ment Alternaties !it" :omen in

e! .ra

n contrast ot"er ciic gro$#s t"in glo0all% 0$t act locall% ie t"e% ad"ere to glo0alorientation !"ile o#erating at grassroots leel in dierent societies 'ome ciic

gro$#s !or in isolation !"ile man% ot"ers #$rs$e t"eir agendas t"ro$g" large

coalitions o glo0al ciic 0odies Glo0al ciil societ% actiities incl$de 0ot" s#oradic

amate$r interentions and long term #roessional and instit$tional #rogrammes o t"e

ind s$stained 0% Green#eace and "ristian Aid F$rt"er ciic gro$#s "ae ado#ted a

ariet% o strategies in t"eir glo0all% str$ct$red o#erations 'ome "ae considered it

it to !or !it" oicial agencies and #riate 0$siness concernsN !"ile man% ot"ers

"ae iercel% g$arded t"eir inde#endence and a$tonomo$s eJistence /"e% regard an%colla0oration !it" state esta0lis"ments or #riate 0$siness "o$ses as an $nacce#ta0le

com#romise o t"eir ision and #"iloso#"% Glo0al ciic associations "ae eJerted

considera0le inl$ence to #romote t"e contem#orar% concerns o deelo#ing

societies /"e% "ae s$staina0l% contri0$ted to #olic% innoations in area s$c" as

s$staina0le deelo#ment ecological s$staina0ilit% "$man rig"ts #rotections disaster

relie !elare #roisions and comm$nit% deelo#ment all oer t"e !orld ,an%

glo0al ciic associations "ae #la%ed im#ortant roles 0ot" in adising t"e oicial

instit$tions o deelo#ed co$ntries and in "el#ing t"em to im#lement deelo#ment#olicies and #rogrammes in t"ird co$ntries Glo0al ciil societ% "as stried to c"ange

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oicial #olicies and "as s$0stantiall% contri0$ted to t"e reconstr$ction o #rogressie

and enlig"tened glo0al deelo#ment agenda /"e eJ#ansion o glo0al ciil societ%

"as "el#ed to mae #o#$lar #artici#ation in !orld aairs more direct and eJtensie

t"an t"e earlier eras o "egemonic states Glo0al ciil societ% "as also emerged as a

relia0le medi$m to sec$re democrac% in t"e contem#orar% glo0alised !orld

6eatures o' Civil Society Oranisations

/"e c"aracteristics o ciil societ% organisations ar% rom co$ntr% to co$ntr% /"e

constit$tion legal and M$dicial s%stem taJ and reg$lator% instit$tions o a co$ntr%

inl$ence t"e nat$re and c"aracter o ciil societ% organisations F$rt"er actors s$c"

as social al$e c$lt$ral attit$des religio$s traditions and #eo#le$ired innoatie c"aracteristics s$c" as #rod$ction or

distri0$tion o goods al$e-state and ca#italist mode o #rod$ction

/"ere are ollo!ing eat$res o ciil societ% organiationsK

/"e% are #redominantl% engaged in entre#rene$rial actiities and

#rod$ction o goods and serices

:"ile organiing a #rod$ctie actiit% t"e% generated t"eir reso$rces rom

ol$nteers donations #$0lic $nds and ot"er so$rces and are maret

oriented

/"e% dis#la% innoations !"ile #roiding social serices and #rod$ction o

goods as or instance rendering serices to marginalied and $lnera0le

sections em#o!erment o s$##ressed strata o societ%

/"e% contri0$te to t"e creation o Mo0s and training o##ort$nities es#eciall%

or $nem#lo%ed %o$t"

/"e% esta0lis"ed strong linages !it" !ell deined local comm$nities and

strie or t"e $#litment

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n #rinci#le t"e% do not distri0$te #roits &o!eer t"e% do not 0ecome

0lind ictims o non distri0$tie constraints !"ile striing to ac"iee clearl%

deined social goals /"e% gie e>$al re#resentations to stae"olders and

im#ortance to democratic management and control o organisation

,ore inde#endent and dis#la% a$tonom% since t"e% de#end $#on #l$ralit%

o reso$rces and relate !it" t"e state t"ro$g" contracts as inde#endent

organisations

,ore sensitie to generate em#lo%ment o##ort$nities or disadantage

sectionsN 0eca$se o t"ese reasons t"e% $s$all% dis#la% een interest in

colla0orations !it" or #roit 0$siness organisations

Alert to democratic o!ners"i# "ence ens$ring t"e inolement o mem0ersin sel management

Us$all% small in sie and com#letel% em0edded in local comm$nities

nterested in t"e creation o ne! serices and !illing to innoate to meet

t"e social needsN and

ot inclined to!ards adocac% or consider adocac% as a secondar%

$nction

/"e most signiicant innoation o contem#orar% non #roit organiation is t"e

creation o m$lti-stae"older orm o organiation /"e administration are s"ared 0%

ol$nteers !orers cons$mers and een re#resentaties o #$0lic a$t"orities

considering t"e dierent interests inoled in #rod$ction o goods and serices

&ence ciil societ% organiations "ae transormed not onl% in res#ect to t"eir goals

0$t also in terms o o#erational met"ods and management o organiations

State and Civil Society Oraniations

/"e rise o !elare state in :estern .$ro#e im#inged on t"e eJistence o ciil societ%

organiations 'ince t"e late 1=4s state #olicies !ere generall% orm$lated aro$nd

t"e conce#t o $niersal !elare o societ% t !as 0asicall% a s%stem in !"ic" state

a$t"orities #la%ed a maMor role in deliering o collectie goods and #$0lic serices

'ince t"e s%stems and instit$tions designed 0% state #la%ed a leading role in t"e

!elare o societ% t"e not or #roit organiation came $nder serio$s #ress$re to

c"ange t"eir 0asics or s$rial /"e im#ortance o ciil societ% organiationsdecreased /"e% increasingl% stared to concentrate t"eir actiities in ields "aing

51


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decreased /"e% increasingl% started to concentrate t"eir actiities in ields "aing

decreased /"e% increasingl% started to concentrate t"eir actiities in ields "aing

least economic or distri0$tie im#lications A large n$m0ers o ciil societ%

organiations c"anged t"eir c"aracter is-a is t"eir original nat$re since t"e% !ere

com#elled to eJists !it"in t"e #$0lic sector 'ome ciil societ% organiations !ere

incor#orated in t"e !elare s%stem /"e% ormall% and legall% remained #riate

organiations 0$t !ere s$0Mect to administratie and 0$rea$cratic controls "ence

losing t"eir econom% iil societ% organiations !"ic" "ad not 0ecome a #art o

!elare s%stem !ere #reented rom engaging in #rod$ctie actiities ie #rod$ction

and distri0$tion o #$0lic goods or serices &ence role o ciil societ% organiations

!as red$ced and remained more or less adocac% $nctions

Theoretical )pproaches to Civil Society Oraniations

/"e t"eoretical interest in ciil societ% organiations is relatiel% recent #"enomenon

/ill t"e end o 1=7s t"ere !ere "ardl% an% s%stemic st$dies on t"e dimensions o

non#roit sector /"e initial t"eoretical interest stemmed rom t"e realiation t"at non-

#roit "ad its o!n s#eciic d%namics and considera0le #resence in t"e #rocess o

#rod$ction o goods and serices and generated em#lo%ment o##ort$nities in societ%

'ince t"en attem#ts "ae 0een made to anal%se sector in ario$s societies

Economic )pproaches

/"e eJisting economic a##roac"es to non-#roit organisation can 0e 0roadl%

classiied in to t!o categories 0ased on t"e conce#ts o state ail$re and contact

ail$re

State 6ailure

/"e conce#t o state ail$re as t"e 0asis or t"e emergence o non-#roit organisation

is considered in t"e t"eor% deelo#ed 0%>eis2rod !"ic" is also no!n as #$0lic

goods t"eor% /"e essential arg$ment o :eis0rod is t"at it is generall% not #ossi0l%

or t"e state to s$##l% all t"e #$0lic goods in res#onse to t"e demand in societ% /"e

state !ill al!a%s mae inade>$ate #roisions as regarding t"e total >$alit% o goods

re>$ired in societ% F$rt"er state s"all neer t"e means reso$rces and !"ere!it"al to

#rod$ce a dierse range o >$alit% goods and serices re>$ired to satis% t"e tastes

#reerences and c"oices o indiid$als in societ% asicall% state can #roide too e!

#$0lic goods and an ins$icient range o t"em since t"e state is s$0Mect to ario$s

social #olitical and economic constraints and limitations For instance t"e ca$se o

s"ortall is identiied in t"e #olitical eJ#edienc% o state n order to sta% in oice a

goernment m$st satis% t"e demand or #$0lic goods and serices o t"e median

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oter /"e goernment !ill raise taJes to coer t"e cost o #$0lic goods and serices

$t t"ere !ill al!a%s 0e #eo#le in societ% !"o !ill 0e #a%ing more taJes or t"e

#rod$ction o #$0lic goods and serices t"an t"e% act$all% !ant to meet t"eir needs

On ot"er "and t"ere !ill 0e ot"ers or !"om t"ere are ins$icient >$alit% #$0lic

goods or serices aaila0le to s$it tastes #reerences or c"oices /"e oerall scenario

!ill lead to t"e s"ortall in t"e s$##l% o #riate goods rom goernment According

to :eis0rod t"e $nsatisied demand !ill eoe a res#onse in #riate sector or t"e

#rod$ction o goods and serices n t"e case o #$0lic goods and serices it !ill 0e

non-#roit organisation !"ic" re#resents a mec"anism to satis% t"e resid$al demand

0% means o #riate #rod$ction o #$0lic goods "ence t"e eJistence o non-#roit

organisations in democratic and ca#italist societies On t"e one "and t"ere !ill 0e

non-#roit organisations !"ic" ma% #rod$ce goods to satis% t"e demand o mem0ers

onl% On t"e ot"er "and sociall% motiated non-#roit organisations ma% #rod$ce

goods or serices to satis% t"e #artic$lar demands o disadantage #oor or

marginalised section o societ%

5arket 6ailure

&ansmann !as t"e irst to deelo# a t"eor% !"ic" too into acco$nt t"e contact

ail$re dimensions o maret &ansmann considered contact ail$re as t"e limitation

o cons$mers to ascertain t"e >$alit% o goods t"ro$g" ordinar% contract$al deices

'ince cons$mers are generall% $na0le to monitor and assess t"e s$##l% o goods att"e desired leel o >$alit% t"e #"enomenon re#resents a #artic$lar ind o maret

ail$re ontract ail$re taes #lace !"en cons$mers "ae no means to determine t"e

>$alit% or >$antit% o goods and serices s$##lied to t"em For instance t"e >$alit%

o serices can not normall% 0e ascertained in t"e case o medical care n$rsing

"omes da% care centres or c"ildren and so on n s$c" sit$ations or #roit 0$siness

irms !ill attem#t to s$##l% lo! >$alit% or >$antit% serices or goods or a gien

#rice "ence creating sco#e or a##ro#riating #roits 'ince non-#roit organisation

$nction on t"e $ndamental ass$m#tion t"at no #roits can 0e a##ro#riated 0%mem0ers or #atrons c$stomers eel ass$red a0o$t t"e >$alit% or >$antit% o #rod$cts

on-#roit organisations are not motiated 0% an% incentie in case o 0$siness irms

to deceie t"e c$stomers n t"is regard non-#roit organisations are more

tr$st!ort"% t"an or #roit organisations ontract ail$re a##roac" "as a direct

0earing on commercial non-#roit organisations !"ic" generate t"eir reso$rces 0%

selling o goods or serices to clients F$rt"er t"is a##roac" "as a distinctie a##eal

or donaties non-#roit organisations !"ic" are eJcl$siel% de#endent $#on

#"ilant"ro#% and donations o! donations mae sense onl% i t"e donor is ass$redo t"e act t"at $nds !ill 0e #ro#erl% $tilied or ac"ieing t"e #$r#ose enisaged 0%

53


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t"e donor For instance i t"e or #roit organisation receies donations it !ill

nat$rall% 0e tem#ted to a##ro#riate it as #roit On t"e ot"er "and non-#roit

organisation !ill 0e legall% 0o$nd to $tilie all donations or t"e declared goals o t"e

organisations n t"e case o #"ilant"ro#% and donations contract ail$re a##roac"

considers non-#roit organisations as a res#onse to t"e tr$st!ort"% relations"i#

0et!een #rinci#al and agent #rinci#al 0eing t"e donor and t"e agent 0eing t"e entit%

entr$sted to manage t"e $nds ontract ail$re a##roac" "as a direct 0earing on

commercial non#roits organiations !"ic" generate t"eir reso$rces 0% selling o

goods or serice to clients F$rt"er t"is a##roac" "as a distinctie a##eal or

donaties non#roits organiations !"ic" are eJcl$siel% de#endent $#on

#"ilant"ro#% and donations o! donations mae sense onl% i t"e donor is ass$red

o t"e act t"at $nds !ill 0e #ro#erl% $tilied or ac"ieing t"e #$r#ose or goal

enisaged 0% t"e donor For instance i t"e non #roit organiation receies donation

it !ill nat$rall% 0e tem#ered to a##ro#riate it as #roit On t"e ot"er "and non #roit

organiation !ill 0e legall% 0o$nd to $tilie all donations or t"e declared goals o t"e

organiation n t"e case o #"ilant"ro#% and donations contract ail$re a##roac"

considers non#roits organiations as a res#onse to t"e tr$st!ort"% relations"i#

0et!een #rinci#al and agent 0eing t"e donor and agent 0eing t"e entit% entr$sted to

manage t"e $nds on#roits organiations can correct a t%#ical maret ail$re

!"ic" res$lts rom t"e cons$mers< ina0ilit% to eJercise control oer or #roit

0$siness irms 'ince non#roit organiations are managed and controlled 0%

mem0ers and #atrons t"e clients are ass$red o a s$icientl% "ig" >$alit% o goods or

serices &o!eer in case !"ere t"e #riorit% is to minimie #rices #aid 0% clients

non #roit organiations ac>$ire resem0lance to economic $nctions o coo#eraties

On t"e ot"er "and t"e maMor regarding maintenance o "ig" >$alit% o #rod$cts is

ac"ieed t"ro$g" t"e esta0lis"ment o m$t$al non#roit organiations

Socioloical )pproaches

'ociological a##roac"es 0% considera0le em#"asis on an indiid$al$iocal tr$st in t"e motiation and 0e"aio$r o ot"er ello! indiid$als in

societ% t is arg$ed t"at t"ere is al!a%s #re-rational and #re-eJisting tr$st !"ic" lies

at t"e root o all contracts ntrinsic to eer% contract are a n$m0er o tacit arg$ments

!"ic" are generall% not concretied or gien ormal s"a#e in ro$tine contract$al

descri#tions '$c" $nstated arg$ments are $s$all% ass$med $nderstood and ad"ered

to in contract$al transactions 0% indiid$als &ence a sociological $nderstanding o

tr$st "as an essence o #res$med relia0ilit% !"ic" is entirel% dierent rom

rationalistic or ris% conce#tions o tr$st in"erent in national-c"oice models oeconomic a##roac"es to non #roit organiation n economic models t"e conce#tion

54


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o rationalit% is merel% a s$0Mectie #ro0a0ilit% calc$lation in sit$ation o $ncertaint%

/"e cons$mers sim#l% tr% to mae assessment !"et"er or not s$##liers !ill "ono$r

contract$al commitment and delier goods according to t"eir eJ#ectations According

to t"ese a$t"ors in sociological #ers#ectie t"is ind o instr$mental calc$lation is

misleading since it deal$es tr$st to sim#l% an eJercise o ris assessment t"$s

missing t"e real im#ort o tr$st n s$##ort t"e% cite Ant"on% Giddens t"at $ltimatel%

all tr$st is in a certain sense 0lind tr$st /"is sociological inter#retation "as

signiicant im#lications or t"e $nderstanding o tr$st and non #roit organiations

/"e eal$ation o tr$st does not tae #lace t"ro$g" m$t$all% 0eneit interactions

medicated m% maret #lace +at"er tr$st is seen as rooted in normatie social

str$ct$re /"is social distinctieness rom t"e maret is t"e cr$cial dimension !"ic"

acilities t"e gro!t" o tr$st n act it is t"e a0sence o maret logic t"at #ermits t"e

real eol$tion and strengt"ening o tr$st

/r$st is seen as a taen or granted ass$m#tion !"ic" determines social relations and

transactions among indiid$al /r$st and ol$ntar% action are essential attri0$tes o

non#roit sector as interest and #roit seeing are ital or 0$siness organiations

According to economic t"eor% non#roit organiations $s$all% $nction in an

enironment inl$enced 0% eJtraneo$s considerations and inormation im0alances n

s$c" a sit$ation #re-eJisting tr$st ma% gie #reerence to #artic$lar ind o #roiders

o goods and serices iil societ% organiations t$rn o$t to 0e tr$st!ort"%

intermediaries aora0l% #osition 0et!een s$##l% and demand For instance man%ciil societ% organiations are de#endent $#on religio$s #"ilant"ro#% and c"arities

'$c" organiations "ae an adantageo$s #osition to dra! on reso$rces o #re-

eJisting tr$st !"ic" is $s$all% not >$estioned in ario$s transactions 'ince tr$st

0ecomes sim#le a taen or granted eJ#ectations and elimination t"e calc$lation o

ris *otential clients consider s$c" religio$s organiation as a #riori tr$st!ort"% A

sim$ltaneo$s critical dimension associated !it" t"is ind o $ne>$iocal

tr$st!ort"iness is t"at s$c" ciil societ% organiations are also "ig"l% ragile /r$st

once iolated cannot 0e easil% restored .en modest iolations ma% res$lt in ar-reac"ing and $nimagina0le conse>$ences or s$c" ciil societ% organiations

'ocial relations in traditional societies !ere not eJtensiel% determined 0% tr$st 0$t

rat"er !ere str$ct$ral in conidence 'ocial and economic relations !ere rooted in an

ela0orate s%stem o ins"i# str$ct$re 'ocial and economic 0e"aior !as s$0Mected to

an eJtensie s%stem o ormal and inormal sanctions /"e s%stem #romoted and

enco$raged #redicta0ilit% !"ic" in t$rn s$0stantiall% red$ced de#endence $#on

tr$st t is lac o #redicta0ilit% and a0sence o amiliarit% in social and economicrelations !"ic" osters t"e en"anced signiicance releance and need or tr$st 'ocial

55


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relations in modern societ% are more $n#redicta0le t"an in traditional societies since

t"ere is "ardl% an% s%stem o im#osing sanctions and an% common 0asis o amiliarit%

among indiid$als &ence modern societ% relies more and more on instit$tional tr$st

and least de#endent $#on c"aracteristics 0ased tr$st

Relationship 2et-een State and Civil Society

/"e ciil societ% is maing a s$0stantial contri0$tion to t"e #rocess o deelo#ment

in man% co$ntries t"ro$g"o$t !orld /"ere are a large n$m0er o actors !"ic"

inl$ence t"e im#act o ciil societ% on deelo#ment /"e most signiicance

dimension !"ic" 0roadl% inl$ences most o t"ese actors is t"e relations"i# 0et!een

t"e state and ciil societ% /"e nat$re o relations"i# 0et!een ciil societ% and state is

determined 0% actors s$c" as state #olicies and #racticesN state


57/217

'#reading a!areness and sensitising #eo#le a0o$t t"eir rig"ts and #riileges

$nder state #rogrammes

,o$lding state #rogramme to #eo#le


58/217

/"e ciil societ% organiations "ae a com#aratie adantage oer state

!"ile addressing enironmental iss$es in sociall% and #oliticall% sensitie

areas

/"ro$g" #artici#ator% a##roac" and grassroots mo0iliation ciil societ%

organiations t"ro!s $# eJ#erienced #ersons and com#eting #ers#ecties

or consideration in t"e state leel deelo#ment #lanning

/"e retreat o t"e !elare state 0eca$se o maret reorms "as $rnis"ed

more o#erational s#ace or ciil societ% in t"e #rocess o deelo#ment

6unctional Relationship 2et-een State and Civil Society Oraniations

t"e commitment o state to deelo#ment is !ee ciil societ% organiations ind it

diic$lt to mae a meaning$l contri0$tion to t"e #rocess o deelo#ment F$rt"er

re#ressie states generall% mistr$st t"e inolement o ciil societ% organiations

!it" eJ#loited sections o societ% n sit$ations !"ere a state dis#la%s strong

commitment to t"e deelo#ment o all sections o societ% t"e ciil societ% sector

eectiel% translates its #otential into strong colla0oratie relations"i# !it" state /"e

#redominant trend is t"at more and more ciil societ% organiations are 0$ilding

colla0oratie relations"i#s and #artners"i# !it" state '$c" a relations"i# is

considered "ealt"% i it is 0ased on m$t$al tr$st and a$tonom% o ciil societ%

organiations A certain degree o inancial a$tonom% o ciil societ% sector is cr$cial

or maintain "ealt"% relations"i# !it" state onse>$entl% t"e state gets eJ#osed to

grassroots #ers#ecties concerns and eJ#eriences o deelo#ment 'tate res#onds 0%

inoling re#resentatie o ciil societ% sector in orm$lation o #olicies and

strategies o deelo#ment /"e 0asis o gen$ine colla0oration rests not on oering

com#eting alternaties 0$t rat"er on maing com#limentar% contri0$tion to t"e

#rocess o deelo#ment ,istr$st and $ns"ared o0Mecties res$lt in tensions riction

and $ltimatel% an aderse relations"i# 0et!een state and ciil societ% ontrar% to

t"at i t"e relations"i# is er% co% t"e ciil societ% organisations ace t"e ris o

0eing red$ced to t"e stat$s o s$0-contracting #artners in deelo#ment /"e ciil

societ% sector tends to acce#t $ncriticall% state


59/217

'ocial #olicies s"o$ld strie to 0$ild a "ealt"% ciil societ%N

*$0lic acco$nta0ilit% o state instit$tionsN

/aJation #olicies #roiding incenties to ciil societ% organisationsN

+eg$lation to "el# and acilitate o ciil societ% organisationsN

.limination o corr$#tion restrictie la!s and #roced$resN

'tate


60/217

/"e $nso$nd claims o #erormance o ol$ntar% organiationsN

'tate$alit% o t"is relations"i# is #redominantl% determined 0% t"e nat$re and6


61/217


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= Gra"am Daid / and ana ; *o$ eds Miration, lo-ali


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22 +ag"aan + (ed) iil 'ociet% and &$man 'ec$rit%K 'o$t" and 'o$t"

.ast Asian .J#eriences ,acmillan e! Del"i 2=

23 +isse /"omas 'te#"en +o## and ;at"r%n 'iin eds The #ower of

&uman Rihts5 International /orms and Domestic !hane e! orK

am0ridge Uniersit% *ress 1===

24 ' eil ,acFralane and en Foong ;"ong (26) &$man 'ec$rit% and

t"e UK A ritical &istor% loomingtonK ndiana Uniersit% *ress

25 /andon +aMes" and ,o"ant% +anMita (eds) Does iil 'ociet% ,attersR

Goernance in ontem#orar% ndia 'age *$0lication e! Del"i 23

26 /adM0a"s" '"a"r0ano$ and "eno% An$rad"a , (26) &$man

'ec$rit% once#ts and m#lications,+o$tledge

27 'tedman 'te#"en Eo"n International Actors and Internal !onflicts e!

orK +oceeller rot"ers F$nd nc 1===

28 'toett *eter &uman and lo-al Security5 An 6:ploration of Terms

/orontoK Uniersit% o /oronto *ress 1===

2= /e"ranian ,aMid ed ;orlds Apart5 &uman Security and lo-al

overnance n association !it" t"e /oda nstit$te or Glo0al *eace and*olic% +esearc" ondonK /a$ris 1===

3 /"a$r +ames" and .d!ard e!man eds /ew Millennium, /ew

#erspectives the Cnited /ations, Security, and overnance% UU

,illenni$m 'eries /o%oK United ations Uniersit%*ress 2

31 /"omas aroline lo-al overnance, Development and &uman Security5

The !hallene of #overty and Ineuality ondonK *l$to *ress 2

)rticles

1 A0ad Er , /"e "allenge o alancing 'tate 'ec$rit% !it" &$man

'ec$rit%HIndonesianQuarterly ZZ4 (2)K 43-41

2 Annan ;oi &$man 'ec$rit% and nterentionH ital Speeches of the

Day 661 (1===)

3 Arias 'anc"e Oscar &$man 'ec$rit%K O$r ommon +es#onsi0ilit%HDisarmament, A #eriodic Review 1=3 (1==6)

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4 AJ!ort"% lo%d anada and &$man 'ec$rit%K /"e eed or eaders"i#

International Journal 522 (1==7)K 183-1=6

5 aM#ai ;anti &$man 'ec$rit%K once#t and ,eas$rementF /"e Eoan

;roc nstit$te or nternational *eace 't$dies Uniersit% o otre Dame

Occasional *a#er S1= (A$g$st 2)

6 aM#ai ;anti /"e dea o a &$man 'ec$rit% A$ditHReport 1= (2)K 1-

4

7 ald!in Daid A (1==7) /"e once#t o 'ec$rit%H Review of

International Studies ol 23 ## 5-26

8 $tteda"l *a ie!#ointK /r$e ,eas$res o &$man 'ec$rit%H IRD!

Reports 223 (Octo0er 1==4)K 1-5

= a#eling-AlaiMa '"aron '"ared isionK :omen and Glo0al &$man

'ec$rit%HDevelopment 2 (1==4)K 44-48

1 G"ils *a$l nternational iil 'ociet%K nternational on-goernmental

Organiation in t"e nternational '%stem International Social Science

Journal,ol$me 44 o133 (A$g$st 1==2) ## 417-431

11 &aterdorn & /"e 'ec$rit% *$leK /"eor%-$ilding and Disci#line-$ilding in nternational 'ec$rit%H International Studies Quarterly 351

(,arc" 1==1)K 3-17

12 &am#son Fen Osler and Dean F Olier *$l#it Di#lomac%K a ritical

Assessment o t"e AJ!ort"% DoctrineH International Journal 3

(1==8)K 37=-46

13 &a> ,a"0$0 $l (1==4) e! m#eraties o &$man 'ec$rit%K ar0ara

:ard ect$re 1=72HDevelopment ol 2 ## 4-43

14 &a> ,a"0$0 $l (1==4) e! m#eraties o &$man 'ec$rit% +G'

*a#er o 17 +aMi Gand"i nstit$te or ontem#orar% 't$dies e!

Del"iK +aMi Gand"i Fo$ndation

15 &a> ,a"0$0 $l- &$man +ig"ts 'ec$rit% and GoernanceH #eace "

#olicy Journal of the Toda Institute for lo-al #eace and #olicy Research

32 (Fall9:inter 1==8)

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2= '$"re Astri &$man 'ec$rit% and t"e nterests o 'tatesH Security

Dialoue 33 (1===)K 265-276

3 United ations Deelo#ment *rogramme (UD*) +edeining 'ec$rit%K

/"e &$man DimensionH !urrent &istory =4 (,a% 1==4)K 22=-236

31 :atson Do$

revised as on 27th oct 2012 ph.d. rakesh kumar.doc

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