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hope, however, to restore to a patient his basic patternby reducing the tensions which personal conflictsand frustrations in childhood and adolescence andmaturity have produced.With regard to the limits determined by the

psychopathologies themselves, these are determinedby the ideology of the theories, their fundamentalassumptions. There is a tendency in most scientificdisciplines to look for a unifying concept which shallexplain the facts they have discovered. If it satisfiesa large number of facts it more easily becomes afoundation-stone of doctrine, and the superstructureof theory takes on the shape predetermined by thisfoundation concept, sometimes where subsequentfacts warrant alternative theories. The danger ofthese unitary ideas in psychological medicine is thatthe structure of the mind and the method of therapyare profoundly influenced. Adler has taken the ideaof superiority and sees it permeating all humanbehaviour. That this is derived from the inferiorityfeeling is admitted. Both inferiority and superiorityare complex mental states, and while the one mayunderlie the other, it is in Adlerian analyses not

very fundamental. But Adler has nowhere madeclear what this really means, whether it is gregarious-ness, whether it is or not an instinct or search forothers and a satisfaction in their presence. Wenowhere are told whether these are inborn dis-positions or derivations. At most we can say they areall high level conative dispositions, and little if

any reference is made to the potency of unconsciousprocesses.The Freudian psychology has much more to

recommend it inasmuch as it bases itself on an instinct

psychology which lies at the root of psychogenesis.But here too the search for unitary principles haslimited the structure of the mind by the narrowconcept of a libido which makes a reductive analysisalmost an infinite regress. It is freer, however,from limitations of more superficial psychopathologiesin that it gives room for levels of conative activity-the it or instinctual level, the ego level and the levelof ego-superstructures-morals, ideals, and sublima-tions. Psycho-analysis concerns all three levelssimultaneously, but it limits the interpretation inlumping together erotic libido and ego libido in twomutually incompatible groups. Furthermore, despiterecent developments in the psychology of aggressionit does not take us beyond the pleasure principle.The death instinct is a piece of biological speculationand is an illegitimate attempt to escape from theimpasse of hedonism to which psycho-analysis hasbecome committed. That the load of sexual tensionis greater than all other instincts is undeniable, butpsychopathology is unduly limited and human natureunnaturally confined by the exclusion of other funda-mental conative drives. For practical purposes aswell as for theory a wider instinct theory is moreilluminating, and what sheds most and widest lightis calculated to produce the best therapy.

REVIEWS AND NOTICES OF BOOKS

Hydrotherapy and ClimatotherapyBy MATTHEW B. RAY, D.S.O., M.D., M.R.C.P.,Senior Physician, British Red Cross Clinic forRheumatism, Peto-place, N.W. With a Fore-word by Lord HORDER. London : Edward Arnoldand Co. 1936. Pp. 312. 12s. 6d.THIS book is divided into two sections of which

the first contains an admirable introduction to the

principles of hydrotherapy and notes on its practicalapplication. Various systemic disorders are alsodiscussed-those of the circulatory, respiratory, andgenito-urinary systems, disorders of the skin and ofthe nervous system, and finally the rheumatic diseases.The author has classified and described the spas " inaccordance with their main therapeutic indications "as regards the above disorders. This method of

grouping the spas will not meet with general approval,for many hold that a first-class spa should be lookedupon as essentially a repairing depot for disordersof metabolism. Any suggestion that this or that

spa is only suitable for this or that disorder is to bedeprecated, in so far as it may bolster up ill-

equipped spas at the expense of those more deservingof support. Incidentally Harrogate and Bath arescarcely mentioned in connexion with the rheumaticdiseases ; yet both these spas have long had largevoluntary hospitals where hundreds of cases of chronicrheumatic disorders are admitted and treated witha good measure. of success every year.The second section of the book deals with climato-

therapy, and here the elementary principles are

well set out considering our imperfect knowledge ofwhat part the climatic factor plays in maintainingor promoting health. The short extracts about thehealth resorts require revision in certain respects.For example, for elderly invalids Weston-super-Mare is recommended in autumn and winter, butnot in spring. Anyone who has experienced thecold autumnal and winter winds would discourage

elderly invalids from residing there during suchmonths, whereas no place could be more delightfulthan Weston-super-Mare in April or May. Theinformation supplied on foreign spas and healthresorts is rather cursory, but there is much inthe book which will stimulate the interest ofpractitioners in this country.

Electrical Engineering in RadiologyBy L. G. H. SARSFIELD, M.Sc., M.I.E.E., A.Inst.P.,Research Department, Woolwich. London : Chap-man and Hall Ltd. 1936. Pp. 284. 25s.THE developments of post-war years have wrought

many changes in the design of X ray equipment, andthe simple laboratory hook-up of former times hasnow been displaced by a comparatively much morecomplex if more efficient high-tension equipment.A certain amount of electrical knowledge is necessaryfor anyone who wants to understand every part ofthis technical work, but of this volume the greaterportion is devoted to descriptive matter-notablyhistorical surveys, results of experimental work anddevelopment, electrical characteristics, and construc-tional details, which are all clearly outlined. Mr.Sarsfield points out that recognised engineeringstandards are now being applied as far as possibleto the manufacture of X ray equipment, while atthe same time the peculiar requirements of the workto be done by this type of apparatus permit of theapplication of new standards. Such matters as thechoice of suitable materials for the various duties,dielectric stresses, and methods of assembly are

dealt with, specimen design sheets being included.The realm of purely operative technique is avoided

but many important hints are given on the bestelectrical conditions for service ; the characteristicsof the various components of an X ray set are out-lined, and questions of lay-out are discussed. Valvefilament operating conditions, the measurement of

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essential electrical factors, tests, and the advantagesand disadvantages of different methods of rectifica-tion all receive attention. In dealing with spheregap measurements it is pointed out that misleadingresults may follow breakdown of the gap due to thepresence of peaks superimposed upon the funda-mental voltage wave applied to the X ray tube.This no doubt accounts for the discrepancies oftenapparent between the exciting tension as indicated byradiographic results and that indicated by the spheregap measurement, especially where mechanical recti-fication is concerned. In this connexion the neces-sity for knowledge of wave shape is stressed, and,generally speaking, if Mr. Sarsfield’s plea for accuracyof measurement is observed, much lower film billswill follow. High-tension systems, high-voltagecables, and the importance of proper earthing arealso considered.

Little space is given to the purely physical aspectof X ray tubes, but the various types are welldescribed. Various circuit arrangements, methods ofcontrol, maintenance, faults in apparatus, and thevexed question of signals are outlined, while pio-tective measures, electrical safety, and radiationoutput efficiencies are discussed at some length. A

chapter is devoted to describing special equipmentsfor diverse applications in radiology, and such sub-jects as dark room lighting, heating of developingsolutions, protective measures are not ignored.Examination apparatus for medical work does notform part of the subject matter, the author devotingthe whole of his attention to the apparatus betweenthe main supply and the X ray tube. Radiologists,X ray students, technicians, and others will welcomethis treatise on a highly specialised subject. Thebook is well illustrated.

The Variation of Animals in NatureBy G. C. ROBSON, M.A., Deputy Keeper of Zoology,British Museum (Natural History); and 0. W.RICHARDS, M.A., D.Sc., Lecturer in Entomology,Imperial College of Science and Technology.London : Longmans, Green and Co. 1936. Pp. 425.21s.IT is not generally realised to what extent modern

theories of the causes of evolution are based uponselected evidence and upon the prejudices of thetheorist. The fact that at least three fundamentallydifferent theories are in currency at present makesus welcome this unbiased survey of the main factsand conclusions therefrom which have been used in

support of these theories. The authors have covereda wide field and have subjected their material tothe most searching criticism. Most biologists haveassumed either that natural selection (to which 135pages are devoted) is the main driving force of evolu-tion, or that it is at least a necessary factor in theprocess, and elaborate mathematical theories havebeen erected on this basis. It will therefore come asa surprise to many that there is hardly any directevidence for either of these assumptions, though inconnexion with certain phenomena such as mimicrythe circumstantial evidence is very strong. The

origin and distribution of variations, the effects ofisolation, and the concept of

"

adaptation " are herediscussed very fully, and a chapter is given to anexamination of the main theories of evolution otherthan the selection theory. The authors are in the endalmost embarrassingly non-committal. They saytruly that " any attempt to form an unprejudicedconclusion [as to the causes of evolution] labours undertechnical difficulties which frustrate it and limit itto a summing of possibilities," but it is difficult to

discover to which of these possibilities they considerthe present evidence to point. They seem to favourthe theory that the variations which have been

mainly significant in evolution are of the nature ofthe mutations of the geneticist, though admittingthat it is by no means certain that the environmentmay not have played a direct part in inducing changesunder certain conditions. They do not consider theevidence sufficient to warrant the conclusion thatselection has been an all-important factor in the

spread of variations. And in this they are at onewith the trend of discussion at the Royal Societysummarised in a recent leading article (p. 1189).There can be no doubt that a restraining influence

of the kind here attempted is badly needed. Theoriesare being erected and even accepted as truth whichare based upon unproven assumptions and upon experi-mental evidence of doubtful application to conditionsin nature. On the other hand, it is unlikelythat such sober argument will prove inspiring toreaders. It must be admitted that well-directedflights of the imagination, provided there is a readi-ness to return to earth at a moment’s notice, are thelife blood of scientific progress.

Youth, Sex and LifeBy GLADYS M. Cox, M.B., B.S. Lond. London:C. Arthur Pearson Ltd. Pp. 229. 3s. 6d.

To write a book on sex for young people and alsofor their parents is a difficult task. Dr. Cox hasaccomplished it with conspicuous success. " Of allthe obstacles that stand in the way of human progressand happiness," she writes,

" I believe that ignorance,prejudice and intolerance are the most potent, andthat selfishness and deliberate cruelty are, more

often than not, the products of these three." Thebook does not purport solely, as do so many thathave recently appeared, to give to the young instruc-tion on sexual physiology; it has the broader aimof providing information and guidance upon all theactivities in which boys and girls are involved. The

chapters deal with the following topics : physicalfitness ; physiology and health ; how the mind works ;drugs and gambling ; exercise for health and pleasure,and sun-bathing ; reproduction in man ; adjustmentto society; some thoughts on preparation for mar-riage ; and sex problems. They are all writtenclearly and simply, without those pseudo-religiousinvocations which modern parents are apt to findslightly nauseating. Dr. Cox does not hesitate to

give the reader advice ; in fact the book is full of it.But the advice is so balanced and restrained, andcouched in such simple and friendly language, thatfew adolescents could escape being favourablyinfluenced by it. Difficult subjects are deftly handled.Psychology is not an easy subject to teach in such away as to be intelligible and useful; human repro-duction, which in this book is made to fit naturallyinto a wider context, is notoriously hard to explainto young people without irrelevant circumlocutions.Yet both these topics are dealt with with grace andjudgment. Many parents are a little nervous ofpreaching to their children ; and many have inhibi-tions which deter them from speaking openly aboutsubjects on which they feel that children should beinformed. This book should do much to removethese inhibitions. Practitioners are often asked todeal with adolescents passing through difficultphases. They could hardly do better than tointroduce this volume to the parents with the sug-gestion that if it is found acceptable it should behanded on to their young.