review of related literature (waste and waste managment
TRANSCRIPT
Review of Related Literature JOSOL APDONGENCIANEOROLANDO
I. Definition of WastesII. Classification of Wastes
A. Solid WasteB. Liquid WasteC. SludgeD. Hazardous Waste
III. Waste ManagementA. Waste Management in Developed Nations
1. Solid WasteA) LandfillsB) RecyclingC) Incineration
2. Liquid WasteA) Management PlansB) Waste Water Treatment FacilitiesC) Injection Wells
3. Hazardous WasteA) LandfillB) Incineration
B. Waste Management in Developing Nations1. Solid Waste
A) LandfillsB) RecyclingC) Incineration
2. Liquid WasteA) Management PlansB) Waste Water Treatment FacilitiesC) Injection Wells
3. Hazardous WasteA) LandfillB) Incineration
C. Waste Management: The Philippine Setting1. Solid Waste Management2. Liquid Waste Management3. Hazardous Waste Management
IV. Threats of Improper Waste ManagementV. Initiatives for Liquid Waste Management
Review of Related Literature
I. Definition of Wastes
Waste can be described as "any substance or object the holder discards, intends to
discard or is required to discard", as defined by the Waste Framework Directive
(European Directive (WFD) 2006/12/EC), (amended by the new WFD (Directive
2008/98/EC, coming into force in December 2010).
In the Philippines’ Republic Act No. 9275 (An Act Providing For a
Comprehensive Water Quality management and for Other Purposes), waste means “any
material either solid, liquid, semisolid, contained gas or other forms resulting from
industrial, commercial, mining or agricultural operations, or from community and
household activities that is devoid of usage and discarded.”
II. Classification of Wastes
The classification of wastes varies and depends country by country. Waste can be
divided into many different types. The most common method of classification is by their
physical, chemical, and biological characteristics.
1. Solid Waste
Solid waste is broadly defined as including non-hazardous industrial, commercial
and domestic refuse including household organic trash, street sweepings, hospital and
institutional garbage, and construction wastes; generally sludge and human waste are
regarded as a liquid waste problem outside the scope of MSW (Zerbock, 2003).These are
waste materials that contain less than 70% water. Example of this type of waste are the
domestic or household garbage, some industrial wastes, some mining wastes, and oilfield
wastes such as drill cuttings.
2. Liquid Waste
These are usually wastewaters that contain less than 1%. This type of waste may
contain high concentration of dissolved salts and metals. Liquid wastes are often
classified into two broad types: sewage and toxic wastes. Generally, there are various
types of liquid waste generated in urban centers: human excreta, domestics wastes
produced in households, hospital wastes, industrial effluents, agricultural liquid wastes
and nuclear wastes. When improperly handled and disposed of, liquid wastes pose a
serious threat to human health and the environment because of their ability to enter
watersheds, pollute ground water and drinking water (US EPA, 2009).
3. Sludge
It is a class of waste between liquid and solid. They usually contain between 3%
and 25% solid, while the rest of the material is dissolved water.
4. Hazardous Waste
Hazardous wastes are wastes which, by themselves or after coming into contact
with other wastes, have characteristics, such as chemical reactivity, toxicity,
corrosiveness or a tendency to explode, that pose a risk to human health or the
environment. Hazardous wastes are generated from a wide range of industrial,
commercial, agricultural, and to a much less extent, domestic activities. They may take
the form of solids, liquids or sludges, and can pose both acute and chronic public health
and environmental risks.
III. Waste Management
A. Waste Management in Developed Countries
Brought basically by their more developed industries and more advanced
technology, developed nations have more efficient and standard liquid waste
management plans.
Developed countries, however, still employ different methods of waste disposal
(which largely depends on a country’s policies and preferences). The large amount of
solid waste (including its collection, transfer and disposal) generated in developed nations
has been generally assumed by municipal governments. The format varies, however, in
most urban areas, where garbage is collected either by a government agency or private
contractor, and this constitutes a basic and expected government function in the
developed world. (Zerbock, 2003)
1. Solid Waste Management
A) Landfill
The placement of solid waste in landfills is probably the oldest and
definitely the most prevalent form of ultimate garbage disposal (Zerbock,
2003). It is to be noted, however, that most landfills refer to nothing more than
open dumps. Nonetheless, in the case of developed countries, waste disposal
is often in the form of sanitary landfills, which differ from open dumps by
their higher degree of engineering, planning and administration.
Landfills account for the disposal of 90% of the United States’ solid
wastes. It is also the most common disposal method in the United Kingdom
where annually, approximately 111 million tones of controlled wastes are
disposed in their 4000 landfill sites (Baker, 2005).
In a modern landfill, refuse is spread thin, compacted layers covered by a
layer of clean earth. Pollution of surface water and groundwater is minimized
by lining and contouring the fill, compacting and planting the uppermost
cover layer, diverting drainage, and selecting proper soil in sites not subject to
flooding or high groundwater levels. The best soil for a landfill is clay because
clay is less permeable than other types of soil. Materials disposed of in a
landfill can be further secured from leakage by solidifying them in materials
such as cement, fly ash from power plants, asphalt, or organic polymers
(Bassis, 2005)
Landfills can also be shifted to another use after their capacities have been
reached. The city of Evanston, Illinois, built a landfill up into a hill and the
now-complete “Mt. Trashmore” is a ski area. Golf courses built over landfill
sites are also increasingly common (Montgomery, 2000).
B) Recycling or the 3R’s
Another method, which sets off before waste disposal is waste
reduction through recycling or often coined as the 3 R’s: reuse, reduce, and
recycle. On the local or regional level, reducing wastes is accomplished
through these methods by source separation and subsequent material recovery.
Currently, the United States recycles about 10% of its glass and 25%
of its paper wastes; in countries such as Switzerland and the Netherlands, the
proportion in the glass recycled approaches to 50% while Japan recycles 50%
of its paper wastes (Montgomery, 2000).
C) Incineration
Some countries, on the other hand, manage most of their solid waste through
incinerators. Incineration, or the controlled burning of waste at high temperatures
to produce steam and ash, is another waste disposal option and an alternative to
landfilling (US Environmental Protection Agency, 2009). Incinerators are
designed for the destruction of wastes and are commonly employed in developed
nations who could afford the costs of the burning facilities, plus its operation and
maintenance (Mc Cracken, 2005).
This type of waste disposal is the second largest disposal method in most
developed countries and ranks next to landfills in the United States and the United
Kingdom. In the UK, approximately 5% of household waste, 75 % of commercial
waste and 2% of industrial waste is disposed of through this method (Baker,
2005)
In spite of its huge capital requirements, incineration presents to be a
promising option for developed island nations whose small land area makes
landfilling an unsuitable method for their waste disposal. Reduction by
incineration, along with sanitary disposal of the residue, has been proven useful in
nations such as Bermuda and the British Virgin Islands (Lettsome 1998 as cited
by Zerbock 2003). A further benefit of incineration can be realized if the heat
generated thereby is recovered. For years, European cities have generated
electricity using waste-disposal incinerators as sources of heat (Montgomery,
2000).
There are negative issues, however, in the use of this burning method and
much of that circulate around its safety for the environment and to the human
health. It is argued that the combustion process creates air pollution, ash, and
waste water, all of which must be properly managed using technical monitoring,
containment, and treatment systems. Harmful pollutants are released into the
environment whenever these by-products are not controlled (US EPA, 2009).
Operators of these facilities must be well-trained and certified to ensure proper
management.
2. Liquid Waste Management
A) Management Plans
Management of liquid waste in developed nations often follows rigorous
steps and phases which commonly involves treatment processes. In British
Columbia, municipalities are allowed to develop their Liquid Waste
Management Plans. The country adopts a proactive strategy that intends to
achieve their Ministry of Environment’s long-term goal of achieving zero
pollution. Part of that strategy includes: pollution prevention, Best Available
Control Technology (BACT) and the principle of polluter pay. This strategy
represents a major change in the traditional regulatory approach to
environmental protection, which attempted to deal with pollution after it
occurred. The future emphasis will be on pollution prevention and on
involving all stakeholders in an open and consultative approach to
environmental protection (Environmental Protection Division, Ministry of
Environment, Government of British Columbia, 2009).\
B) Wastewater Treatment
The strategy employed by the government of British Columbia combines a
number of processes and programs to achieve zero pollution. However, when
it comes to liquid waste management, the simplest approach is to control the
quality of wastewater at its point of treatment and discharge. This places
regulation and control at the institutional level as treatment is normally
conducted by a public agency. The quality of the discharge can then be
regulated to fit the type of use. This alternative assumes that the treatment
system is well managed and maintained and produces a reliable quality of
effluent. This approach is utilized in the United States, Canada, and Europe
and in many cases requires an advanced level of treatment technology
( Zerbock, 2003).
C) Injection wells
In the USA, industrial wastes that are primarily liquid are usually disposed
of in injection wells. Injection wells receiving aqueous wastes can be placed
in highly permeable, underground geological formations. These formations
are well below 1000 m underground, which is lower than the depth of most
aquifers used as sources of drinking water. Before injection, liquid wastes are
filtered to remove suspended solids and skimmed for phased organic
compounds. Filtration prevents the plugging of the injection formation. If the
waste is reactive, it is converted to less reactive compounds before injection.
3. Hazardous Waste Management
Much of the concern of many countries regarding their waste management
circulates around the disposal of hazardous wastes. Due to their toxicity and large
threat to human and environment health, this type of waste requires more
stringent and sophisticated methods of disposal.
Basically, the United States’s federal regulations classify their waste into
two types: hazardous and solid. In 1976, congress adopted the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act, the primary national law for addressing
production waste (waste generated in the course of ongoing activity or business).
In such act, the term ‘solid’ does not necessarily refer to a waste’s physical
property and thus the waste can also be a liquid or a contained gas (National
Society of Professional Engineers, USA, 2009). The RCRA provides a stringent
classification of hazardous wastes and the necessary treatment that such wastes
should undergo. Under the law, a ‘comprehensive national “cradle-to-grave”
program for regulating the generation, transportation, treatment, storage and
disposal of hazardous wastes is established. Such program includes a system for
tracking the wastes’ point sources and point of disposal, and a permitting system
to control the operation of treatment, storage and disposal facilities (US
Environmental Protection Agency).
B. Waste Management in Developing Countries
Although largely limited in terms of budget and technology as compared to the
developed nations, developing countries also take their share in implementing waste
management policies.
1. Solid Waste Management
In developing countries, it is common for municipalities to spend 20-
50 percent of their available recurrent budget on solid waste management.
Yet, it is also common that 30-60 percent of all the urban solid waste in
developing countries is uncollected and less than 50 percent of the
population is served. In some cases, as much as 80 percent of the
collection and transport equipment is out of service, in need of repair or
maintenance. In most developing countries, open dumping with open
burning is the norm (The World Bank, 2009).
A) Open Dumps
Dumps are long-established method of waste disposal in many
countries. Although this method have been largely phased-out in most
developed countries and replaced by sanitary landfills, many developing
nations still rely on this form of disposal. Open dumps are not much to be
endorsed though. They are unsightly, unsanitary and generally smelly,
they attract rats, insects and other pests; they are also fire hazards.
Still, behind these negative aspects, open dumps continue to be
prevalent in countries like India, the Philippines and Indonesia.
B) Landfill is also a common method of solid waste disposal in most
developing countries, although many of them harbors open dumps.
C) Recycling
In many developing countries and countries with economies in
transition there are two types of recycling sectors, a formal sector and
informal sector. Formal recycling sector, using efficient technologies
and state-of-the-art recycling facilities are rare. As a result, recyclable
materials are managed through various informal sectors with low-end
management alternatives such as manual separation of recyclable
components, burning of some components in open pits to recover
precious metals, and dumping of residues into surface water bodies.
This informal sector of the economy employs thousands of poor
people who are not aware of the hazard of exposure or hazards that
exist in some recyclable materials (Basel Convention Report Paper,
2009).
2. Liquid Waste Management
In spite of the continuing efforts of many developing nations to
cope with the standards of the developed nations, finance and technology
plus policies still put limit to what they have generally achieved.
According to the World Resources Institute, it has been estimated that
over 90% of the sewage in developing countries is discharged into surface
waters with no treatment conducted. In India, with its 3,100plus cities and
towns, only 209 have even partial sewage treatment (Montgomery, 2000).
4. Hazardous Waste Management
In many countries, current emphasis is more on preventing and
minimizing the production of hazardous wastes by adopting the ‘pollution
prevention hierarchy’.
There are several problems that could be associated with poor
disposal techniques and management. One of these problems could be the
fact that many developing countries and countries with economies in
transition do not have the expertise to manage hazardous wastes in an
environmentally sound manner, and most may not employ proper
technologies. Furthermore, many of these countries may not have a system
and infrastructure to ensure that hazardous wastes are managed in a
manner which will protect human health and the environment against the
adverse effects which may result from such wastes. The governments
often lack information about how much and what types of pollutants are
released, and what risk they pose to people and the environment (Basel
Convention Paper, 2009).
C. Waste Management: The Philippine Setting
1. Philippine Solid Waste Management
In our country, solid waste management is embodied in RA 9003 or the
Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000. This law provides “the legal
framework for the country’s systematic, comprehensive and ecological solid
waste management program that shall ensure protection of public health and the
environment” (Environmental Management Bureau-DENR, 2009).
2. Philippine Liquid Waste Management
In the Philippine setting, disposal of wastewater is turning to be an
enormous challenge. This is the concern of NEDA Board Resolution No. 5, series
of 1994 which stated the national policy for urban sewerage and sanitation
(Magtibay, 2006). The management of liquid wastes requires a coordinated
system of policies which covers requisites on drainage, sewers, and wastewater
treatment facilities. It is also a complex issue as it traverses across various sectors:
domestic, industrial, agricultural, etc.
Unfortunately, with the current situation of the country, with its political
clashes and poverty situation, liquid waste management had largely been centered
only in the private sectors (Contreras, 2005). Treatments are largely carried out by
industrial groups. Effective domestic liquid waste management occurs mostly in
private households.
In this area, policies once again govern the actions of the concerned
agencies. The treatment and discharge of commercial wastewater (liquid waste
generated by trading or business establishment and or any other related firms or
companies) is regulated and monitored through the provisions of the DENR
Administrative Order No. 2002-16 or the DENR-EMB National Environmental
User’s Fee of 2002, which authors the DENR Wastewater Discharge Permitting
System.
5. Philippine Hazardous Waste Management
Before the enactment of the Clean Air Act (which included in its
provisions the banning of incinerators in the country), hazardous wastes such as
medical and laboratory wastes are subjected to burning processes. Some of the
wastes are also recycled. In 2003, hazardous waste management shifted to land
fills and open dumping as an answer to the banning of burning. In a case study
conducted in hospitals in the Cagayan Valley Region, Northern Luzon, the most
common method of hazardous waste disposal in the area is through dumping.
Results indicated that proper waste management is not fully implemented due to
budget constraint (Bernardo, 2008).
D. Threats and Impacts of Improper Waste Management
With the increase of population comes too the increase in consumption, and
consequently, in the amount of wastes we generate. Through time, problems resulting
from improper and irresponsible management of our wastes have arisen and continue
to do so. Human and ecosystem health can be adversely affected by all forms of
waste, from its generation to its disposal. Over the years, wastes and waste
management responses such as policies, legal, financial, and institutional instruments;
cradle-to-cradle or cradle-to-grave technological options; and socio-cultural practices
have impacted on ecosystem health and human well-being.
Examples are evident in all countries.
A popular example of how improper waste management and lack of coordination
in policies can bring huge environmental and human impacts is the “Love Canal
Incident”. The Love Canal is an area situated at Niagara Falls, New York. In 1953,
the Hooker Chemical Company, then the owners and operators of the property,
covered the canal with earth and sold it to the city for one dollar. In the late '50s,
about 100 homes and a school were built at the site. Twenty five years after the
Hooker Chemical Company stopped using the Love Canal as an industrial dump, 82
different compounds, 11 of them suspected carcinogens, have been percolating
upward through the soil, their drum containers rotting and leaching their contents into
the backyards and basements of 100 homes and a public school built on the banks of
the canal. What followed was a catastrophe that caused several deaths, birth defects
and abnormalities, lawsuits and ultimately, the evacuation of the residents.
Locally, here in the Philippines, the 2001 Smoky Mountain tragedy in the Payatas
Dumpsite is a constant reminder of how disastrous the country’s waste management
has been regarding the case of that open dumpsite. The collapse of that “mountain of
trash” due to the severe rainfall had claimed the lives of many people, both young and
old.
Aside from such disaster caused by the irresponsible management of a former
dumping site, wastewater discharges, as shown by studies, can also bring harmful
impacts to coastal areas and other bodies of water.
In Fiji Island, for example, it has been concluded that the disposal of untreated
human and domestic waste has been the major contributor to the degradation of the
island’s marine environment. Development to the island had brought a shift in species
dominance from hard coral to macro-algae (Mosley and Aalbersberg, 2005 as cited in
the 2005 WHO Liquid Waste Monitoring Project).
There is also no need to mention the numerous incidences of mine tail deposits
and radioactive discharges in many rivers, lakes and shores that have undoubtedly
caused detrimental effects to marine and even human life.
The list goes on and on.
VII. Initiatives for Liquid Waste Management
Waste management practices and policies over the last three decade have resulted in
positive responses in terms of improvement of ecosystems. Some positive impacts of the
responses identified are: (Information lifted from Sridhar and Baker, 2004)
• Waste recycling activities have been found to result in improved resource conservation and
reduced energy consumption as well as reduction of heavy metal contamination of water sources.
• In the Baltic Sea, the mercury levels of fish caught were reduced by 60% due to stringent
pollution control measures.
• Major rivers such as the Thames have supported biodiversity, as is evident from the
reappearance of salmon after rigorous pollution control measures. The ten-year ‘‘clean river’’
program initiated by the Singapore government in 1977 at a cost of US $200 million has brought
life back to the Singapore River and the Kallang Basin, with increased dissolved oxygen levels
ranging from 2 to 4 mg per liter (UNEP 1997).
• Phasing out of lead from gasoline has reduced lead emissions from vehicular sources.
• Wetlands have been widely reported to absorb significant amounts of anthropogenic pollutants.
• Ferti-irrigation practices have significantly improved the economic base of low- income
communities in urban areas. In the tropical countries in particular, controlled and judicious use of
aquatic weeds such as water hyacinth (water hyacinth treatment plant for wastewater) and blue
green algae (waste stabilization ponds) for treating small wastewater flows helped in improving
environmental sanitation and the by-products provided protein and mineral needs of livestock.