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CHAPTER- II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter deals with review of literature on variable approach;
basic concepts; current status of implementation of technology in office
settings; technology, organization, individuals and conceptual framework
of this research study.
A nwnber of evaluation studies have been conducted by different
investigators at different phases to investigate the problems, the impact
and the future of office automation in Indian organizations. However,
most of these studies were conducted in industries in private sectors and
that too prior to 1980, when the Unit Record with Punch card system
was popu1ar. There is one report of the works study team on automation
(office automation) in Maharashtra state by Industries and Labour
Department, Government of Maharashtra in 1968. The Committee
constituted by the Govt. of Maharashtra consisted eminent scholars like
Prof. P.N. Mathur, Prof. N.S. Ramaswamy, Dr. L.S. Kanodia, and Dr.
V.G. Mhetras to assess the extent and impact of automation (electronic
computerization) on industries and labour in the state including the
19
extent of retrenchment due to automation in the industries, the extent
automation would affect potential employment, and the effects of
automation on society and economy in general.
There are some specific studies done by (1) Reports on All India
Insurance Employees' Association - Automation, LIC's case - Calcutta
(1966). (2) Reports on Employees' Federation of India (Bombay) -
Views on Automation (1969). (3) Reports on Kulkarni Raja
International experience in Automation - Computer problems (compiled)
National Federation of Petroleum workers of India, Bombay (1968).
(4) Reports on Indian National Trade Union Congress (lNTUC) -
Automation - Standing Labour Committee to take closer look in Indian
workers (1968). All these studies provide the information on the problems
and impact of automation with the then existing technology which is
prior to 1970.
There are 3 volumes compiled and edited by Alan Simpson (1982)
on the office of the future - planning for the office with automation. Prof.
W.H. Scott (1961) has given his views on administrative and human
problems arising due to office automation in United States. The
Department of Employment, London, Her Majesty's office (1972) has
studied the manpower and situation of computers in offices. Prof. 20
Kathleen P. Wagoner and Prof. Mary Ruprecht (1976) in their book
named "Office Automation, Technology and Concepts", have given the
principles of managing in the office environment as it gets increasingly
automated.
P.S. Goodman and T.L. Griffith (1991) have developed a process
oriented theoretical approach for understanding the implementation of
new technology. Five processes viz., socialization, commitment, reward
allocation, feedback and redesign, and diffusion, are conceptually related
to the successful implementation of new technology in the organization.
Norio Kambayashi (1995) has given some empirical evidence in
new forms of management organization under new technology. A
business organization consists of both a work organization, in which
workers engage in daily operations, and a management organization in
which managers engage in managing the work organization. Following
the advance of new technology such as microelectronics and information
technology, there has appeared a team production system instead of the
so-called one-man, one job type of work organization. At the management
organization level, it is claimed that the so-called flat-type or network
type organization instead of the hierarchical organization has appeared,
based on information sharing among every organizational unit. In his 21
paper some new trends III organizational structure at the level of
management organization under new technology is discussed. According
to him, "new technologies should promote information sharing among
organizational units and blur the boundaries between them, but the
hierarchical design principle is not completely avoided and hierarchy
still remains even under the flat type or network type organization".
Karasek (1985) has developed a model, showing interaction
between high psychological demands and low decision latitude. If the
demands are regarded as the x - axis and decision latitude as the y-axis,
in a two dimensional system, and then the different combinations of high
low demands and high-low decisions are regarded, four combinations are
regarded as the most relevant to stress development. This model predicts
that mental strain results from the interaction of job demand and job
decision latitude. The consistent finding is that it is the combination of
low decision latitude and heavy job demands which is associated with
mental stress. This model can be examined in the process oriented
approach in implementing new forms of office automation in the
organizations and evaluating its success criteria.
22
2.2 VARIABLE APPROACH OF IMPLEMENTATION PROCESS
It was seen that there is an increase in empirical research on the
implementation of new technology in the organizations in the Western
environment. For example, one research stream covers the
implementation of new technology in office settings, and is illustrated by
the work of Bikson (Bikson,1987; Bikson, et a1., 1987a, 1987b). Another
example is Ettlie's (1984) research on the implementation of
manufacturing technology.
In addition to empirical research, there have also been several
reviews of the implementation literature. Lucas' (1981) review of the
literature on information systems and operations research is one of the
most comprehensive to date. Tornatzky et a1. (1983) provide a chapter on
implementation within the context of their broader reVIew of the
technological innovation process. Ives and Olson (1984) reVIew
implementation of management information systems (MIS) as it relates to
the specific topic of user involvement and MIS success.
How does this research work differ from the research cited above?
First, the researcher's goal is to present a different the theoretical
perspective on implementation of new technology in Indian context rather
than a review of the implementation literature. The focus is on critical 23
processes which explain why certain factors affect implementation. Much
of the current literature focuses on whether certain variables, such as
users' participation or top managerial support, make a difference.
Second, is to present a different theoretical approach to conducting
research on implementation. In this research study, the approach begins
by articulating a set of critical theoretical processes. Then apply the
processes to a specific technology and setting in order to generate
propositions for testing and explaining successful implementation of new
technology and the role of social support within the organization. In more
traditional approaches to implementation research, one begins with
classes of technological, organizational, and implementation variables,
and then generates inferences about how these variables affect
implementation. In this study, approaches move away from trying to
develop a general or contingency model of implementation. Rather, the
focus is on using critical theoretical processes to explain different degrees
of implementation success and the role of social support in this process to
achieve the desired success.
2.3 BASIC CONCEPTS IN PROCESS APPROACH
The implementation is considered to be: (1) a process; (2)
undertaken to translate a tool, technique, method, or other objects into 24
some fonn of utilization; and (3) bounded by the adoption decision and
institutionalization (Tomatzky and Johnson, 1982; Ettlie, 1984; Lucas,
1986).
The adoption decision (Dean, 1987) refers to the processes by
which a new piece of technology is selected for the organization. While
the adoption decision clearly affects implementation, it is composed of
different processes and is analytically distinct from implementation.
Institutionalization refers to the process by which a structure
persists over time (Goodman and Dean, 1982). The distinction about
when implementation stops and institutionalization starts may be a bit
arbitrary. However, the learning curve concept may help in delineation.
During the implementation of a new technology, some type of learning
curve should be observed. As one moves down the learning curve, an
equilibrium should be reached. It is the persistence of this dynamic
equilibrium which is addressed by the concept of institutionalization.
Technology is the other key concept. While there are many
definitions of technology (Goodman, 1986; Weick, 1990), here
technology refers to a system of components which act on or change an
object from one state to another. The components include hardware,
25
software, and programs to transfonn materials or infonnation from one
state to another. Implicit in this definition is the view of technology as a
system of cause and effect relationships embedded in machines and
methods (Sproull and Goodman, 1990). In this study, the researcher
focused but not exclusively, on new computer-based technology.
Examples from manufacturing settings include computer-aided design,
computer-aided manufacturing (e.g., robots), flexible manufacturing
systems, and computer-aided techniques for management (e.g. planning
tools). Examples from office settings include management infonnation
systems (e.g. order processing systems) and telecommunication systems
(e.g. electronic mail). Although much of the current implementation
literature concerns infonnation technology, it was believed that process
approach is generalizeable to many fonns of new technology.
2.4 CURRENT STATUS AND IMPLEMENTATION STUDIES: RELEVANT LITERATURE
In this section, it was characterized the current fonn of studies on
implementation. The researcher's interest is to illustrate some ideas, not to
do a comprehensive literature review. It is suggested that the literature is
largely framed around variables, such as the characteristics of the
technology or a particular implementation strategy.
26
It is better to begin by looking at other reviews of the literature
(Bikson et aI., 1981; Lucas, 1986), which basically indicate that
organizational, technological, and implementation strategies are the major
classes of variables affecting implementation success. The literature on
implementation of new technology with a particular focus on empirical
studies in the 1980-1991 time period was then examined. Again, the
general theoretical framework is that organizational, technological, and
implementation variables affect the degree of implementation success.
The modal study is designed around a few specific variables from one or
more of these classes of variables.
Some examples from this literature may be instructive. From the
organizational class, variables such as the availability of resources and the
contingent nature of the reward system affect the successful
implementation of the new technology (Bikson et aI., 1987a, Leonard
Barton, 1987a). The characteristics of the technology itself make a
difference. For example, there is evidence that the level of functionality
and modifiability of the technology is positively associated with
implementation success (Bikson et al., 1987a). Implementation strategies
which enhance a socio-technical orientation and create a gradual change
are also likely to be more effective (Bikson et aI., 1987a).
27
The variable approach has been the major intellectual orientation in
this literature. There are persistent findings generated from this theoretical
approach which inform both theory and practice. At the same time, it
appears then there are limitations to this variable approach, and recently,
some movement to a process perspective (Cooper and Zmud, 1990). It
was believed that now at a position in the implementation literature where
it might be valuable to consider alternative paradigms to the variable
approach.
2.5 IMPLEMENTATION OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN OFFICE SETTINGS:
The primary aim of this literature reVlew IS to survey preVlous
studies of the implementation of innovations in organizations in order to
see what light they may shed on the introduction of computerized
procedures into office settings. Specifically, undertaking such an
endeavour should suggest the classes or types of variables that are likely
to affect short and long-run outcomes of the implementation of
information technology in work contexts, and should provide a framework
for examining that process.
28
For this purpose, office infonnation technology is regarded as
comprising multifunction computer systems that perfonn some of the
infonnation handling tasks of the work unit in interaction with their users;
they encompass a number of autonomous parts whose tasks can be
executed in parallel. This definition distinguishes the systems thought to
indicate the "office of the future" from closely related technologies that
are single-function and/or non-interactive (e.g., voice message systems,
typewriters with memories, computerized payroll processing, and other
already widely diffused technologies).
While there exists a body of research related to technological
innovation, there has been little systematic study of implementation of
electronic infonnation technology. Further, the bulk of existing research
infonnation on innovation represents the experience of public sector
organizations, while the national productivity effects of office infonnation
technology are expected to support largely from its use in the private
sector. Consequently, this review gives special attention to questions
about the extent to which findings generated by studies of more limited
types of innovation in public sector organizations can be expected to
apply to the implementation of computerized infonnation technology in
private sector settings.
29
Computer technology, having advanced tremendously slDce the
introduction of magnetic card typewriters in the late 1980's, has already
entered into fourth generation technology and software and a substantial
number and variety in private and public sector organizations. The
"office of the filture" has thus been touted as the major change in work
settings to be expected during the 1980's (cf. Coopers and Lybrand
Newsletter, 1978; Mankin, 1978; Connel, 1979, 1980; Cockroft, 1979).
Most large corporations and government offices are planning or
implementing "office of the future systems". Such changes are expected
to affect well over 50 percent of the total work force (Bair, 1978).
Moreover, the search for more rapid error-free communication as well as
expanding needs to link information to large or remote databases and
other equipment is creating a growing demand for local networks.
2.6 TECHNOLOGY, ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL
2.6.1 Organizational Technology
Organizational technology, at the most general level, has been
defined as the process of transforming inputs into outputs (Fry, 1982).
For example (perrow, 1967), defined technology as a technique or a group
of techniques employed to alter materials in a predictable manner. Both
30
Rousseau (1978, 1979) and Gerwin (1981) defined technology as a
process of transfonning raw materials into outputs. The significant
variables ill the transfonnation process are the raw materials and the
technical and knowledge processes needed to accomplish the
organization's goals. Woodward (1965) defined teclrnology in tenns of
the type of production process. The emphasis in her definition is on the
predictability and controllability of this process. Hulin and Roznowski
(1985), in a more comprehensive manner, defined organizational
technology as the "physical combined with intellectual or knowledge
processes by which materials in some form are transfonned into outputs
used by another organization or subsystem within the same organization".
Physical characteristics of operator/machine systems in combination with
the skill and information requirements necessary to carry out the
processes represent the core of this definition.
In an organization, organizational teclrnology provides social and
managerial systems with the necessary means to accomplish required
transfonnations. Technical systems have implications for individuals and
groups that compose the social system in an organization. They also
impose demands on the managerial system. Some obvious implications
are that teclrnically demanding conversion processes require social
31
systems consisting of both highly trained and unskilled individuals who
are different from those required by less technologically complex systems.
Complex managerial systems are usually required to coordinate the work
and output of complex technical systems. Organizational structures are
often modified to accommodate changes in technical systems. An
understanding of the effects of technology on individual behaviour as well
as knowledge of its spread throughout the organization is, therefore, vital
in understanding individual and groups in complex organizations. While
assessing organizational technology, however, it should be remembered
that the technical system required to convert specified inputs into usable
outputs in an organization defines the core operating system - the core
technology - of the organization. All other components of organizations
exist to support this core activity. -However, technology at the overall
organizational level (i.e., the core technology) does not assist us to arrive
at a precise assessment of individuals' attitudes and behaviors.
Individuals generally respond to their respective departmental structures
and functions, which are influenced by the technology of the subunits,
referred to as local technologies. The local technologies, when assessed
across sub-units, manifest themselves in intra-organizational differences
in technologies. Their characteristics are the proximal technological
characteristics to which employees respond (Hulin and Roznowski, 1985). 32
Research concerning the effects of organizational technology has
generally investigated one of the linkages shown in Figure (2.1). This
figure does not depict causal paths. It is an investigating device for
outlining conceptually important links among constructs and variables in
this general research area (Hulin and Romowski, 1985).
2.6.2 TECHNOLOGY AND ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE
Organizational technology has a direct influence on organizational
structure. Research on technology and organizational structure indicates a
strong support for the existence of technology-structure relationship in
spite of disagreements and controversies regarding the exact nature of this
dynamics (Fry, 1982, Hulin and Romowski, 1985).
Organizational structure is concerned with the arrangements and
configurations of people, departments and other sub-systems in the
organization (Hunt, 1970, Thompson, 1967), which are governed by the
type of technology adopted by the organization. For example, Thompson
(1967) indicated that the degree of interdependence varies across
technology: a mediating technology (e.g., financial institutions) would
require a lesser degree of interdependence than a long-linked technology
(e.g., auto-assembly lines). Carter (1984) has indicated that as
33
technology changes in an organization, the division of labour as reflected
by functional diversification, functional specialization and functional
differentiation also changes. Hulin and Roznowski (1985) pointed out
that with the introduction of a complex technology, organizational
structure changes as a result of simple organizational growth. This in turn
generates internal organizational differentiations of the kind associated
with changes in the core technology.
From the technology-structure literature, complexity (including
vertical and horizontal differentiations), formalization and centralization
(including hierarchy of authority and span of control) have been identified
to be the major dimensions of organizational structure which are
influenced by organizational technology (Fry, 1982). Based on
Woodwind's observations (1958, 1965), Hulin and Roznowski (1985)
have hypothesized interrelating among the factors of technological
complexity, system control, workers' control (autonomy) and supervisory
control as shown in Figure (2.1) systems less technologically complex
(handicrafts, for example) are associated with more employee control and
little need for close and elaborate supervisory control. With increase in
the complexity of technologies, worker control is reduced and the need for
closer observation and inspection by supervision becomes a more
34
A M 0 U N T
0 F
C 0 N T R 0 L
E X E R
Low III
Employees Control
Supervisory Control
Technolgical Complexiry
\ Technical System Control
------.. ~ High
FIG.2.1 . HYPOTHESIZED RELATIONS AMONG TECHNO· LOGICAL COMPLEXITY, SYSTEM CONTROL, WORKER CONTROL (AUTONOMY) AND SUPERVISORY CONTROL EXERTED IN THE SYSTEM (HULIN AND ROZNOWSKI, 1985)
essential requirement. This results in the increased differentiation and
specialization of tasks and functions. In the most complex technical
system (fully computer-based systems, for example) less observations by
supervision is again required as the control functions are provided by the
machine system itself.
2.6.3 TECHNOLOGY AND TASK CHARACTERSTICS
Tasks are the most direct consequences of technology.
Technologies are, after all, implemented to create configurations of tasks
and activities that enable organizations to achieve their goals.
Turner and Lawrence's (1965) research work on task characteristics
investigated objective attributes of an organizational setting for purposes
of defining the important task dimensions relevant for employees.
Although their work did not explicitly attempt to differentiate jobs with
respect to technology, the requisite task attributes such as motor and
object variety, autonomy, knowledge and skill etc, were mapped to a
detailed configuration of job types. These job types were related to
different technological categories.
Oldham and Hackman (1980) have noted that an organization's
technology can "constrain the feasibility of work redesign by limiting the 36
number of ways that jobs within the technology can be designed." Hulin
and Roznowski (1985) pointed out that technological characteristics of a
subsystem play the most important role in the creation of tasks and other
job factors within a work centre. The technical system provides much of
the important variance in many aspects of the job itself. Rousseau (1979)
has investigated different technologies to delineate characteristics of tasks
that vary as a function of technical complexity. She observed that long-
linked technological units (e.g. assembly line), in contrast to intensive
(e.g. research and development units) and mediating ones (e.g. banks and
insurance units) provided little opportunity to deal with others, use a
variety of skills, make decisions, or experience high task significance.
Rousseau (1978) also found that highly structured work procedures have
jobs with little perceived variety autonomy, identity or significance.
2.6.4 TECHNOLOGY AND INDIVIDUALS' RESPONSES
To the extent that technology influences organizational structure,
one can expect to find the effects of that on organizationally relevant
responses made by individuals (Linkage C. in Fig. 2.2). Aggregate
organizational variables such as size, configuration (number of levels in
hierarchical structures relative to organizational size), centralization, span
of control and standardization of operating procedures have frequently 37
Technology Organizational r
Structure
,
Individuals' Individuals' Response Response
FIG.2.2 - LINKAGES BETWEEN TECHNOLOGY, STRUCTURE, TASK CHARACTERISTICS, INDIVIDUALS' RESPONSES THAT HAVE BEEN SUBJECTED TO EMPIRICAL STUDY (HULIN AND ROZNOWSKI, 1985)
been shown to be related to aggregated responses (satisfaction,
absenteeism or motivation). These demonstrated relations (Berger and
Cummings, 1979; Hage and Aiken, 1969; Herman and Hulin, 1972;
Herman et.al.,1975; Porter and Lawler, 1965) are important for
demonstrating the generality of the linkage between organizational
structures and individuals' responses. (Linkage C. in Fig. 22)
On the other hand, the influence of task characteristics on
individuals' affective responses (Linkage D. in Fig. 2.2) has been
researched extensively (see Roberts and Glick, 1981, for a review).
However, for the most part, the source and causes of task characteristics
are neglected in these studies; since technologies of organizational
subsystems have consistent and interrelated effects on many
organizational subunits (for example, tasks, supervisory practices, group
structures, workflow, management control systems, etc), a discussion of
task characteristics and its influence in isolation from technology seems
insufficient (Hulin and Roznowski, 1985).
A series of studies by Rousseau (Rousseau, 1977; 1978; 1979)
examined the impact of technological differences within organizations on
attitudes and perceptions of employees. She observed significant
differences between the job characteristics, employee satisfaction and 39
motivation across technologies. Katerberg (1978) assessed technical
complexity by measuring capital intensity, mechanization and skill
specialization within several diverse units of one organization. He found
that functional groups represented by high technical complexity had
higher satisfaction with their work than other groups. Differences in
perceptions of task characteristics across these units were also found. The
findings were consistent with the differences in affective responses of the
individuals. Hulin and Roznowski (1985) indicated that both technology
and functional speciality differentiated individuals' work-related
responses. Satisfaction with the work itself consistently varied with both
technology level and functional speciality. In general, individuals in more
complex technologies were more satisfied with their work. Different
levels of technical complexity within functional specialities further
differentiated individuals' work satisfaction. In other words, within the
same functional specialities, workers in different technologies responded
differently but in a consistent and predictable manner.
2.7 CHANGES IN ORGANIZATIONAL TECHNOLOGY AND ITS IMPACT
When a new technology is introduced into the workplace, there is
bound to be a disruption created by the technological change (Taylor,
1971). This kind of disruption has been labelled 'unfreezing' by Lewin 40
(1951) or "internal system strain" by Katz and Kahn (1966). In both
cases, the dynamics created is that of a force towards total system
restructuring to find a new equilibrium. The process of total restructuring
brings about changes in the organizational structure and job
characteristics which in tum influence employees' attitudes and behaviors
within the organization. Therefore, a properly planned technological
change and implementation process is needed to help better employees'
adjustments and enhance organizational effectiveness.
Two main approaches are proposed by behavioral scientists
to deal with organizational change effectively (Rousseau, 1977). These
two approaches, also termed "techno-structural approaches" (Friedlander
and Brown, 1974) are socio-technical systems and job design. Both these
approaches to organizational change converge in their emphasis on a
common set of job characteristics that influence employee satisfaction and
motivation (Rousseau, 1977).
The socio-technical system approach recognizes that a production
system requires both a technical and a social structure, Both systems
influence each other. The technical system shapes the organization of
work and creates specific social structures within a given task stmcture.
In tum, the social structure contains social and psychological properties 41
that create changes in the task structure. It is this interaction - where the
social and technical systems simultaneously evolve and influence one that
is referred to as the socio-technical system and another group (Blau and
Shoenherr, 1971; Trist and Bamforth, 1951; Woodward, 1965). Cooper
and Foster (1971) argue that technological characteristics ofa system are
the variables and attributes that affect the social system and impose
constraints upon its development. For example, when a change in the
technical system occurs, a concommitant change in the social systems
should also occur. If a social system change cannot take place or if the
technical changes introduce disruptions the social system cannot respond
to, negative consequences can arise for individuals working in that socio
technical system.
While the socio-technical system approach considers the entire
system organizational unit in planning organizational change, job design
approach (e.g. Hackman and Oldham, 1975) is oriented towards
modifying specific jobs within an organization without necessarily
considering their interrelations with other jobs or units. Hackman et.al
(1974) have formulated a theory which relates the restructuring of work
content to psychological processes. They hypothesize that three critical
psychological states determine an individual's motivation and satisfaction
42
on the job which in turn affect performance, absenteeism and turnover.
These three states are experienced meaningfulness, experienced
responsibility and knowledge of results. According to them, these states
are present when the work content is high on five core job dimensions,
such as, skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and
feedback. Thus; it can be concluded that a major assumption of the job
design approach to techno-structural changes is that there exists a set of
job dimensions which affect the level of employee performance and
attitude towards work.
Rousseau (1977) is of the opinion that the specific changes in work
content prescribed by the job design research and the socio-technical
system theory appear to be essentially the same. Socio-technical system ,
theory and job design research converge in their use of core task
characteristics as the vehicle for desired organizational change. These
specific job dimensions are not necessarily exhaustive, but they do reflect
the basic types of techno-structural changes employed by these two
approaches. Thus, despite the lack of a coherent theory in past
applications of job design techniques (as pointed out by Hulin and
Roznowski, 1985; Pierce and Dunham 1976 Roberts and Glick. 1981),
research in this area is congruent with socio-technical system theory, both
43
view technology as malleable and both asswne that certain aspects
of work design are particularly relevant to the attitudes and behaviour of
employees (Rousseau, 1977).
2.8 EXPECTATIONS FOR IMPLEMENTATION
The introduction of electronic information systems in varied user
settings, then, constitutes a trend of long-term national significance.
Recent literature yields a nwnber of reasons for the rapid diffusion of
these systems, reflecting primarily an intersection of economic needs and
technological opportunities. Among the electronic factors that constitute
"the driving force behind the technological explosion to automate office
operations' (Connell, 1979), personnel costs play a prominent role.
Whether an organization is associated with a product or a service, "the
office" is associated with information and communication; in particular,
"office work' consists of "information-handling activities" such as reading
and filling docwnents, performing computations, preparing reports,
responding to requests, making decisions, and the like (Ellis and. Nutt,
1980). These activities in traditional offices are highly labor-intensive
(Strassman, 1980; Colton, 1979) and consequently relatively costly. But
while employee costs have continued to increase, office productivity has
not; rather, productivity improvements have lagged for behind industrial 44
and manufacturing growth (Keating, 1980; Gehmlich, 1980; YOlmg, 1980;
Grove, 1979; Bennis, 1980). These problems are generating bitterness by
steady increases in the amount of paper work required and the growing
scarcity of paper, circlUllstances that increase labor time and work cost
(Young, 1980; Whitney, 1980; Law and Pareira, 1976).
Concurrently, a variety of automated office systems have become
readily available with computer costs decreasing. "Office automation has
become increasingly cost-effective while office productivity has declined"
(Magnus, 1980). "Automation, " then, "seems to be the answer" (Forest,
1979; of. Gottheimer, 1979). Thus, the Vice President of International
Marketing Requirements for IBM reports that "increasing productivity of
both boss and secretary will be the focus of the office of the future"
(Marketing News, 1979). Initially, computer technology was regarded as a
means for achieving savings at the secretarial/clerical level. For instance,
a 1974 article titled "We Need No Secretaries" (Shiff, 1974) argued that
such systems could eliminate transcription, typing, and filing from office
work; more modest proposals suggested that office technology could
increase secretarial productivity by 25 to 33 percent (Law and Pereira,
1976) not only on the private sector side but also public sector and
governmental office settings. " The newest wave of automation affects
45
highly skilled personnel as well. A survey made by Booz-Allen and
Hamilton, in which almost 300 managers and professionals in 15 major
U.S. corporations took part, concluded that from 15 to 30 percent of
highly skilled office time is spent in information handling tasks that could
be computerized (Business Week, 1980; Hill, 1980; Patterson, 1980). A
Dun's Review article suggests that such systems will in fact reduce the
need for middle managers (Gottheimer, 1979). Finally, the recent
proliferation of small computer systems is expected to permit small as
well as large organizations to increase their operational efficiency
(Devore, 1979; Kling; 1980; McCormick, 1980).
The technological opportunity to address serious productivity and
cost problems, then, emerges as the most visible issue for organizations in
the instruction of computer systems into office settings. However, the
literature also bears evidence of related but less well-defined social issues
bearing on the office of the future. One such issue is the national
importance of advanced capability for information organization and
processing. While a number of the periodicals cited above called attention
to increased "paper work", those increases are often interpreted
generically as reflective of a transition into the postindustrial ago of
information (Mankin, 1978; Strassman, 1980). From that viewpoint,
46
increasing the productivity of the office "because a major social
challenge" as industrialized societies become servIce and knowledge
based economies (Driscoll, 1979). From the same perspective,
information becomes a "clerical resource" whose effective management is
an important component of "long term U.S. performance" (Thoryn, 1980).
Application of advanced technology to information-based work is seen in
this light as linked to national progress and social analysis of computing
provides an extended theoretical and empirical account of this line of
reasoning in his discussion of "systems rationalism."
A second major social issue arises in relation to the redesign of the
office and the transformed nature of work necessitated by technological
innovation. As one source put it, technological advance "will change the
office as a place into the office as a system" (Sadler, 1980). While there is
little disagreement over whether computerized procedures will change
office settings and tasks, there is considerable dispute over just what sorts
of changes to expect. Forecasts of the end of secretarial and middle
management roles such as those cited above have generated varying
responses. It is sometimes suggested that introduction of office
technology will increase users' skill repertoires and will release time from
repetitive and monotonous tasks for more autonomous and creative
47
pursuits (e.g. Connell, 1979; Shiff, 1974; Hill, 1980). Equally frequently
it is argued that such procedures only deskill and fractionate jobs,
replacing some workers and increasing the alienation of those who
remain. Lower-level employees believe that new technology invariably
routinizes work, creates more formalized structures, and leads to more
authoritarian . management styles (of. National Association of Office
Workers, 1980; Cockroft, 1979). Higher-level personnel are concerned
that organizational changes may decrease their social power while
technological changes result in the obsolescence of their skills (Frank,
1980; kling,1980). According to the Booz-Allen and Hamilton study
(Modem Office and Data Management, 1980), administrative, managerial
and professional level workers have been most resistant to technology.
Kling's review of the social impacts of computing (1980) provides an
extensive discussion of the relationship of office technology of social
structures, behavioral roles and interaction patterns in the work setting.
Potential impacts on communication and social relations in work setting
are also reviewed by Ellis and Nutt (1980).
In sum, computerized office procedures constitute a technological
innovation whose anticipated widespread introduction into the private
sector has been linked with significant organizational and societal
48
outcomes. As Kling (1980) underscore, these links have in the main been
speculative but they are of considerable utility in pointing out areas of
capacity, potential benefit, and potential harm. It is instructive to review
some experiences of private sector finns that have published reactions to
or outcomes of attempts to automate, in order to automate, in order to see
how they compare with prospective themes in the areas outlined above. It
should be noted, however, that most such reports are not research-based
but rather reflect highly selective views of individual managers,
management consultants, or even systems vendors.
2.9 VARIOUS IMPLEMENTATION REPORTS
A number of papers present successful experiences. For example,
an Administrative Management article (Hansen, 1977) reports surveying a
number of companies that had installed word processing systems; all
indicated "productivity gains and cost effectiveness" with the system (cf.
also Lewis, 1979 and Modem Office Procedures, 1980 for similar
outcomes). Another study (Anderson, 1978) finds that computer-based
message systems improve productivity by saving time, by increasing the
volume of work peIformed, and by more efficient problem-solving.
Specific positive accounts range and by more efficient problem-solving.
Specific positive accountants range from a pharmaceutical firm 49
(Clutterbuck, 1978) whose office system had saved time at both the
managerial and secretarial levels (increasing productivity at the latter
level as well) to a life insurance firm (McConnick, 1980) whose
introduction of minicomputers and distributed processing had cut proposal
preparation time from days to half an hour.
For all such positive accounts, however, there are even more
negative experiences on record. For example, a March 1980 Business
Week article reports that "Many companies are having difficulties making
word processing equipment work as planned; expected productivity gains
are believed to require more as planned"; expected productivity gains are
believed to require more efforts at organizing the introduction of those
systems and especially at overcoming both secretarial and managerial
resistance. Similarly, a Management Focus article (Krasan, 1980) notes
that the "magical machines" work as well as vendors say they do, but that
most organizations nevertheless have not seen productivity improve
"mainly because people in charge have not been laying the groundwork
for office automation" sitting unused in some business" (Winkler, 1979)
while "productivity is virtually static and the proportion of white-collar
workers is following Parkinson's laws" (Lester, 1 978). Finally, at a
meeting focused on office systems and infonnation technology, the
50
Administrative Management society concluded that technological change
in this area should slow down "with more emphasis on equipment
evaluation based on human resources considerations" (Dickey, 1979).
While inferences drawn from such an unsystematic information
base are necessarily tentative, it is fairly clear that although the expected
proliferation of office systems is well under way, anticipations of
economic gains have not been commensurately fulfilled. Initially
promising outcomes appear to have given way to mixed effects or to
outright disappointments. That is, office technology seems to exemplify
Green's (1973) more general thesis that technology assessment,
"especially in the early stage likely will show an over-weighting of
benefits and an under-weighting of risks".
With respect to computerized office producers in particular, a
variety of reasons for the discrepancy are suggested by the literature
reviewed. A great majority of them can be understood in terms of the
classes of factors (cf. Bikson, 1980; in, 1978; in et al., 1976; Berman and
McLaughlin, 1975, 1974; Pressman and Wildavsky, 1973). Perhaps the
most common explanations cite planning failures, ranging from lack of
recognition that introduction of computers would require thoughtful
adaptation to lack of strategies for overcoming employee resistance to
T188 LIBRARY
1111111111111111111111111111 096149
V{ 51
~\{\ ~ \y\"i..,
change in both higher and lower-status positions. It is likely that
recognition of a technological opportunity to improve productivity and
efficiency was the dominant adoption impetus, and that little attention was
given to implementation processes. Since alternative choices in the
management of that process can apparently have substantially different
economic and social impacts, it is appropriate and timely to give careful
consideration to what can be learned from past research about potential
influences on the outcomes of attempts to implement computerized
information technology.
2.10. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
A framework for conceptualizing potential sources of influence on
implementation of computerized procedures in office settings was drawn
from theoretical structures developed in a range of studies of the ,
innovation process (see, for example, Goodman and Griffith (1991);
Karasek (1985) ; Bikson et a!., (1980); Norio Kambayashi (1995).
2.11 THE IMPLEMENTATION PROCESS OF A NEW TECHNOLOGY
lUX
"There are certain factors affect impfementation process. By
understanding the process or the variables affecting the process, one can
52
establish~ the reasons and relationships with the implementation success
criteria. There are five critical processes that drive four measures of
implementation success" Goodman and Griffith (1991).
TABLE NO. 2.1
TABLE SHOWING THE CRITICAL IMPLEMENTATION PROCESS APPROACH AND ITS SUCCESS FACTORS
CRITICAL PROCESS IMPLEMENTATION SUCCESS l.Socialisation of Technology I.Acquisition of Knowledge and
skill/Job Satisfaction 2. Commitment 2.BehaviourlUtilisation
Performance/Job Involvement 3. Reward Allocation 3. Attitude towards Technology 4. Feedbackfl{edesign 4. Normative Consensus 5. Diffusion
A. Work organization
B. Job demand and control Situation
What follows IS conceptualization of processes driving
implementation and selecting these in exanIining this approach to assess
the implementation success. From the above table No. 2.1 it is seen that:
(1) Socialization refers to the processes by which individuals acquire
knowledge and skills, affective, and/or evaluative orientations
about the new technology.
53
(2) Commitment refers to the binding of the individual to certain
behavioral acts relevant to technology.
(3) Reward allocation refers to the allocation of different types of
rewards relevant to the implementation ofnew technology.
(4) Feedback and redesign refers to the process by which data are
collected about a new technology and redesign activities are
initiated to enhance the operation of the new technology.
(5) Diffusion refers to the process by which technology is extended to
other parts of the organization.
(6) Relevant changes in the work organization as necessary factor in
the implementation process. An organization consists of both work
organization in which workers or employees engage in daily
operations and management organization, in which managers
engage in managing work organization. Under the emergence of
New Technology the work organization has been changing
greatly. This new form of work organization leads to the team
production system. In the presence of new forms of office
technology, employees can utilize their own ability to think and
behave much more than under the older system. The number of
levels in the hierarchy is decreasing and flatter organization
54
and/or network type organization is emerging under the advance of
New Technology.
(7) The situation of occupational stress due to change in the workload
and the controls on employee is one of the aspects in the
implementation process approach. A useful and important analysis
of the issue of control as applied to work has been provided by
Karasek (1981) (Fig.2.3). Using the results of survey research,
Karasek carried out an extensive statistical analysis in which a
large number of jobs - both white and blue collar - were classified
according to two dimensions: job demand and job decision
latitude. Job demand was defined as "the working individual's
potential control over his tasks, pressure of work load and his
conduct during the working day". Job decision latitude can be
interpreted as control, not necessarily just concerning major
decisions affecting the organization, but also over the moment-to
moment flow of daily life. It is the extent to which a person can
decide what to do next on the job. The types of jobs that might
result from different combinations of job demands and job decision
latitude. Job demand, the other dimension of work, has three
aspects: the pressures of meeting the demand of the workload
55
Low
Job Decision Latitude
High
Low
"PASSIVE JOBS"
"LOW STRAIN" JOB
Job Demands
High
"HIGH STRAIN" JOB
"ACTIVE" JOB
FIG.2.3 - JOB STRAIN MODEL (KARSEK, 1985)
A
B
itself, of dealing with lUlexpected tasks, and of coping with job
related interpersonal conflicts.
The situation where work load on employee is relatively greater
than the limits of authority and its control termed as decision latitude is
of primary importance in predicting mental strain. Karasek argues that
previous researchers have focused on one or the other of these two
dimensions, but have failed to realize that both must be considered in
combination. Thus, four different categories of work must be considered
in combination: high demand-high control, high demand-low control, low
demand-high control, and low demand-low control.
Karasek fOlUld that the people most at risk for cardiovascular
disease were in the high demand-low control situation. The risk levels
associated with people holding these jobs were, in fact, at least as great
as the traditional risk factors for heart disease (smoking, age, obesity,
etc.). Thus, the image of the high-powered executive being at risk for
heart attacks is to some extent mistaken: the high-powered executive has
a great deal of control, and while he or she may be at risk, the data entry
person is at greater risk statistically.
57
2.12 THE IMPLEMENTATION SUCCESS
A delineation of the meaning of implementation success IS
necessary in order to use process approach. The success indicators as
perceived by the employee as shown in the above table No 2.1 are:
(1) Job satisfaction and knowledge about the technology refers to
information held by different constituencies on how to operate
troubleshoot technology and redesign the system, proper
coordination between the job demand and workload.
(2) Job involvement, behavior, performance and utilization refer to
activities such as monitoring the individuals who operate and their
level of utilization of the new technology.
(3) Attitudes refer to how different constituencies express, positive or
negative feelings about the monitoring system adopted with the
help of the technology.
(4) Normative consensus refers to normal acceptance or agreement
about the value of the new technology.
The dimensional structure referred (Table No.2.l) is selected
because it permits examining the effect of objective characteristics of
technology on an objective indicator of success and the utilization of the
system. It also permits examining the socially constructed meaning of 58
",
technology and how this construction affects the individual, how
individuals and groups redefine and change technology, and how
technology will be implemented.
2.13 THE RESEARCH MODEL
A conceptual framework is essential to proceed with the research.
The (Fig.2.4) is a research model which is a diagrammatic presentation of
the various variables. Part (A) is the respondent's demographic data. Part
(B) to Part (D) represent the independent variables such as critical process
of implementation of office, work organization, job control and demand
situation. Part (E) is introductory moderating variable as SOCIAL
SUPPORT and the Part (F) is the dependent variable for implementation
success criteria - personal outcome.
Applying the conceptual framework presented in the Fig.2.4 and
Table No.2.1, the researcher identified several features of financial
institutions, its office information technology, and its implementation
program, and plans maintained for social support within the institution
that may explain the role of social support in effective implementation of
office technology and its success.
The next chapter deals with the plan of this study.
- 59
FIG.2.4 THE ROLE OF SOCIAL SUPPORT IN EFFECTIVE IMPLEMENTATION OF OFFICE AUTOMATION
Part (B~ INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
~ DEPENDENT VARIABLES
otrcoME VARIABLE Part (C) Part (E) MODERN~G VARIABLE
Part (D) PartlF) CRITICAL PROCESS ,
OF TO COPE UP WITH JOB STRESS IMPLEMENTAION
IMPLEMENTATION OF WORK SOCIAL SUPPORT SUCCESS
O.A ORGANISATI MANAGERSIEMPLOYEE CRITERIA
I. SOCIALISATION ON OF OPERATOR I. INSTITUTIONAL SUPPORT I. KNOWLEDGE! SKILL &
- Process by which JOB SATISFACTION
individual acquire . Changes in JOB CONTRL (a) Training and Career Infonnation held by knowledge & skilts management & development Different constituencies on
affective and/or evaluative structure. 'DEMAND SITUATION how to operate troubleshoot
rienlations about the new SdURCES Of JOB STRESS [ b) Job security. & redesign Ihe system. technology. - Changes in
management I. Low decision latitude and (e] Work condition. 2. BEHAVIOUR.
2. COMMITMENT ~ hierarchy. - f--. low workload makes a f----- UTILISATION!
- The binding of the passive job. 2. INTERPERSONAL SUPPORT PERFORMANCElJOa
individual to certain - Changes in INVOLVEMENT
behavioural acts job content 2. High decision latitude and [a] Co-workers's support Activities i.e. monitorif'l~ 'tle
relevent to technology. of middle high workload makes a individual does with rr.:"t .-, managers. active job (b) Supervisor's support. to the technology or Ie
J. REWARD I OUTCOME OF STRAIN I utilisation oftechnolog).
ALLOCATION (e] Subordinate's support - The allocation of J. ATTITUDES
Different types of J. When there is high authority How different
rewards releven! to the control and low workload constituencies express
implementation of new leads to low strain jobs. positive or negative
technology. 4.
feelings about When there is low authority monitoring system.
4. FEED BACK! control and high workload.
REDESIGN leads to high strain jobs. 4. NORMATIVE
The process by which CONSENSIIS
data are collected about Part (A)
Nonnal acceptance or
a new technology & agreement about the
redesign activities are value of new
initiated to enhance the Respondents Profile technology.
operations of new <II .. technology.
Demographic Data & Organizational Factor
5. DIFFUSION The process by which technology is extendc=d