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Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis

jou rn al hom e page: www.elsev ier .com/ locate / jpba

eview

solation and characterization of bioactive compounds from plant resources:he role of analysis in the ethnopharmacological approach

. Brusotti a,b,∗, I. Cesari a,b, A. Dentamaroa,b, G. Caccialanzaa,b, G. Massolinia,b

Department of Drug Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, ItalyCenter for Studies and Researches in Ethnopharmacy (C.I.St.R.E.), University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o

rticle history:eceived 6 March 2013ccepted 11 March 2013vailable online xxx

eywords:thnopharmacological approach

a b s t r a c t

The phytochemical research based on ethnopharmacology is considered an effective approach in thediscovery of novel chemicals entities with potential as drug leads. Plants/plant extracts/decoctions, usedby folklore traditions for treating several diseases, represent a source of chemical entities but no infor-mation are available on their nature. Starting from this viewpoint, the aim of this review is to addressnatural-products chemists to the choice of the best methodologies, which include the combination ofextraction/sample preparation tools and analytical techniques, for isolating and characterizing bioactive

atural sources deriving compoundsctivity-oriented separation hyphenated

echniquesrug discoveryraditional medicines

secondary metabolites from plants, as potential lead compounds in the drug discovery process. The workis distributed according to the different steps involved in the ethnopharmacological approach (extrac-tion, sample preparation, biological screening, etc.), discussing the analytical techniques employed forthe isolation and identification of compound/s responsible for the biological activity claimed in the tradi-tional use (separation, spectroscopic, hyphenated techniques, etc.). Particular emphasis will be on herbalmedicines applications and developments achieved from 2010 up to date.

© 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

ontents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 002. Extraction techniques and sample preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00

2.1. Extraction techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 002.2. Sample preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00

3. Biological screening and separation activity-oriented . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 004. Hyphenated chromatographic techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 005. Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00

Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00

. Introduction

Plants, animals and micro-organisms represent a reservoir of

medicines represent the primary health care system for the 60%of the world’s population, the plant species with possible biolog-

Please cite this article in press as: G. Brusotti, et al., Isolation and charactanalysis in the ethnopharmacological approach, J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. (2

atural products, the so called “natural sources deriving com-ounds”. Particularly, the plant kingdom offers a variety of speciestill used as remedies for several diseases in many parts of theorld such as Asia [1,2], Africa [3–6] and South America [7].

ven if, as reported by World Health Organization [8], traditional

∗ Corresponding author at: Department of Drug Sciences, Viale Taramelli 12, Uni-ersity of Pavia, Pavia, Italy. Tel.: +39 0382987174; fax: +39 0382422975.

E-mail address: gloria.brusotti@unipv.it (G. Brusotti).

731-7085/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.ttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpba.2013.03.007

ical activity remain largely unexplored [9]. As stated by Newmanand Cragg in a recent review [10]: “natural product and/or natu-ral product structures continued to play a highly significant role inthe drug discovery and development process”. Thus, biodiversityrepresents an unlimited source of novel chemicals entities (NCE)with potential as drug leads. These NCE are secondary metabolites,synthesized by plants as defence against herbivores and pathogens

erization of bioactive compounds from plant resources: The role of013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpba.2013.03.007

or attraction of pollinating agent, and can be grouped in three mainchemical families: alkaloids, terpenoids and phenolic compounds.

A review from Kashani et al. [11] recently highlights the phar-macological properties of some well known secondary metabolites

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Phytocomplex/

singl e

molecule

Plant

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Biological

assay

Sample

preparation

Activit y or ient ed

separation

Structu re

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Convention al

techniques

•Mace ration

•Infusion

•Decoction

•Boiling under refl ux

Non conventional

techniques

•Microwave assisted

extraction

•Ult ras oun d assi sted

extraction

•Supercritical fluid

extraction

•Press urized liqu id

extraction

•Hydrotropic extraction

•Enzy me-as siste d

extraction

In vitro•Anti bacterial

/antifungal assays

•Chemical assays

•Enzymatic assay

Genera l pret reatment

•Liquid-liquid extraction

•Soli d p hase extr action

•Gel filtration

•Phase-trafficking

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specific classes

ofcompounds

•Gel filtration

•Soli d p hase extraction

•Molec ularly imprin ted

polymers

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absorption resin

Off -line

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•HPLC post-column

(bio)chemical detection

•Biochromatography

•Elect rophoretic enzyme

assays

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•UV -DAD

•MS

•NMR

Hyphen ated

techniques

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•GC-MS

•HPLC -SPE -NMR

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Fig. 1. Methodologies involved

nd many recent papers report the activity of new and/or lessnown alkaloids [12–14], terpenoids [15,16] and phenolic com-ounds [17–19] giving a direct evidence of the crucial role ofatural products as potential sources of various modern pharma-euticals. However, secondary metabolites are often present in lowuantity in plant material and their extraction, purification andharacterization still remain a great challenge in the drug discov-ry process. Several reviews have been recently published givingn overview on sample preparations [20–22] and characterization23–25]. Although exhaustive in the treated field, these reviewsasically deal with the chemotaxonomy-oriented approach: thelant species selected for screening are known to contain specificecondary metabolites (alkaloids, steroids, amino acids, etc.); thus,he choice of the more appropriate extraction methodology andhe more suitable analytical technique is performed in order tochieve the best extraction/purification/separation of the desiredecondary metabolite.

In the ethnopharmacological approach, the main requirement ishe knowledge of the plant parts traditionally employed as reme-ies. The two main traditional medicines, Chinese and Ayurveda,ave their ancient texts in the Chinese Materia Medica written byhizhen at the time of the Ming Dynasty [26] and the ayurvedicharaka Samhita written in Sanskrit probably around 400–200efore the common era, respectively. Both texts are now availables English version [27,28] and still used as references for herbalemedies [29–31]. Where tests are not available, the ethnobotanicalurvey is the only method for acquiring information on medicinallants traditional use.

The phytochemical research based on ethnopharmacology isonsidered an effective approach in NCE discovery, however inhis case no information are available on the nature of secondary

etabolite; thus all the extraction/purification/separation pro-esses are performed in order to “find and follow” the supposedharmacological activity with the final aim to isolate and identifyhe bioactive compound/s.

Starting from the ethnopharmacological approach, the aim ofhis review is to address natural-products chemists to the choicef the best methodologies, which include the combination ofxtraction/sample preparation tools and analytical techniques, for

Please cite this article in press as: G. Brusotti, et al., Isolation and charactanalysis in the ethnopharmacological approach, J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. (2

solating and characterizing bioactive NCE from plants, as poten-ial lead compounds in the drug discovery process. A particularttention will be focused on herbal medicines applications andevelopments achieved from 2010 up to date.

ethnopharmacology approach.

An overview on the methodologies (extractive, biological, ana-lytical) involved in the selected approach is shown in Fig. 1.

2. Extraction techniques and sample preparation

2.1. Extraction techniques

Extraction is the first step in the drug discovery process fromplants. Several general procedures have been proposed for obtain-ing extracts representing a range of polarity [32] and/or enrichedof the most common secondary metabolites such as alkaloids [33]and saponins [34].

Beyond the traditional solid–liquid extraction methodologies,such as maceration, infusion, decoction and boiling under reflux,a wide range of modern techniques have been introduced in thepast decades. These include microwave-assisted extraction (MAE),ultrasound assisted extraction (UAE), supercritical fluid extraction(SFE), and pressurized liquid extraction (PLE).

In the MAE, for example, microwaves are combined with tra-ditional solvent extraction; this non conventional heating systemmay enhance the penetration of solvent into the plant powder pro-moting the dissolution of the bioactive compounds, as described byZhang et al. [35]. Similarly, in the UAE, the ultrasonic waves breakthe cell walls promoting the release of bioactive natural productsinto the solvent [36]. In a recent review Chang et al. [37] reporteda comparison between MAE, UAE and conventional methodolo-gies which highlights the advantages of MAE and UAE concerningextraction time (shorter) and extraction yield of bioactive com-ponents (higher). In this review the recent advancements in thedevelopment of MAE techniques also are reported. High pressureMAE (HPMAE), nitrogen protected MAE (NPMAE), vacuum MAE(VMAE), ultrasonic MAE (UMAE), solvent free MAE (SFMAE) anddynamic MAE (DMAE) are described and guidelines for selectingsuitable techniques are well tabulated.

DMAE is particularly interesting since can be arranged for anon-line coupling with different chromatographic systems. Tonget al. developed an on-line method for the extraction and isola-tion of bioactive constituents from Lyeicnotus pauciflorus Maxim, a

erization of bioactive compounds from plant resources: The role of013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpba.2013.03.007

plant used in the traditional Chinese medicine for treating severaldiseases. Particularly, the coupling of DMAE with high-speed-counter-current chromatography allowed a continuous isolationof the major active constituent nevadensin, in higher yield and

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urity and shorter time compared with conventional methods [38].ao et al. [39] illustrated the application of an on-line systemMAE-high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) for theetermination of lipophilic constituents in roots of Salvia milthior-hiza Bunge. In this recent research article, an aqueous solution ofydrophilic ionic liquid (IL) was selected as extraction solvent andhe proposed on-line DMAE was compared with the correspondingff-line DMAE and with other extraction methods IL-based, such asAE and maceration.

After optimization of the opportune operating parameters, noignificant differences were highlighted concerning the extrac-ion’s yield; however, since IL can be used as green solvents ineveral steps linked to extraction and separation of secondaryetabolites from natural sources, due to their unique proper-

ies [40], the automatic on-line system proposed may be suitableor faster extraction and isolation of secondary metabolites fromlants.

The modern extraction methods include also the use of SFE,alled carbon dioxide extraction (SC-CO2) when carbon dioxide issed as main solvent, and PLE. Herrero et al. [41] illustrated thepplication of SFE during the period 2007–2009 giving a summaryf the interesting compounds obtained, their biological activi-ies and corresponding references. Different operating conditionsre reported since several factors may influence the extractionrocess with carbon dioxide. The main advantage of SC-CO2 ishe ability to operate at low temperature and in the absencef oxygen and light, avoiding thermal degradation and decom-osition of possible labile compounds. The main disadvantage,he low polarity of carbon dioxide, can be bypassed by adding ao-solvent such as ethanol, which allows the extraction of polarompounds.

Liza et al. [42] described the use of SC-CO2 and ethanol inhe extraction of bioactive flavonoids from Strobilanthes crispuseaves, known in ethnopharmacology for their antihyperglycemicnd antilipidemic activities. The paper shows an optimization of thexperimental conditions for SC-CO2 flavonoids extraction followedy the identification and determination of the main flavonoids byPLC. A comparison of the obtained results with those of Soxhlet

olvent extraction highlights how SC-CO2 can reach higher yieldsn less time and less solvent consumption, being a suitable methodor industrial purpose.

The main application of SC-CO2 still remains the extractionf essential oils (EOs) from plants and herbs. Monoterpenes,esquiterpenes and their oxygenated derivatives are lipophilic sub-tances responsible for the characteristic aroma of the EOs and forhe biological activity that is often associated to them. Stem andydro-distillation are commonly used for EOs extraction but, sincehese compounds are volatiles and thermolabiles, the high temper-ture needed for the distillation process (usually water’s boilingoint) may cause a chemical alteration of the whole EO compo-ition. The use of supercritical fluid extraction, particularly witharbon dioxide as solvent, can avoid this problem, as describedy Fornari et al. [43]. The authors underlined the advantages ofC-CO2, particularly concerning the better quality and biologicalctivity gained, compared with those of EOs obtained by means ofonventional methods.

A recent application of SC-CO2 in the extraction of bioactiveolatiles is, for example, the extraction of aromatic turmeronerom Curcuma longa Linn., which induces apoptosis in the humanepatocellular carcinoma cell line HepG2, as reported by Chengt al. [44]. In this research article SC-CO2 is selected as extractionethodology on the basis of a previous work [45], demonstrating

Please cite this article in press as: G. Brusotti, et al., Isolation and charactanalysis in the ethnopharmacological approach, J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. (2

ts efficiency in completely extract the turmeric oil. Hsieh et al.46] described the SC-CO2 extraction of non-polar constituentsrom Toona sinensis Roem leaves which seem to have antidiabeticroperties. Since Toona sinensis Roem leaves are basically known as

PRESS Biomedical Analysis xxx (2013) xxx– xxx 3

nutritious vegetable, the SC-CO2 was selected being recognized assafe and green methodology.

PLE was introduced by Dionex corporation in 1995 and theoryand principles are well illustrated by Henry and Yonker in a reviewdated 2006 [47]. The use of solvents environmental friendly, suchas alcohols or alkanes, and the possibility to operate at temperatureabove the boiling points of the employed solvents, enhancing thesolubility of analytes, are the main advantages of this technique.Several parameters such as pressure, solvent and temperature, mayinfluence the PLE extraction process, as described for example byMustafa et al. [48], in the extraction of phenolic compounds, lignansand carotenoids, secondary metabolites frequently present in foodsand plants. PLE is reported as “first choice” extraction method for itsgreen technology associated with higher yield, less time and lowersolvent consumption, compared to conventional methods.

Recent research articles report the use of PLE in the extrac-tion of pharmacologically active compounds. Skalicka-Wozniakand Glowniak [49], for example, evaluated two parameters, sol-vent and temperature, in order to improve the extraction offuranocoumarins from Heracleum leskowii. Solvent of differentpolarities and four temperatures were tested; no significant differ-ences were found in the yield of coumarins increasing the solventpolarity while increasing the temperature, the amount of somecoumarins increased in lipophilic solvents. Dichloromethane andmethanol and 100 ◦C were selected as optimum parameters. Liuet al. [50] described a new method for the isolation and identifica-tion of capsaicinoid in extracts of Capsicum annuum. The efficiencyof PLE extraction was compared with UAE, MAE and soxhlet. Afteroptimization of extraction conditions, PLE in methanol at 100 ◦Cgave rise to higher yields in shorter time. The coupling with liq-uid chromatography (LC)–mass spectrometry (MS)–MS allowedthe rapid identification and determination of the selected cap-saicinoids, well known for their pharmaceutical and antioxidantproperties.

Flavonoids, secondary metabolites responsible for several bio-logical activities, besides by SC-CO2 [42] can be easily extracted byPLE as reported by Wu et al. [51]. Rutin and quercetin, two mainflavonoids present in four plants used in the traditional ChineseMedicine, were extracted by PLE and analyzed by HPLC. Two nov-elties are well described in this paper: the use of ILs, as pressurizedsolvents, and the chemiluminescence (CL) detection instead of theusual UV. IL, as previously described, are green solvents with uniqueproperties but have significant absorption in the UV region: thechemiluminescence detection avoids this problem allowing to per-form extraction and analysis in a coupling system IL-PLE-HPLC-CL.Results obtained after the optimization of the experimental condi-tions highlighted once again the suitability of PLE in the extractionof natural products.

When water, the most recognized friendly and green solvent, isused, PLE becomes pressurized hot water extraction (PHWE). Teoet al. in 2010 published a review [52] where principles, parametersand application of PHWE are well described. Particularly, the reviewreports an interesting table: the PHWE of bioactives from differ-ent plant parts and foods is compared with conventional methodsand the corresponding references are given. Recently, Gil-Ramírezet al. [53] reported the application of PHWE for improving theextraction’s yield of isoxanthohumol, one of the most abundantprenylated flavonoids in Humulus lupus. Isoxanthohumol seems tohave antiinflammatory properties [54] and to inhibit PDK1 andPKC protein kinases in vitro [55], thus the importance of findingmethods which may give rise to enriched extract.

Among the modern and green extraction methodologies

erization of bioactive compounds from plant resources: The role of013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpba.2013.03.007

presented, two low exploited techniques deserve a mention:hydrotropic and enzyme-assisted extraction.

Hydrotropes are highly water soluble organic salts able toincrease the solubility in water of other organic substances,

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MeO H

Ground plant mater ial

Residue

Residue

Residue

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Concentrated under

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Exhausted Residue

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ormally insoluble. When amphiphilic salts, are employed as sol-ents, the extraction is called hydrotropic extraction. Desai andarikh recently reported the hydrotropic extraction of citral fromhe leaves of Cymbopogon flexuosus (Steud.) Wats. [56]. Sodium sal-cylate and sodium cumene sulfonate were used as solvents; theesults obtained after optimization of the experimental conditionsy means of the opportune statistical and kinetic studies, confirmedhe feasibility of the proposed method.

Aqueous solution of sodium cumene sulfonate allowed a fasterxtraction of reserpine from Rauwolfia vomitoria roots and higherield, compared to the conventional extraction with methanol [57];owever, the authors underlined the need of further studies sinceeserpine crystals obtained with hydrotropic solvent showed dif-erent morphology respect to those obtained with methanol.

Enzyme-assisted extraction is a promising and biotechnolo-ical alternative extraction methodology. In a recent review Purit al. [58] reported the use of enzymes, such as cellulases, pecti-ases and hemicellulase, in the extraction of bioactive compounds

rom plants highlighting advantages and disadvantages of this tech-ique, compared with the conventional. The main disadvantage ishe need to find specific enzymes for specific substrates thus fur-her studies are necessary for increasing the feasibility of enzymessisted extraction.

Although each non-conventional extraction technique hasndeniable advantages, this overview clearly points out that nonean be defined “universal”. When the nature of secondary metabo-ites is known, (we know what we are looking for) the choiceecomes easier since easier is the selection of the parameters affect-

ng the extraction process and their later optimization.When nothing or little is known about the nature of secondary

etabolites, as in the ethnopharmacological approach (we only

Please cite this article in press as: G. Brusotti, et al., Isolation and charactanalysis in the ethnopharmacological approach, J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. (2

ave an hypothesis on the biological activity), all extracts are poten-ially of biological interest and the selection of the more appropriatextraction method is performed in order to “mimic” the herbalrugs, as described in the traditional remedies.

MeOH extr act

ion, reflux, soxhlet) in water and in solvents of increasing polarity.

Accordingly, conventional solid liquid extraction techniquescome “back to the future” and water maceration and/or decoc-tion represents the first choice since traditional healers commonlyuse water as solvent. Further extractions with solvents of increas-ing polarity, such as n-hexane, methanol, ethyl acetate anddichloromethane, are necessary for a preliminary separation basedon the hydro/lipophilic properties of the biologically active com-pounds, as demonstrated in our previous works [5,59]. A briefsummary of the conventional extraction (maceration, decoction,reflux, soxhlet) in water and in solvents of increasing polarity isshown in Fig. 2.

Once a chemical class and/or compound/s responsible for thebiological activity assessed have been identified, the extractionprocess can be changed/modified in order to improve the extrac-tion yield of the desired secondary metabolites. The application ofchemometrics, permitting the simultaneous evaluation of the mostinfluential variables, the assessment of their mutual influence andtheir influence on the overall process, will allow the selection of themost focused technique and the optimization of the experimentalconditions affording the targeted secondary metabolite/s in highestyield and shortest time.

2.2. Sample preparation

Before going through with biological assays and chemical anal-yses, a pre-treatment of crude extracts is often necessary in orderto recognize and remove interfering common metabolites, suchas lipids, pigment and tannins. Traditional liquid–liquid parti-tion, solid phase extraction (SPE) and gel filtration on SephadexLH-20 can be used either for removing most of the undesiredmolecules either for pre-concentrating specific secondary metabo-

erization of bioactive compounds from plant resources: The role of013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpba.2013.03.007

lites [60–62].When no data are available on the chemical composition

of crude extracts, a preliminary purification can be carried outbased on the lipophilic/hydrophilic and/or acidic/basic properties.

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raditional SPE, includes reverse, normal and ion-exchange phases,re used to this purpose. For example, aqueous extracts can beartially purified by passage through a reverse phase column:olar constituents will be easily eluted while the non polar will beetained and successively eluted with non aqueous solvent. A step-ise series of solvents with increasing polarity may be applied,

ather than a single elution step, for promoting a preliminaryractionation of complex plants extracts. Using this approach theichloromethane extract of Diospyros bipindensis (Gürke), a medic-

nal plant used by Baka Pygmies, was quickly pre-fractionated byesari et al. [59] and subjected to a bio-guided purification pro-ess. Araya et al. [63] developed a simultaneous phase-traffickingpproach for rapid and selective isolation of neutral, basic and acidomponents from plants extract using ion-exchange resins. Withhis improved catch-and-release methodology the author achievedhe purification of three unprecedented purine-containing com-ounds from the methanolic extract of ginger rhizomes [64]. Whenpecific secondary metabolites are detected in the extracts, aore selective enrichment protocols can be followed: for example,agerman [65] described the selective purification of condensed

annins from non tannin compounds by Sephadex LH-20 gel filtra-ion; Long et al. [66] reported a non aqueous solid phase extractionf alkaloids from Scopalia tangutica Maxim. Silica based strongation exchange (SCX) was chosen in alternative to resin matri-es, due to its weaker non specific hydrophobic interaction. Theurification of the crude extract with this non aqueous method,ompared to aqueous one, seems to allow a more selective reten-ion of alkaloids compounds, minimizing interferences.

Xu et al. [67] illustrated the basic concept of molecular imprint-ng polymers (MIPs) application in solid phase extraction fromatural matrices, particularly highlighting the ability to selectivelyre-concentrate anti-tumours or anti-Hepatitis C virus natural

nhibitors from Chinese traditional herbs.In a recent work Bi et al. [68] proposed an off-line SPE method

or the separation of phenolic acids from natural plant extract.he authors developed a molecular imprinting anion-exchangeolid phase extraction using ionic liquid as molecularly imprintedolymers (MIPs). The sorbent material was obtained polymer-

zing different functional and co-functional monomers and theesulting polymers enabled a selective structure recognition of phe-olic acids from Salicornia herbacea. The proposed method showedotential to be widely applied for the fast, convenient, and efficient

solation of various organic acids from plant extracts.The use of resins is known since the third decade of 1900s [69];

everal progress and modifications have been carried out during theears, giving rise to the modern macroporous resin. Their history isell described by Li and Chase [70] in a recent review and the appli-

ation of adsorptive macroporous resin chromatography to theargeted purification of pharmacologically active natural productss particularly highlighted. The use of these separation materialsramatically increased and relies on their unique adsorption prop-rties and advantages including good stability, low operational cost,ess solvent consumption and easy regeneration.

Some critical considerations have to be done for choosing theore appropriate sample preparations. RP18-SPE is the most com-on preliminary purification for crude extracts either when the

emoval of chlorophyll and resins is the target of the separationrocess, either when there is a lack of information on the naturef the bioactive compounds: the versatility of RP-18 allows a fastacroscopic separation between hydrophilic and lipophilic sub-

tances. On the other hand, SPE based on ionic exchange stationaryhases can be used either for a rough separation between acidic

Please cite this article in press as: G. Brusotti, et al., Isolation and charactanalysis in the ethnopharmacological approach, J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. (2

nd basic compounds either for a selective separation of alkaloidsnce their presence is assessed in the extract. More information arevailable on the nature of secondary metabolites, more refined theeparation technique becomes.

PRESS Biomedical Analysis xxx (2013) xxx– xxx 5

3. Biological screening and separation activity-oriented

Since biological activity is the ethnopharmacological approach’sleading thread, its evaluation is necessary to validate the traditionaluse (water extract) and to look for the most active extracts. Thus,crude and/or partially purified extracts undergo biological tests,selected on the basis of the supposed bioactivity.

In vitro bioassays are faster (ideal for High ThroughputScreening) and require very small amounts of compound. Even ifthey might not be relevant to clinical conditions, they are specific,sensitive and widely used; in addition most of them are microplate-based and can be carried out in full or semi-automation [71]. Thecomplexity of the bioassay must be defined by laboratory facilitiesand quality available personnel [72] thus the “easy to use” antimi-crobial and antifungal assays are broadly employed as “on/off” testfor only give an idea of the presence or absence of active substances.Generally, a crude extract and a pure compound are consideredinteresting if the IC50 values are below 100 �g/ml and below 25 �M,respectively [73]. Enzymatic and chemical assays, based on spec-trophotometric measurements, can also be used for assessing thepresence of compounds with specific activities [74–76].

Once a biological activity has been determined, the complexmixture needs to be purified in order to isolate the bioactivecompound/s. The integration of different separation methods aregenerally required: principle aspects and practical applications ofthe main separation techniques are comprehensively reviewed bySticher [77].

Bioassay-guided fractionation has been the state-of-the artmethod for identifying bioactive natural products for many years.This approach involves repetitive preparative-scale fractionationand assessment of biological activity up to the isolation of pureconstituents with the selected biological activity.

A recent application is described by Cesari et al. [59]. Followingthe procedure reported in Fig. 2, five extracts were obtained fromD. bipindensis (Gürke), an African medicinal plants used by BakaPygmies for the treatment of respiratory disorders, and their bio-logical properties evaluated. Since the activity was found in almostall the extracts, a chromatographic fingerprinting were carried outby means of reverse phase high performance liquid chromatog-raphy (RP-HPLC) affording a metabolite profile (Fig. 3) for eachextract. The comparison of the chromatograms highlighted thepresence of common peaks that may likely belong to the bioactivecompounds. Thus, the most active dichloromethane extract (DME)was further purified through repetitive preparative HPLC followedby evaluation of the biological activity of the obtained fractions.The bio-guided fractionation allowed the full characterization ofDME together with the validation of D. bipindensis traditional usesince the identified bioactive constituents were found also in waterextract, even if too low to be detected in a given bioassay.

Even if this classical methodology has provided a good meansto the targeted isolation of bioactive constituents from com-plex extracts [78–80], the huge amount of biological materialrequired and the risk of losing the activity during the isolationprocess, because of dilution or decomposition processes, limit theattractiveness of this approach, which is perceived as expensive,time-consuming and labour-intensive.

Micro-fractionation bioactivity-integrated fingerprints repre-sents the miniaturized of conventional bio-guided fractionation.A comprehensive understanding of the chemical composition ofplant extracts with the advantages of utilizing less material thantraditional bioassay-guided method, represents the strength pointof this modern approach. Using HPLC micro-fractionation, the com-

erization of bioactive compounds from plant resources: The role of013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpba.2013.03.007

ponents of crude extracts can be fractionated and collected into 96well microplates, ready for further biological screening. The activityobserved in the microplate wells can be directly connected to thecorresponding component in the chromatogram, allowing a rapid

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min0 10 20 30 40 50 60

HE

min0 10 20 30 40 50 60

EAE

min0 10 20 30 40 50 60

DME

min0 10 20 30 40 50 60

ME

min0 10 20 30 40 50 60

WE

F m wa(

liaiwc(tfebpowlecs

rpitai2(uaeadMh(gtse

ig. 3. Chromatographic fingerprinting of Diospyros bipindensis extracts obtained froDME), ethyl acetate (EAE), methanol (ME).

ocalization and a further scale-up purification. Furthermore, thentegrated platform can conduce to the on-line identification of thective component, avoiding the time-consuming and less interest-ng isolation of known compounds [81–83]. To prevent the tedious

ork associated with activity guided fractionation, techniquesombining the efficient HPLC separation with a fast post-columnbio)chemical detection step have been developed. Recent applica-ions of on-line biochemical detection methods for drug discoveryrom plant extracts are illustrated by Malherbe et al. [84] and Shit al. [85]. Compared to microplate-based approach, where theioactivity is determined off-line after evaporation of HPLC mobilehase, the on-line bio-chemical screening evaluates the bioactivityf single HPLC peaks directly in a post-column reaction chamber,ithout the need of solvent removal. The configuration of most on-

ine biochemical assays includes a flow-splitter: one aliquot of theluent is directed to in vitro assay, while the second aliquot can beonnected, directly or indirectly by means of a second separationtep, to additional detectors for the chemical identification.

The wide range of available bioassay systems enables aapid screening and identification of compounds from com-lex mixtures, without prior purification and collection. They

nclude antioxidant activity assays, enzyme activity and recep-or affinity detection. Practical applications of continuous-flowssay systems for the rapid identification of antioxidant peaksn chromatograms are reviewed by Niederländer et al. [86].,2′-Azinobis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) and1,1)-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical are commonlysed for the measurement of radical scavenging activity. The stablend coloured radical reagent can be added post-column to the HPLCluate by an extra pump system and individual radical scavengingctivity can be monitored by a UV-vis detector as a negative peak,ue to the conversion of radicals to their uncoloured reduced form.razek et al. [87] determined the antioxidant properties of twenty

erbal samples by means of conventional and simple flow injectionFI)-spectrophotometric DPPH antioxidant assays. Both methods

Please cite this article in press as: G. Brusotti, et al., Isolation and charactanalysis in the ethnopharmacological approach, J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. (2

ave accurate and reproducible results but FI resulted faster andhus more suitable for antioxidants screening of large number ofamples. Besides ABTS and DPPH, the antioxidant activity of plantxtracts can be determined by the flow injection analysis-luminol

ter (WE) and from solvents of increasing polarity: n-hexane (HE), dichloromethane

chemiluminescence (FIA-CL), as recently reported by Küc ükboyaciet al. [88].

Concerning the on-line enzyme activity assays, in 2006 de Jonget al. [89] described a novel screening strategy for the detection ofacetylcholinesterase inhibitors in natural extracts. In the proposedmethod the bioactivity is directly determined by monitoring theconcentration of both acetylcholine (substrate) and choline (prod-uct) using electrospray MS. Moreover, compared to the continuousflow-assay based on fluorescence detection, previously reported byRhee et al. [90] no addition of modified substrates is needed.

Biochromatography is an on-line biochemical detectionmethod, based on the biological interactions among active com-ponents and immobilized targets (proteins, enzymes, receptors,cell membranes and biomimetic membranes) coupled with con-ventional chromatography. In a recent review Wang et al. [91]reported a classification of biochromatographic models basedon the different properties of the stationary phases and theconsequently different applications field.

Cell membrane chromatography (CMC), for example, is a biolog-ical affinity chromatographic technique useful for screening activecomponents from complex matrices, such as herbal medicines, andfor investigating binding interactions between drugs and recep-tors. Silica coated with opportune active cell membranes is used asstationary phase usually following a two-dimensional liquid chro-matography (2D-LC) approach. A large number of CMC coupledwith online HPLC–MS have been applied to the screening of naturalcompounds from plant extracts [92–95].

A 2D biochromatography system has been also applied to theseparation of active compounds from Schisandra chinenses, usedin the TCM for several diseases, as reported by Wang et al. [96].Immobilized liposome stationary phase was employed in the firstdimension for evaluating the affinity of S. chinenses constituentswith the coated liposome while a C18 monolithic column in thesecond dimension for the analysis of the fractions eluted.

A recent example of enzymatic stationary phase application is

erization of bioactive compounds from plant resources: The role of013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpba.2013.03.007

reported by da Silva et al. [97]. The authors described the screeningof 21 coumarin derivatives by means of acetylcholinesterase cap-illary enzyme reactor. This method allows the biological screeningof potential acetylcholinesterase inhibitors originating from

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Table 1Off-line and on-line methods and strategies applied to activity-oriented separation.

Activity-oriented separation

Techniques Strategy

Off-line methodsBio-guided fractionation Repetitive preparative-scale fractionation combined with off-line biological assaysMicro-fractionation bioactivity-integrated fingerprint Low resolution and target collection of HPLC peaks followed by microplate assays

On-line methodsHPLC biochemical detection Complex mixture separation and on-line activity assessment of HPLC eluate in a

post -column reaction chamberBiochromatography Affinity chromatography separation based on the biological interactions among

active components and immobilized targetsInim

cm

ecvcelfiaplcamctsafdcis

4

wtton

lstfiprpEscnsBmqt

Electrophoretic enzyme assays

omplex mixture, such as plant extracts, and the evaluation of theirechanism of action without the need of pre-fractionation.Capillary electrophoresis (CE), known for its versatility, high-

fficiency separation, short analysis times, and low sampleonsumption [98], over the past decade, has been proven to beery useful for studying enzymatic reactions, validating its appli-ation for biological screening of plant extracts [99]. In particular,lectrophoretically mediated microanalysis (EMMA) and immobi-ized capillary enzyme reactors (ICERs) have been extensively usedor enzyme study and inhibitor screening. In EMMA, the capillarys used both as a microbioreactor and for separation of substratend products, while in ICERs mode the substrate is injected in are-treated capillary where an enzyme was previously immobi-

ized. Compared with EMMA, ICERs can greatly reduce analysisost, because the immobilized enzyme is reusable and stable. Inddition, no extra mixing procedure is necessary. A variety ofethods have been reported for ICER, either in the format of

apillaries or microfluidic chips [100]. Kang’s group developedwo CE-based methods including EMMA [101] and ICERs [102] forcreening natural products for AChE inhibition. A CE method withn electrophoretically mediated microanalysis (EMMA) techniqueor screening of Xanthine Oxidase inhibitors in natural extracts waseveloped [103], as well as a method involving an immobilizedapillary adenosine deaminase microreactor for inhibitor screeningn natural extracts [104]. Techniques and strategies applied in theeparation activity-oriented are summarized in Table 1.

. Hyphenated chromatographic techniques

The combination of sensitive and rapid analytical techniquesith on-line spectroscopic methods, the so-called “hyphenated

echniques”, generating simultaneously both chemical and bioac-ivity information, plays an increasingly important role in the studyf the effects of phytopharmaceuticals and in the quality control ofatural remedies.

Currently, these methods may be dedicated to the rapid on-ine identification of known components (dereplication), or to thetandardization or the quality control of a complex extract. In par-icular, HPLC is widely used for natural products profiling andngerprinting, for quantitative analyses, and for quality controlurposes. HPLC can be coupled with simple detectors used forecording chromatographic traces, for profiling or quantificationurposes (e.g., (UV), Evaporative Light Scattering Detector (ELSD),lectron Capture Detector (ECD)), or detectors for hyphenatedystems that generate multidimensional data for online identifi-ation and dereplication purposes (e.g., UV-diode array (DAD), MS,uclear magnetic resonance (NMR)) [105]. Most fingerprint analy-is has been developed with Reverse Phase-LC using a UV detector.

Please cite this article in press as: G. Brusotti, et al., Isolation and charactanalysis in the ethnopharmacological approach, J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. (2

eing simple and inexpensive, HPLC-UV is used in several phar-acopoeias for the quantification of individual compounds in the

uality control of herbal drugs or phytopreparations. The addi-ional UV–vis spectral information of DAD, which can also record

capillary-screening of enzymatic reactions (being the biological target eithermobilized or not) by separation of products and remaining reactants

a series of chromatograms at a wide range of wavelengths, allowsqualitative and quantitative analysis of peaks in a fingerprint chro-matogram [106–108]. Another detector for liquid chromatographyis ELSD and it has been used mainly for the detection of compoundswith weak chromophores, such as terpenes, in both aglycone andglycosidic forms, saponins, and some alkaloids [109], and usuallyin parallel with other techniques (i.e. MS, UV–vis) [110–112].

When vegetable matrix is particularly complex an high-resolution metabolite profiling and rapid fingerprinting of crudeplant extracts can be achieved by means of ultra-high pressure liq-uid chromatography (UHPLC). This well known technique [113],compared to other analytical approaches, increases speed of anal-ysis, allows higher separation efficiency and resolution, highersensitivity and much lower solvent consumption. A recent applica-tion of UHPLC-DAD–TOF-MS in the study of the metabolite profilingof Brazilian Lippia species has been described by Funari et al. [114].

More attention has been paid to the development of fingerprintanalysis with MS. Beside gas chromatography (GC)–MS, widelyused to construct the fingerprint for volatile compounds [115–117],LC–MS plays a prominent role for the detection and identifica-tion of pharmacologically active and/or reactive metabolites [118].LC–MS can also avoid the repetitive isolation of known compoundsby rapidly identifying them, on the basis of structural informationdeduced from their fragmentation pattern generated by collision-induced dissociation (CID) in MS–MS experiments, and focus onthe targeted isolation of compounds generating characteristic frag-ment ions. The rapid identification of known compounds fromnatural product extracts (also called dereplication) is an importantstep in an efficiently run drug discovery programme, which allowsresources and efforts to be focused only on the most promisinglead [119]. Applications of LC coupled with different detection sys-tems for the fingerprinting or quality control of herbal remedieshave been recently reported by many authors. For example, Jinget al. [120] developed an on-line HPLC-DAD–ESI-MS for the chro-matographic fingerprinting of Radix Scrophulariae; Zhou et al. [121]employed LC-DAD–MSn to establish a chromatographic finger-printing of Desmodium styracifolium and Yang et al. [122] developedchromatographic fingerprints for authentication of S. scandens andS. vulgaris and many other papers dealing with chromatographicfingerprints by means of LC–MS are summarized in a recent review[25].

Multiple chromatographic techniques can be combined toimprove the “chromatographic fingerprint” of herbal medicines.The 2D fingerprint analysis, obtained by multiple detections or sep-arations, allows the acquisition of more chemical information onthe whole chemical composition [123]. Principal component anal-ysis (PCA), a well-known chemometric method, is used to describethe variation in data, and facilitates the discovery of groups or clas-

erization of bioactive compounds from plant resources: The role of013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpba.2013.03.007

sification of the fingerprints. 2D information extracted from DADdata can also be constructed using PCA [124].

Since efficient commercial MS–MS databases are not alwaysavailable, the dereplication process may require additional

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Table 2Hyphenated chromatographic techniques.

Advantages Disadvantages Applications

HPLC-UV - ease of use- widespread- low cost- linearity- versatility

- requires mobile phase with low UV- cut-offs- not applicable to compounds withoutchromophores- not very selective

All compounds with chromophores(i.e. flavonoids, terpenes, alkaloids,coumarins, alkamides, and polyacetylene)

HPLC-DAD - ease of use- limited on-line structural information- assessment of peak purity- can compensate the low sensitivityby choosing a wavelength with thehighest extinction coefficient- moderate low cost

- requires mobile phase with low UV- cut-offs- not applicable to compounds withoutchromophores

All compounds with chromophores(i.e. polyphenols, alkaloids, quinones, andxanthones)

HPLC-ELSD - universal- ease of use- widespread- low cost- specific- sensitive- compatible with gradient elution

- not compatible with non volatile buffer- poor reproducibility- quantification inaccessible- non-linear response- need optimization of gas flow and- drift tube temperature

All natural products, mainly used fordetection of non-chromophoriccompounds (i.e. saponins, terpenes, in bothaglycone and glycosidic forms, saponins,and some alkaloids)

HPLC–MS - universal- sensitive- specific- widespread- structural information (MW,molecular formula and diagnosticfragments)

- expensive- usually not compatible with non volatilebuffer- eluent modifiers can cause ionsuppression- compound-dependent response

All natural productsUseful information mainly for glycosidesand polyphenols by fragment generation

HPLC-NMR - universal- full structural information

- expensive- need of deuterated mobile phase

tivesolvenitivity

All natural productsUseful for labile compounds or molecules

surt[tissloHaliscaai

5

eortwr

stft

- stereochemical information - non selec- need for

- low sens

pectroscopic information to confirm the identity of known nat-ral products or to partially identify unknown metabolites. In thisespect, HPLC-NMR can yield important complementary informa-ion or even a complete structural assignment of natural products125–127]. HPLC-NMR should ideally enable the complete struc-ural characterization of any molecule directly in an extract, ifts corresponding LC peak is clearly resolved. However, there areeveral limiting factors of online HPLC-NMR, in particular lowensitivity and the need for solvent suppression, that cause ana-yte signals localized under the solvent resonances to be lost. Inrder to circumvent these problems, approaches as SPE-NMR, orPLC microfractionation of the extract followed by concentrationnd re-injection in deuterated solvent by using microflow capil-ary HPLC-NMR (CapNMR), are successfully applied [128,129]. Thenstruments are usually operated in on flow (continuous flow) ortop flow modes. Applications of on-flow HPLC-NMR analyses torude extract profiling have been recently reported for example forlkaloids [130] and terpenes [131]. A summary of advantages, dis-dvantages, and application of the hyphenated techniques is shownn Table 2.

. Conclusion

The “one disease one drug” paradigm, the key theory of the mod-rn drug discovery, seems to have lost sheen because of the growthf multigenic diseases. From this viewpoint traditional medicinesepresent a source of multitarget therapeutics; in fact, very oftenhe secondary metabolites contained in complex plant extractsork synergistically and rarely a single molecule/metabolite is

esponsible for the biological activity found.Due to the chemo-diversity of secondary metabolites and

Please cite this article in press as: G. Brusotti, et al., Isolation and charactanalysis in the ethnopharmacological approach, J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. (2

ince any kind of pharmacological activity might be found,he role of analysis in the ethnopharmacological approach isundamental. As highlighted in this review, several extrac-ion/purification/separation processes can be applied but the

t suppression.that might epimerize or interconvert as aresult of their isolation

choice of the best methodologies has to be done in order to “find andfollow” the supposed pharmacological activity that might be linkedto one or more compound/s. Thanks to the innovation in analyticaltechnology, identification, separation and detection of secondarymetabolites dramatically improved. Particularly, hyphenated tech-niques and biochromatography represent an important tool forhigh-throughput screening allowing the rapid identification ofcompounds from crude extract coupled with an on-line activitymeasurement. However, conventional bio-guided fractionationsfollowed by off-line biological activity determination still remainmandatory when these advanced apparatus are not available oron-line measurements are not feasible.

Acknowledgement

This work was supported by a grant from the Italian Ministerodell’Università e della Ricerca Scientifica (grant no. 2009Z8YTYC).

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