review for the biology regents exam

REVIEW FOR REVIEW FOR THE BIOLOGY THE BIOLOGY

REGENTS EXAMREGENTS EXAM

EXAM OVERVIEWEXAM OVERVIEWPART APART A – multiple choice (30 points) – multiple choice (30 points)

• General knowledge questionsGeneral knowledge questions

PART BPART B – mix of multiple choice and – mix of multiple choice and short answer (25 points)short answer (25 points)• Application of knowledge (graphing)Application of knowledge (graphing)

PART CPART C – short answer dealing with – short answer dealing with application of knowledge to real world application of knowledge to real world situations (15 points)situations (15 points)

PART DPART D – multiple choice and short – multiple choice and short answer (15 points)answer (15 points)• Pertaining to the four New York State Pertaining to the four New York State

labs performed during the school yearlabs performed during the school year

GUIDELINESGUIDELINES

BRING PENSBRING PENS• All short answers must be in All short answers must be in

permanent inkpermanent ink• Answer sheet must now be done in inkAnswer sheet must now be done in ink

BRING PENCILSBRING PENCILS• Graphs may be drawn in pencilGraphs may be drawn in pencil• Essay questions may be bulletedEssay questions may be bulleted

UNIT IUNIT I

SCIENCE AND THE LIVING SCIENCE AND THE LIVING ENVIRONMENTENVIRONMENT

• Scientific methodScientific method• Controlled experimentsControlled experiments• Characteristics of a good experimentCharacteristics of a good experiment• GraphingGraphing

VocabularyVocabulary• Observation:Observation: what is seen or measured what is seen or measured• Inference:Inference: a conclusion based on a conclusion based on

observation or evidenceobservation or evidence• Hypothesis:Hypothesis: a a predictionprediction based on based on

available evidence – should state cause available evidence – should state cause and effectand effect∙ A correct hypothesis can be tested and A correct hypothesis can be tested and

falsified (proven incorrect) using an falsified (proven incorrect) using an experimentexperiment

∙ The easiest way to write a correct The easiest way to write a correct hypothesis is to use an “if…then” statementhypothesis is to use an “if…then” statement

• Theory:Theory: an explanation of natural events an explanation of natural events that is supported by that is supported by strongstrong evidenceevidence

A Controlled ExperimentA Controlled Experiment

Compares the results of an experiment Compares the results of an experiment between two (or more) groupsbetween two (or more) groups

Experimental groupExperimental group = group being tested = group being tested or receiving treatmentor receiving treatment

Control groupControl group = “normal” group – should = “normal” group – should be identical to the experimental group in be identical to the experimental group in every way except they will every way except they will notnot be be receiving the new treatmentreceiving the new treatment

PlaceboPlacebo = a sugar pill or fake treatment = a sugar pill or fake treatment given to the control groupgiven to the control group

VARIABLESVARIABLES• INDEPENDENT VARIABLE:INDEPENDENT VARIABLE:♦ The variable being tested – the The variable being tested – the

variable that the experimenter variable that the experimenter (I) put into the experiment(I) put into the experiment

♦ The “if” part of the hypothesisThe “if” part of the hypothesis♦ The variable plotted on the X The variable plotted on the X

axisaxis• DEPENDENT VARIABLE:DEPENDENT VARIABLE:♦ The data (D) being collected – The data (D) being collected –

the “then” part of the the “then” part of the hypothesishypothesis

♦ The variable plotted on the Y The variable plotted on the Y axisaxis

Characteristics of a Good Characteristics of a Good ExperimentExperiment

1.1. Can be repeated the same way and get the Can be repeated the same way and get the same resultssame results

2.2. Have a large sample sizeHave a large sample size

3.3. Are performed for longer periods of timeAre performed for longer periods of time

4.4. Test only Test only oneone independent variableindependent variable

5.5. Must test the hypothesis and show whether Must test the hypothesis and show whether it is right or wrongit is right or wrong

6.6. In objective - fact and opinion are not mixedIn objective - fact and opinion are not mixed

7.7. The experiment follows ethical and legal The experiment follows ethical and legal standardsstandards

DATA AND GRAPHSDATA AND GRAPHS

DATA TABLESDATA TABLES are used to are used to organize data that will be organize data that will be plotted on the graphplotted on the graph

The first column is for the The first column is for the independent variableindependent variable

The second column is for the The second column is for the dependent variabledependent variable

Each column should be titled Each column should be titled and include units of and include units of measurementmeasurement

Data in the table should be Data in the table should be arranged in ascending or arranged in ascending or descending order (according descending order (according to directions)to directions)

TemperatuTemperaturere

(ºC)(ºC)

Hear rateHear rate

(beats/(beats/min)min)

55 108108

1010 150150

1515 180180

2020 270270

2525 300300


Both the X and Y axis Both the X and Y axis of the graph should of the graph should be labeled or titled. be labeled or titled. These should be the These should be the same ones used in same ones used in the data table. the data table.

Units of measurement Units of measurement must also be must also be included.included.

TemperatureTemperature

(ºC)(ºC)

Hear Hear raterate

(beats/(beats/min)min)

Y

X


• The The independentindependent variable is always plotted on the variable is always plotted on the XX axisaxis

• The dependent variable is always plotted on the The dependent variable is always plotted on the YY axisaxis

• The X and Y axis must be numbered:The X and Y axis must be numbered:∙ Numbers must be in a uniform increment (count by 1’s, Numbers must be in a uniform increment (count by 1’s,

5’s, 10’s, etc)5’s, 10’s, etc)∙ Your number scales should take up most of the graphYour number scales should take up most of the graph∙ Your numbers must line up with the grid lines of the Your numbers must line up with the grid lines of the

graphgraph∙ You do not need to start numbering your axis with zeroYou do not need to start numbering your axis with zero∙ Do not plot number values not included in the data tableDo not plot number values not included in the data table


• To date, all graphs To date, all graphs have been line have been line graphs. If you draw graphs. If you draw a bar graph, you not a bar graph, you not receive any credit.receive any credit.

• All plotted points All plotted points must be surrounded must be surrounded by a circle (or by a circle (or square or triangle) square or triangle) according to the according to the directions.directions.

∙

50 1510 2520

300

200

100

∙

∙

∙

∙

Temperature (°C)

Heart

Rate

(b

eats

/min

)

UNIT IIUNIT II

CHARACTERISTICS of LIVING THINGSCHARACTERISTICS of LIVING THINGS

• CHEMISTRY (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, enzymes, acids and bases)• HOMEOSTASIS, METABOLISM, and

LIFE PROCESSES (including photosynthesis and respiration)• CELLS

CHEMISTRYCHEMISTRY

The most common elements in living The most common elements in living things are (in order) things are (in order)

CarbonCarbonHydrogenHydrogenOxygen Oxygen NitrogenNitrogen

Organic CompoundsOrganic CompoundsHave Carbon Have Carbon andand Hydrogen Hydrogen

(C (C66HH1212OO66 is organic H is organic H22O is not)O is not)Organic molecules are larger than Organic molecules are larger than

inorganic moleculesinorganic molecules

Inorganic CompoundsInorganic Compounds

WATER IS THE MOST IMPORTANT INORGANIC COMPOUND

Examples of Organic Examples of Organic CompoundsCompounds

CarbohydratesCarbohydrates are sugars and starches are sugars and starches• All carbohydrates are made from All carbohydrates are made from

simple sugars (their building blocks) simple sugars (their building blocks) like glucoselike glucose

• They supply quick energy for the bodyThey supply quick energy for the body• Enzymes can break down Enzymes can break down

carbohydrates into simple sugarscarbohydrates into simple sugars


LipidsLipids include fats, oils, and waxes include fats, oils, and waxes• Lipids are made of 3 fatty acids and Lipids are made of 3 fatty acids and

1 glycerol1 glycerol• Lipids are a source of stored energy Lipids are a source of stored energy

for the bodyfor the body• Enzymes can break down lipids into Enzymes can break down lipids into

fatty acids and glycerolfatty acids and glycerol


ProteinsProteins include muscle fibers, include muscle fibers, hormones, enzymes, hemoglobinhormones, enzymes, hemoglobin

• Proteins are made from amino acidsProteins are made from amino acids• Proteins make most of the chemicals Proteins make most of the chemicals

used to build and run the organism’s used to build and run the organism’s bodybody

• Proteins, as far as your body is Proteins, as far as your body is concerned, are the most important of concerned, are the most important of the three organic moleculesthe three organic molecules

• It is the shape of proteins and how they It is the shape of proteins and how they fit together with other molecules that fit together with other molecules that determine what proteins can do.determine what proteins can do.

PROTEINS continuedPROTEINS continued

Four specific jobs of Four specific jobs of proteins:proteins:

1.1. Enzymes (see Enzymes (see next slide)next slide)

2.2. Transport Transport molecules in the molecules in the cell membranecell membrane

3.3. Antibodies which Antibodies which fight infectionfight infection

4.4. Hormones which Hormones which are chemical are chemical messengersmessengers

PROTEINS continuedPROTEINS continuedEnzymes are catalysts made from Enzymes are catalysts made from

proteinsproteins• Catalysts affect the rate (speed) of Catalysts affect the rate (speed) of

chemical reactionschemical reactions• Lock and Key ModelLock and Key Model demonstrates demonstrates

how the specific shape of an enzyme how the specific shape of an enzyme fits fits one and only oneone and only one type of type of molecule (substrate)molecule (substrate)

PROTEINS continuedPROTEINS continuedIf the protein loses its shape, it will not If the protein loses its shape, it will not

longer worklonger workAt high temperatures, proteins (enzymes) At high temperatures, proteins (enzymes)

loss their shape - that is why high loss their shape - that is why high temperatures are dangeroustemperatures are dangerous

When this occurs, we say the enzyme is When this occurs, we say the enzyme is denatureddenatured

ACIDS and BASESACIDS and BASES• The pH scale measures the strengths The pH scale measures the strengths

of acids and basesof acids and bases• A low pH (0-6) is an acidA low pH (0-6) is an acid• A high pH (8-14) is a baseA high pH (8-14) is a base• A pH of 7 is neutral (water)A pH of 7 is neutral (water)

CHARACTERISTICS of LIVING CHARACTERISTICS of LIVING THINGSTHINGS

HOMEOSTASISHOMEOSTASIS• HomeostasisHomeostasis is a balanced state in an is a balanced state in an

organismorganism• Dynamic equilibriumDynamic equilibrium means that the means that the

body stays balanced by taking action body stays balanced by taking action whenever the balance is disturbed (like whenever the balance is disturbed (like sweating when the body is too hot)sweating when the body is too hot)

• To maintain homeostasis, organisms To maintain homeostasis, organisms carry out the same basic life functions:carry out the same basic life functions:

TRANSPORT, NUTRITION, EXCRETION, TRANSPORT, NUTRITION, EXCRETION, RESPIRATION, GROWTH, SYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, GROWTH, SYNTHESIS, REGULATIONREGULATION (know these terms!)(know these terms!)


TRANSPORTTRANSPORT• DIFFUSION:DIFFUSION: movement of molecules from areas movement of molecules from areas

of high concentration to areas of low of high concentration to areas of low concentration. Requires no energy (passive concentration. Requires no energy (passive transport)transport)

• ACTIVE TRANSPORT:ACTIVE TRANSPORT: requires energy, usually requires energy, usually movement of molecules from areas of low movement of molecules from areas of low concentration to areas of high concentration concentration to areas of high concentration (against the natural flow of diffusion)(against the natural flow of diffusion)

• OSMOSIS:OSMOSIS: is the diffusion of water molecules is the diffusion of water molecules into or out of a cell. If water flows in (a cell in into or out of a cell. If water flows in (a cell in pure water), the cell will swell and maybe burst. pure water), the cell will swell and maybe burst. If water flows out (a cell in salt water), the cell If water flows out (a cell in salt water), the cell will shrivel up.will shrivel up.


NUTRITIONNUTRITIONAUTOTROPHSAUTOTROPHS make their own food make their own foodHETEROTOPHSHETEROTOPHS eat other organisms eat other organisms

PHOTOSYNTHSISPHOTOSYNTHSIS is carried out by green is carried out by green plants, algae, and some bacteria (autotrophs)plants, algae, and some bacteria (autotrophs)

Plants make capture the sun’s energy to change Plants make capture the sun’s energy to change inorganicinorganic materials into materials into organicorganic materials materials (food)(food)

COCO22 + H + H22O → CO → C66 H H1212OO66 + O + O22 + H + H22OOPhotosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts of the Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts of the

plants’ cellsplants’ cells

NUTRITION in PLANTSNUTRITION in PLANTS• Plants have Plants have stomatesstomates (holes) in their (holes) in their

leaves that let them exchange the gasses leaves that let them exchange the gasses used in photosynthesis. used in photosynthesis. Guard cellsGuard cells open open and close the openings to keep the plant and close the openings to keep the plant from dehydrating. from dehydrating.

• XylemXylem carries water, and carries water, and PhloemPhloem carries carries food through the plantfood through the plant

HUMAN NUTRITIONHUMAN NUTRITION

• The digestive system is a one-way The digestive system is a one-way passage through the body that includes passage through the body that includes the the mouth – esophagus – stomach – small mouth – esophagus – stomach – small intestine – large intestine – rectum – anusintestine – large intestine – rectum – anus

• Food is broken down by both Food is broken down by both mechanical mechanical and chemical digestionand chemical digestion

• Food is moved through the digestive Food is moved through the digestive system by muscular contractions called system by muscular contractions called peristalsisperistalsis

• Undigested Undigested solid wastedsolid wasted is eliminated as is eliminated as fecesfeces

HUMAN NUTRITIONHUMAN NUTRITIONA.A. MOUTHMOUTHMechanical digestion and chemical Mechanical digestion and chemical

digestion of starchdigestion of starch

B.B. ESOPHAGUSESOPHAGUSFood tube to the stomachFood tube to the stomach

C.C. STOMACHSTOMACHBegins protein digestion – acidic Begins protein digestion – acidic

environmentenvironment

D.D. SMALL INTESTINESMALL INTESTINEDigestion completed – absorption of Digestion completed – absorption of

nutrientsnutrients

E.E. LARGE INTESTINELARGE INTESTINEWater and vitamin absorption Water and vitamin absorption

HUMAN NUTRITIONHUMAN NUTRITION

DIGESTIVE ACCESSORY ORGANSDIGESTIVE ACCESSORY ORGANS

• LIVER:LIVER: produces bile (emulsifies fat) produces bile (emulsifies fat)• GALL BLADDER:GALL BLADDER: stores bile stores bile• PANCREAS:PANCREAS: produces a whole produces a whole

spectrum of enzymes that complete spectrum of enzymes that complete chemical digestion in the small chemical digestion in the small intestine – pancreatic juice also intestine – pancreatic juice also neutralizes the acidic chymeneutralizes the acidic chyme

Some clarification:Some clarification:

• Solid waste is eliminated from the Solid waste is eliminated from the your body via the digestive tract – your body via the digestive tract – excretion is of cellular metabolic excretion is of cellular metabolic waste and is produced by the waste and is produced by the kidneys.kidneys.

• The digestive system gives the body The digestive system gives the body nutrientsnutrients – – energyenergy is produced only is produced only by by cellular respirationcellular respiration in the cells in the cells

Cellular RespirationCellular Respiration

The process by which organisms take energy The process by which organisms take energy from the bonds in glucose molecules (breaks from the bonds in glucose molecules (breaks it down) and places it in ATP. it down) and places it in ATP. ATPATP is the is the energy source of all living things.energy source of all living things.

AEROBIC RESPIRATIONAEROBIC RESPIRATION requires oxygen requires oxygen and yields more ATP (energy) from glucose and yields more ATP (energy) from glucose than anaerobic (no oxygen) respiration does.than anaerobic (no oxygen) respiration does.

CC66 H H1212OO66 + O + O22 → H → H22O + COO + CO22 + ATP + ATP AEROBIC RESPIRATIONAEROBIC RESPIRATION occurs in the occurs in the

mitochondriamitochondria of the cells. of the cells.

Cellular RespirationCellular Respiration

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATIONANAEROBIC RESPIRATION (fermentation) occurs when oxygen is not (fermentation) occurs when oxygen is not available.available.

Less ATP is producedLess ATP is producedWhen human muscle cell are fatigued, When human muscle cell are fatigued,

anaerobic respiration begins and the anaerobic respiration begins and the product, product, lactic acid lactic acid builds up which builds up which causes “burning” and aching muscles the causes “burning” and aching muscles the next day.next day.

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION also occurs also occurs in yeast and some bacteria cells.in yeast and some bacteria cells.

CELLULAR RESPIRATION CELLULAR RESPIRATION vs. PHOTOSYNTHESISvs. PHOTOSYNTHESIS

They are They are opposite reactionsopposite reactions They are important in recycling oxygen, carbon, They are important in recycling oxygen, carbon,

hydrogen, and water through the environment.hydrogen, and water through the environment.

COCO22 + H + H22O → CO → C66 H H1212OO66 + O + O22 + H + H22OO

CC66 H H1212OO66 + O + O22 → H → H22O + COO + CO22 + ATP + ATP ALL organismsALL organisms, including plants, perform cellular , including plants, perform cellular

respiration to get their energyrespiration to get their energy Respiration is not breathingRespiration is not breathing (that’s gas exchange (that’s gas exchange

or getting oxygen for respiration). Respiration is or getting oxygen for respiration). Respiration is obtaining energy from glucose moleculesobtaining energy from glucose molecules

Organisms that perform anaerobic respiration do Organisms that perform anaerobic respiration do not need oxygen (or need to breath) to livenot need oxygen (or need to breath) to live

CELLSCELLS

Cells are the basic unit of life. All living Cells are the basic unit of life. All living things (except viruses) are made of cells.things (except viruses) are made of cells.

The cell theory states:The cell theory states:1.1. All living things are made of one or more cellsAll living things are made of one or more cells

2.2. Cells carry out all of an organism’s life Cells carry out all of an organism’s life functionsfunctions

3.3. All cells come from other living cellsAll cells come from other living cells

Cell Organelles Cell Organelles (and their (and their functions)functions)

1.1. Cell membraneCell membrane – controls what comes in – controls what comes in and out of the celland out of the cell

2.2. Cell wallCell wall – protection and shape – protection and shape

3.3. NucleusNucleus – control center of the cell – control center of the cell (DNA)(DNA)

4.4. ChloroplastChloroplast – site of photosynthesis – site of photosynthesis

5.5. CytoplasmCytoplasm – jelly like substance the – jelly like substance the organelles are suspended inorganelles are suspended in

6.6. RibosomeRibosome – site of protein synthesis – site of protein synthesis

7.7. Vacuole Vacuole – storage– storage

8.8. MitochondriaMitochondria – site of cellular – site of cellular respirationrespiration

PLANT vs. ANIMAL CELLSPLANT vs. ANIMAL CELLS• Plant cellsPlant cells have cellhave cell wallswalls, animal cells do not, animal cells do not• Both plant and animal cellsBoth plant and animal cells have cell have cell

membranesmembranes• Animal cells haveAnimal cells have centriolescentrioles, plant cells do not, plant cells do not• Animal cellsAnimal cells usually have usually have small vacuolessmall vacuoles, , plant plant

cellscells usually have a usually have a few and largerfew and larger

THE CELL MEMBRANETHE CELL MEMBRANE• Made of lipids and proteinsMade of lipids and proteins• Is selectively permeableIs selectively permeable

– Small molecules can pass through it (OSmall molecules can pass through it (O22, H, H22O, COO, CO22, , glucose, amino acids)glucose, amino acids)

– Large molecules pass through with the help of Large molecules pass through with the help of transport proteins (proteins and starches)transport proteins (proteins and starches)

• If the membrane uses ATP to move a molecule If the membrane uses ATP to move a molecule through the membrane, it is active transport.through the membrane, it is active transport.

Proteins in the

Membrane

1. Receptor proteins

2. Transport proteins

3. Antigens (markers)

UNIT IIIUNIT III

HOMEOSTASIS AND THE HOMEOSTASIS AND THE

HUMAN BODYHUMAN BODY

• THE ORGANIZATION of LIVING THE ORGANIZATION of LIVING THINGSTHINGS

• HUMAN BODY SYSTEMSHUMAN BODY SYSTEMS• DISEASES and DISORDERSDISEASES and DISORDERS

ORGANIZATIONORGANIZATIONORGANELLSORGANELLS –functional units with the cell –functional units with the cellCELLSCELLS – basic unit of life – basic unit of lifeTISSUESTISSUES – groups of cells that are specialized to – groups of cells that are specialized to

do certain jobs (including muscle and nerve do certain jobs (including muscle and nerve tissue)tissue)• Specialization or differentiation is the process that Specialization or differentiation is the process that

changes a stem cell into a specialized cellchanges a stem cell into a specialized cell• Stem cells are cells that have not yet been specializedStem cells are cells that have not yet been specialized• Almost all cells have a complete set of genes, but only Almost all cells have a complete set of genes, but only

those genes needed for the cells’ particular job are “turned those genes needed for the cells’ particular job are “turned on”.on”.

ORGANSORGANS – tissues working together (heart, – tissues working together (heart, lungs, kidneys)lungs, kidneys)

ORGAN SYSTEMSORGAN SYSTEMS – organs working together – organs working together (digestive system, circulatory system)(digestive system, circulatory system)

ORGANISMORGANISM

TRANSPORTTRANSPORTHuman CirculationHuman Circulation

The circulatory system moves material The circulatory system moves material (water, gasses, nutrients, hormones, (water, gasses, nutrients, hormones, wastes) through the body to the cells wastes) through the body to the cells that need them.that need them.

The main parts of the circulatory system The main parts of the circulatory system are:are:

1.1. THE HEARTTHE HEART

2.2. BLOODBLOOD

3.3. BLOOD VESSELSBLOOD VESSELS

Human TransportHuman TransportComponents of the Blood:Components of the Blood:1.1. RED BLOOD CELLS: RED BLOOD CELLS:

carry oxygen on carry oxygen on hemoglobinhemoglobin

2.2. WHITE BLOOD CELLS: WHITE BLOOD CELLS: fight diseasefight disease

3.3. PLATELETS: small PLATELETS: small fragments that clot the fragments that clot the bloodblood

4.4. PLASMA: liquid part of PLASMA: liquid part of the blood that carries the blood that carries everything except everything except oxygenoxygen

HUMAN TRANSPORTHUMAN TRANSPORTThe HeartThe Heart

Parts of the heartParts of the heart• ChambersChambers• VesselsVessels

Blood flow through Blood flow through the heartthe heart

• Vena cavas – right Vena cavas – right atrium – right ventricle atrium – right ventricle – pulmonary arteries – – pulmonary arteries – lungs – pulmonary lungs – pulmonary veins – left atrium – left veins – left atrium – left ventricle – aorta – ventricle – aorta – tissues of the bodytissues of the body

HUMAN TRANSPORTHUMAN TRANSPORTBlood VesselsBlood Vessels

ARTERIES:ARTERIES:• Structure – thick and muscular Structure – thick and muscular

(where pulse and blood (where pulse and blood pressure is taken)pressure is taken)

• Function – carries blood away Function – carries blood away from the heartfrom the heart

• Blood type – oxygenated Blood type – oxygenated (except pulmonary artery(except pulmonary artery

VEINS:VEINS:• Structure – thin and Structure – thin and

nonmuscularnonmuscular• Function – carries blood Function – carries blood

towards the hearttowards the heart• Blood type – deoxygenated Blood type – deoxygenated

(except the pulmonary vein(except the pulmonary veinCAPILLARIES:CAPILLARIES:• Structure – one cell thickStructure – one cell thick• Function – site of diffusion of Function – site of diffusion of

materials between the blood materials between the blood and body cellsand body cells

RESPIRATORY SYSTEMRESPIRATORY SYSTEM• Breathing provides oxygen Breathing provides oxygen

needed for cellular needed for cellular respiration (which releases respiration (which releases energy from sugar)energy from sugar)

• You breathe faster when You breathe faster when COCO2 2 builds up in the blood.builds up in the blood.

• The The alveolialveoli are the are the microscopic air sacs microscopic air sacs surrounded by capillaries surrounded by capillaries (the respiratory surface) (the respiratory surface) where where gas exchange gas exchange occurs occurs

CO2

O2

RBC

HUMAN RESPIRATORY HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEMSYSTEM

• The diaphragm is the muscle that allows breathingThe diaphragm is the muscle that allows breathing

REGULATIONREGULATION

• A stimulus is a change in the A stimulus is a change in the environment that you respond to.environment that you respond to.

• A neuron is a nerve cell.A neuron is a nerve cell.• An impulse is the electrical signal An impulse is the electrical signal

carried by nerves – neurotransmitters carried by nerves – neurotransmitters are chemicals that transfer the impulse are chemicals that transfer the impulse from neuron to neuron.from neuron to neuron.

• A hormone is a chemical signal secreted A hormone is a chemical signal secreted by different glands in the body.by different glands in the body.

Receptor molecules Receptor molecules are are proteinsproteins on the on the surface of the cell membrane that receive surface of the cell membrane that receive signals from the nervous and endocrine signals from the nervous and endocrine system. These are needed for your cells system. These are needed for your cells to communicate and work together.to communicate and work together.

As with all proteins, it is the As with all proteins, it is the shapeshape of the of the receptor molecule that determines its receptor molecule that determines its function (or determines what signal it will function (or determines what signal it will receive)receive)

Endocrine gland

hormone Target cell

Non-target cell

THE NERVOUS SYSTEMTHE NERVOUS SYSTEM

• The nervous system The nervous system regulatesregulates your body your body with electrochemical with electrochemical impulsesimpulses

• The central nervous The central nervous system = the brain and system = the brain and spinal cordspinal cord

• The peripheral nervous The peripheral nervous system = all the other system = all the other nerves in the bodynerves in the body

THE NERVOUS SYSTEMTHE NERVOUS SYSTEM(the reflex arc)(the reflex arc)

• The spinal The spinal cord cord controls controls reflexes reflexes and relays and relays information information between between the body the body and the and the brainbrain

THE ENDOCRINE THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEMSYSTEM

• HormonesHormones regulates the body. regulates the body.• Slower than the nervous system but Slower than the nervous system but

effects last longer.effects last longer.• The pancreas makes insulin which The pancreas makes insulin which

lowers blood sugar.lowers blood sugar.• Adrenal glands make adrenaline Adrenal glands make adrenaline

when the body is under stress.when the body is under stress.• Testosterone (male) and estrogen Testosterone (male) and estrogen

and progesterone (female) are the and progesterone (female) are the sex hormones. They are made in the sex hormones. They are made in the gonads (testes and ovaries)gonads (testes and ovaries)

Endocrine Endocrine SystemSystem

• Hormones levels Hormones levels are controlled by are controlled by feedback feedback mechanismsmechanisms

Higher blood sugar

Pancreas secretes

less insulin

Pancreas secretes

more insulin

Lower blood sugar

THE IMMUNE SYSTEM• The job of the immune

system is to protect the body against pathogens.

• Types of pathogens include viruses, bacteria, and parasites.

• White blood cells are the main components of the immune system.

Different White Blood Cells have different roles,

including:1. Identify pathogens2. “Tag” pathogens for destruction by

other WBC’S3. Destroy the pathogen by eating it4. Destroy the pathogen using chemicals5. Make antibodies

WHITE BLOOD CELLS

An Immune Response• Antigens are protein

“tags” that can be used to identify a cell or virus

• Cells or viruses that have a antigens different than yours will cause an immune response.

• Antibodies are also proteins made by white blood cells to attack antigens.

• Each antibody attacks a specific antigen – this is determined by its shape.

Be sure you can…

1. Explain why your body’s immune system rejects organ transplants.

2. Explain why blood type O is the universal doner: type AB is the universal recipient.

3. Remember that antibodies are proteins, not cells.

4. Remember that antibodies and antigens are specific to each other based on their shape.

VACCINESVACCINES

• A vaccine is an A vaccine is an injection of a dead injection of a dead or weakened or weakened pathogen. It is pathogen. It is effective against effective against both viruses and both viruses and bacteria.bacteria.

• Vaccines do not Vaccines do not cure diseasescure diseases, , they prevent you they prevent you from getting a from getting a disease.disease.

ANTIBIOTICSANTIBIOTICS

• Antibiotics are drugs used to stop Antibiotics are drugs used to stop infections by bacteria. Antibiotics infections by bacteria. Antibiotics will not work against viruses. will not work against viruses. Antibiotics can cure diseases.Antibiotics can cure diseases.

EXCRETORY SYSTEMEXCRETORY SYSTEM• Removes Removes metabolicmetabolic waste waste

Including Including salt, water, urea, salt, water, urea, and carbon dioxideand carbon dioxide

• LungsLungs secrete CO secrete CO22 and and waterwater

• SkinSkin secretes sweat secretes sweat• KidneysKidneys filter waste from filter waste from

blood and reabsorb blood and reabsorb nutrientsnutrients

• LiverLiver filters toxins and filters toxins and dead red blood cells from dead red blood cells from bloodblood

INTERACTION INTERACTION BETWEEN HUMAN BETWEEN HUMAN

SYSTEMSSYSTEMS

I.I. Nutrients from the digestive system are Nutrients from the digestive system are transported to the cells by the circulatory transported to the cells by the circulatory systemsystem

II.II. Wastes from the respiratory system are Wastes from the respiratory system are removed by the excretory systemremoved by the excretory system

III.III. The nervous and endocrine system work The nervous and endocrine system work together to control the bodytogether to control the body

IV.IV. The immune system protects the nervous The immune system protects the nervous system from diseasesystem from disease

BE ABLE TO EXPLAIN HOW DIFFERENT SYSTEMS OF THE BODY WORK TOGETHER TO MAINTAIN

HOMEOSTASIS

DISEASES AND DISEASES AND DISORDERSDISORDERS

Be familiar with different diseases and Be familiar with different diseases and disorders, what causes them, and how disorders, what causes them, and how they may affect the body. Don’t worry they may affect the body. Don’t worry about memorizing all of them. Typically about memorizing all of them. Typically the exam asks you to the exam asks you to name a disease name a disease and how it disrupts homeostasis.and how it disrupts homeostasis.

Here are some examples for you to know:Here are some examples for you to know:

AIDSAIDS• Caused by HIV (it is a virus/pathogen)Caused by HIV (it is a virus/pathogen)• Weakens human immune system ;leaving Weakens human immune system ;leaving

the body vulnerable to other diseasesthe body vulnerable to other diseases• Spread through bodily fluids, usually Spread through bodily fluids, usually

sexual contact, intravenous (IV) drug use sexual contact, intravenous (IV) drug use (sharing needles), or blood transfusions(sharing needles), or blood transfusions

• No cure, but the spread may be prevented No cure, but the spread may be prevented by sexual abstinence, “safe” sex (using by sexual abstinence, “safe” sex (using condoms), not sharing needles, blood condoms), not sharing needles, blood testing before transfusionstesting before transfusions

CANCERCANCER

• Caused when a cell reproduces (divides) Caused when a cell reproduces (divides) at an uncontrolled rate, forming a at an uncontrolled rate, forming a tumortumor

• Cancer cells to not specialize and take Cancer cells to not specialize and take nutrients from healthy tissuenutrients from healthy tissue

• May be caused by radiation, chemicals May be caused by radiation, chemicals (asbestos or cigarette smoke) and (asbestos or cigarette smoke) and virusesviruses

• Treatments include surgery, radiation Treatments include surgery, radiation and chemotherapyand chemotherapy

DIABETESDIABETES

• Affects the body’s ability to control blood Affects the body’s ability to control blood sugarsugar

• The pancreas does not produce insulin The pancreas does not produce insulin (normally used to decrease blood sugar)(normally used to decrease blood sugar)

• Some diabetics may be treated by using Some diabetics may be treated by using injections of injections of insulin insulin made by genetically made by genetically engineered bacteriaengineered bacteria

ALERGIESALERGIES

• Occur when the immune system reacts Occur when the immune system reacts to an otherwise, harmless, substance to an otherwise, harmless, substance (such as pollen) the same way it would a (such as pollen) the same way it would a harmful pathogen (such as a cold virus)harmful pathogen (such as a cold virus)

• AsthmaAsthma is a form of an allergic reaction is a form of an allergic reaction

UNIT IVUNIT IVREPRODUCTIONREPRODUCTION

• Asexual and sexual reproductionAsexual and sexual reproduction• Mitosis and meiosisMitosis and meiosis• Human reproduction and Human reproduction and

developmentdevelopment

Sexual and Asexual Sexual and Asexual ReproductionReproduction

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

one parent two parents

faster and easier more time, effort, risk

no variation variation due to recombination of genes

offspring the same as parent offspring different from parents

MitosiMitosis and s and

MeiosiMeiosiss

Mitosis and MeiosisMitosis and MeiosisMITOSIS MEIOSIS

used in all forms of asexual reproductionused in growth and repair

makes gametes for sexual reproduction

number and type of chromosomes in the daughter cell are the same as in the parent

separates the homologous chromosomes so that the offspring get one chromosome from each parent (half the number of chromosomes in the daughter cells)

one cell division two cell divisions

results in 2 identical diploid (2n) cells

Results in 4 different haploid (n) cells

Mitosis

MALE REPRODUCTIVE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMSYSTEM

• TestesTestes produce and produce and store spermstore sperm

• TestosteronTestosteronee is the male is the male sex hormone sex hormone – it is made in – it is made in the testesthe testes

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMSYSTEM

• OvariesOvaries produce eggs produce eggs• The fallopian tube The fallopian tube carries the egg to the uteruscarries the egg to the uterus• The uterus The uterus is the womb where the baby will developis the womb where the baby will develop• The vagina The vagina is the birth canal where the baby will is the birth canal where the baby will

leave the bodyleave the body

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMSYSTEM

• The menstrual cycle The menstrual cycle lasts 28 days (on lasts 28 days (on average)average) OvulationOvulation – release of – release of

an egg (typically 1 per an egg (typically 1 per cycle)cycle)

MenstruationMenstruation – – shedding of the uterine shedding of the uterine wallwall

If pregnancy does occur, If pregnancy does occur, the menstrual cycle will the menstrual cycle will temporarily stop.temporarily stop.

EARLY DEVELOPMENTEARLY DEVELOPMENTEARLY DEVELOPMENT:•Fertilization forms a single cell called a zygote•The process of cleavage begins (no growth between mitotic cell divisions)•A solid ball of cells forms called a morula•The blastula forms next when the center becomes fluid filled•Eventually a gastrula is formed

LATE HUMAN LATE HUMAN DEVELOPMENTDEVELOPMENT

• The fetus here The fetus here is nearly ready is nearly ready to be bornto be born

• Note the Note the umbilical cord, umbilical cord, placenta and placenta and amniotic sacamniotic sac

review for the biology regents exam

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