reversing v uinera’bility oi rurai livelihoods in ethiopia

Reversing V uinera’bility oi Rurai Livelihoods in Ethiopia: Options for

Sustainable Development

Proceedings of the 7th Annual Conference o f Agricultural Econom ics Society of Ethiopia

Edited by:

Workneh Negate L egesse Dadi

A be be Haile Gabriel Solomon Bellete

Berhanu Gebremedhin

Agricultural Economics Society of Ethiopia

Reversing Vulnerability of Rural Livelihoods in Ethiopia: Options for Sustainable Development

Proceedings of the 7th Annual Conference of Agricultural Econom ics Society of Ethiopia

Edited by:

Workneh Negatu Legesse Dadi Abebe Haile Gabriel Solomon Belkte Berhanu Gebremdhin


© 2005 Agricultural Economics Society of Ethiopia (AESE)


P.O Box 16185, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Email: [email protected] Tel. 251 1 533763

Correct citation

Agricultural Economics Society of Ethiopia (AESE). 2005. Reversing Vulnerability of Rural Livelihoods in Ethiopia: Options for Sustaimzbie Development. Proceedings o f the 7th Annual Conference of Agricultural Economics Society of Ethiopia, 7-9 August 2003, Addis Ababa.

mailto:[email protected]

Agricultural economics society of Ethiopia

Agricultural Economics Society of Ethiopia (AESE) is a non-profit making professional society established in 1995.

The objectives of AESE are to contribute to the development of Ethiopian agriculture by promoting research and development in Agricultural Economics, to promote the study of Agricultural Economics in the country’s educational institutions, to promote agricultural research and assist in the dissemination of results, to provide for the discussion of problems of agricultural development, to promote the professionalism of agricultural economists and to enhance contacts among agricultural economists and other related professionals in Ethiopia and abroad.

Executive committee members of AESE

Berhanu Gebre Medhin

Solomon Bellete

Astatke Bayu

Wosen Kebede

Bekele Hundie

Meseret Tilahun

Workneh Negatu

Legesse Dadi

Abebe Haile Gabriel

Terefe Degefa

President, International Livestock Research Institute

Vice President, Development Consultant

Secretary, Ministry of Finance and Economic Development

Auditor, Development Bank of Ethiopia

Chief Accountant, Ethiopian Civil Service College

Treasurer, Development Bank of Ethiopia

Chief Editor, Institute of Development Research, Addis Ababa UniversityEditor, Ethiopia Agricultural Research Organization

Editor, Ethiopian Civil Service College

Member, Institute of Development Research, Addis Ababa University

Contents

Acknowledgement.............................................................................................................................. vi

Preface........................................................................... ......................................................................vii

Welcome address............................................................................................................................. viii

Berhanu Gebremedhin, AESE President

Opening speech................................................................................................................................ xiii

His Excellency Ato Belay Ejigu State Minister, Ministry o f Agriculture

Honorary M embership.................................................................................................................... xv

Dr. Solomon Bellete

Market Response and Effect of Cash-for-Work Approach in Meeting Survival Needsof the Poor: Experience and Lessons from Food Vulnerable Areas of Ethiopia.................. 1

Legesse Dadi and Chala Erko

Reversing Vulnerability tff Rural Livelihoods in Ethiopia: Alternative Approaches forImproving Rural Livelihood............................................................................................................17

Kebede Kifle

Decision Making Power of Women in the Rural Areas o f Hararghe....................................31

Hedija Mohammed and Bezabih Emana

The Role o f Rainwater Harvesting in Mitigating Risk and Achieving Sustainable RuralDevelopment in Ethiopia................................................................................................................43

Lakevj Desta

Monitoring and Evaluation of Potato Seeds Production in Farmers' Field......................... 53

Hailu Beyene, Chilot Yirga, Mesfin Haile

Rural Poverty in Central Highland of Ethiopia: The Case of Bereh-Aleltu District........65

Adane Nabso and Bezabih Emana

The Nature and Development o f Local A greem en ts to Get Access to Farmland: theCase of W onqa Kebele, East G ojjam ............................................................................................75

Getachew Senishaut

The Role o f Research in Technology Development and in Mitigating Risk andAchieving Sustainable Development in Ethiopia...................................................................... 85

Tesfaye Zegeye and Senait Regassa

Teff Production Vis-A-vis Food Self-sufficiency .......................................................................103

Astatke Bayu

The National Extension Intervention Program (NEIP) and Sustainable AgriculturalDevelopment: An Exploratory Study to Steer the Debate on AD LI....................................113

Dereje Alemu and Demese Chanyalew

Traditional Honey Production and Marketing Systems in Manasibu District; west Wallaga, Ethiopia............................................................................................................................ 133

Mathewos Belissa, AiganesK Tola and Gizaw Kebede

The Situation of Women in the Informal Sector in Addis A baba..................................... 141

Kassaitu Dessie

Trends and Growth Performance of Major Food crops in Oromiya: an EconometricAnalysis.............................................................................................................................................. 149

Gtrma Aboma, Di-riba Geleti, Dereje Bacha dryl Zelalem BelayneK

Acknowledgement

The Agricultural Economics Society of Ethiopia (AESE) gratefully acknowledges the financial support of the following organizations for the 7rh Annual Conference o f the Society:

t I. Austrian Development Cooperation (ADC)

2. Development Bank of Ethiopia (DBE)

3. Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO)

4. Ethiopian Science and Technology Commission (ESTC)

5. The United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UN-ECA)

vi

Preface

The 7th Annual Conference of the Agricultural Economics Society of Ethiopia (AESE) was held at a time when the agricultural Rector of Ethiopia had been hit by a severe drought and close to 14 million of our compatriots were at risk of starvation. Although it has been proven time and again that agricultural productivity and production in Ethiopia can be increased substantially through the use of improved technologies and production methods, these increases have been dependent largely on the availability of good rainfall. With the changing climatic conditions, reliance on rain water for agricultural production has become too risky a venture to achieve sustainable development of the agricultural sector. Sustained increase in productivity and production has also been difficult due to low demand and weak market infrastructure that result in low prices. Hence, vulnerability of rural livelihoods can be reversed only if sustainable development o f the rural economy can be achieved through the development o f irrigation infrastructure that includes large, medium and small-scale dams, and household level water development and water harvesting schemes, alongside the development of adequate policy and institutional support services for agriculture. The key institutional support service for agricultural development include extension, input supply, rural finance and agricultural marketing. O f critical importance currently are the input and output marketing services.

With this background, the theme of the 7th Annual Conference of the AESE was selected to be Reversing Vulnerability of Rural Livelihoods in Ethiopia: Options for Sustainable Development. Under this theme, several research results were presented, that discussed critical issues including market development, agricultural water development, the role o f research and technology development, gender, and the extension system. These papers have identified several strategy and policy options which could be considered by the Ethiopian Government and non-government organizations. The AESE believes that professionals are duty bound to make every effort professionally or otherwise to ensure that the vulnerability of the livelihoods o f our people is reversed once and for all, and sustainable economic growth is achieved.

Berhanu Gebremedhin (PhD)

President


Welcome Address

Berhanu Gebremedhin, A ESE President

Y our Excellency A to Belay Ejigu, M inister, M inister o f Agriculture,

D ear C onference Participants,

Ladies and G entlem en,

O n behalf o f the Executive C om m ittee o f the A E SE and on my own behalf, it is a great honour for me to welcome you ail to the 7th A nnual C onference o f our society. It is also a great pleasure to inform you that the Executive C om m ittee o f the A E SE has been very pleased by the turn out o f abstracts and papers for this conference. W e had received close to sixty abstracts from civil servants, academ ia, research institutions, the financial sector, the private sector, international research institutes, and the international com m unity. O f these, after screening and selection, 34 papers will be presented in this conference, both at the plenary and concurrent sessions.

The Executive C om m ittee o f A E SE has chosen the them e for this year’s conference to be Reversing Vulnerability of Rural Livelihoods in Ethiopia: Options for Sustainable Development. W e believe that there could not have been a m ore timely and appropriate theme for this conference, given the fact that up to about 14 m illion o f our people have been at risk o f fam ine and starvation during the current year. T he failure o f the Belg and Meher rains in many parts o f our country has put the livelihoods o f this many o f our com patriots at risk.

T hanks to the proactive m easures taken by the G overnm ent o f the Federal D em ocratic Republic o f Ethiopia (FD R E) to avert a m ass scale exodus and starvation, the standing in unison o f the E thiopian people to help the drought affected com patriots, and the contributions o f the international com m unity, national and international N G O s, it has been possible to avert the loss o f hum an life and assets which could have been even more serious than those seen during the droughts o f 1 9 7 3 /7 4 and 198 4 /8 5 . However, it is im portant to realize that relief and food aid is only a short-term emergency instrum ent to save lives and assets. A lasting solution to the problem o f poverty and fam ine is to bring about sustainable developm ent.

As we all know, Ethiopia has becom e the epitom e o f poverty and fam ine. This has to agonize every one o f us. O f course, Ethiopia is also an exam ple o f unity

am ongst diversity. E thiopia is also k symbol o f unity against foreign adversaries. Ethiopia is also an exam ple of^ helping each other ou t during hard times. Ethiopia is also an exam ple o f security and stability.

Your Excellency,


T he fundam ental challenge facing our country and ourselves has been how to bring about sustainable social and econom ic developm ent. Poverty in Ethiopia is primarily a rural phenom enon. In this regard, achieving sustainable agricultural and rural developm ent is the m ost urgent challenge that E thiopia has to surm ount in the years to come. D rought does not have to result in fam ine and starvation. T hrough various m eans o f im proved rain water and soil m oisture conservation, the application o f im proved technologies, the developm ent o f infrastructure and institutions, and tfie expansion o f rural livelihood options, it is possible that the im pact o f drought can greatly be dim inished, even to the extent o f com pletely breaking the relationship between drought and fam ine.

Livelihoods are sustainable when people can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks, and m aintain or enhance their hum an capabilities and capital asset endow m ents both now and in the future, while not underm ining the natural resource base. T o achieve sustainable livelihoods, and indeed to achieve sustainable social and econom ic developm ent, appropriate policies, strategies, and program s are o f critical im portance. In this regard, the yardstick against which developm ent policies and strategies should be evaluated is how they enable people to acquire and enhance their capital asset endow m ents, the extent to which appropriate technologies are generated and m ade available, and the speed with which the political, social and econom ic institutions accom m odate the changing needs o f a society.

T he developm ent o f appropriate policies and strategies require inform ation and knowledge base that is generated through sound theoretical and em pirical analysis. Professionals have a unique role to play in this regard. It is in this context that the 7th A nnual C onference o f the A E SE has been organized. In this conference, several presentations that relate to the developm ent o f sustainable rural livelihoods will be presented. These relate to factor and produce m arkets, rural finance and credit, water harvesting and irrigation developm ent, environm ental degradation, agricultural research and technology developm ent, poverty, gender, and H IV /A ID S , am ong others. W e plan to publish selected

articles in one or two special issues o f our journal The Ethiopian Journal of Agricultural Economics. W e will also publish a proceedings volum e. W e believe that these publications will enable us to reach a wider audience.

In addition to these presentations, we have also organized a special panel discussion on The Need and Relevance of Undergraduate Agricultural Economics Training for Ethiopia. D istinguished panellists from governm ent, academ ia, the private sector, and the international com m unity will give their views on the subject. As you all know the only undergraduate training in agricultural econom ics at Alem aya University has been term inated. There is no supply in the country at the m om ent for m iddle level rural socio-econom ists. T he Executive C om m ittee o f the A E SE believes that the closure o f the undergraduate training in A gricultural Econom ics at Alemaya University may need to be revisited. The decision to close the undergraduate training at Alemaya does not appear to be concordant with the reality that the country finds itself in. For a country, which has m ore than 80% o f its population depending on agriculture, m ore than 45% o f its G D P earned from agriculture, and close to 90% o f its foreign trade earnings com ing from products o f agricultural origin, the need for m iddle level agricultural econom ists should have been apparent.

Your Excellency,


I would like to take this opportunity to say a few words about the unique role that Ethiopian professionals have to play in the socio-econom ic developm ent o f Ethiopia. Sustainable social and econom ic developm ent does not com e only from the m an ipulation o f econom ic factors, such as prices, savings, investm ent, exchange rate and so on. It is also as m uch the result o f non econom ic factors such as attitudes towards life, work and authority; public and private bureaucratic adm inistrative structures; culture, traditions and norm s; patterns o f religions; the authority and integrity o f governm ent agencies; and the degree o f public participation in developm ent decisions and activities.

W hen we view the developm ent process in this broad context, we can clearly see that we, the Ethiopian professionals, o f whatever discipline, have the responsibility o f contributing to the developm ent process o f our country in two respects. First, through the special skills and knowledge that we are endowed with as a result o f our training and education. Second, by perform ing exemplary activities that do not necessarily fall within the dom ain o f our skills and training,

but which contribute to speeding up the developm ent process, such as in leading the change o f cultures and traditions that are counter productive, to ju st m ention one exam ple.

W e, the Ethiopian professionals, shoyld* see ourselves as binoculars o f the Ethiopian people to look far into the fliture, identify the root causes o f our problem s realistically and scientifically, and contribute towards the developm ent o f our country. T his is not to say that only m odern knowledge and practices is all that is needed to bring about socio-econom ic developm ent in Ethiopia. In deed, there is a wealth o f indigenous knowledge, practices and institutions that our people have used for decades to produce and survive. However, this indigenous knowledge and practices need to be augm ented or even replaced with m odern knowledge and institutions if they will be able to cope up with the increasing societal dem ands. Hence, while learning from local knowledge and practices, we need to work hard to expand the use o f m odern technologies and practices am ongst our peoples.

W e need to fight cultures, traditions and other institutions that are anti growth and developm ent, while hailing those that speed up the effort for growth and developm ent. W e should be at the forefront to improve the working culture that we see both in rural and urban Ethiopia. It may not be an exaggeration to say that the working culture that pervades am ongst our people and ourselves needs substantial im provem ent. It is primarily the responsibility o f professionals to lead the effort to improve this working culture o f our people and ourselves.

W e need to develop the culture o f tolerance, listening to each other and com prom ising am ongst ourselves for the sake o f our com m on goal. W e need to fight the culture o f extremism that appears to be quite com m on am ong professionals in this country. Extrem ism breeds intolerance. Extrem ism leads to unwarranted antagonism and is surely counter productive, destructive and dam aging. W e need to be tolerant to ideas that differ from ours, while preserving our individual principles.

W e need to realize that if we work hard and together, we will grow together, and in the end, we will all be beneficiaries o f our contributions. W e need to realize that if united we becom e effective; but if disorganized, we becom e irrelevant. W e should realize that we will never escape the blam e for the underdevelopm ent o f our country and the miseries o f our people. It is not enough to lam ent our problem s, but to ensure that we make our due contributions that our professions com m and.

Finally, on beh alf o f the Executive com m ittee o f A E SE and on my own behalf, I like to extend my gratitude and respect to the M inistry o f Agriculture for hosting the office o f the society in one o f its prem ises. Given the current financial status o f the society, renting an office would perhaps have been nearly im possible.

T he Executive com m ittee o f the A E SE is also deeply grateful to the A ustrian D evelopm ent C ooperation for its generous financial su pport to this conference. W e also thank the D evelopm ent Bank o f Ethiopia for its contributions to cover the expenses o f this conference.

T he U N E C A has provided us conference halls free o f cost. W e wish to extend our sincere appreciation and thanks to the EC A . A t this juncture, I also like to thank the E thiopian Econom ic A ssociation for close collaboration with our Society. I am confident that this collaboration will continue and be strengthened.

W ith these rem arks, Your Excellency A to Belay Ejigu, State M inister o f the Ministry o f Agriculture, may I take the opportunity to invite you to give us opening statem ents?

T hank you for your attention !!

Opening speech

His Excellency Ato Belay Ejigu State Minister, Ministry o f Agriculture

Mr. Chairman,

Distinguished Conference Participants,

Ladies and Gentlemen,

On behalf of the Ministry of Agriculture and Myself, 1 am pleased to say few words at this 7th Annual Conference of the Agricultural Economics Society o f Ethiopia.

The theme of the 7 th Annual Conference “Reversing Vulnerability of R u t sI Livelihoods in Ethiopia: Options for Sustainable Development” is very timely and appropriate. Although Ethiopia has high potential for agricultural development, the vulnerability of the rural populace to disaster could not be minimized due to various hurdles. At present because o f the failure o f the belg and meker rains in many parts of our country and other chronic factors as many as 14 million of our populations are dependent on food aid. Nonetheless, thanks to the concreted effort of the Government o f the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, the Ethiopian peoples, the international community, and national and international N GO s the disaster that loomed over our country has been greatly controlled. However, sustainable social and economic development is required to address the root causes of vulnerability that could arise to climatic and other shocks.

Cognizant o f this fact, the Federal Democratic Republic o f Ethiopia has been implementing policies, programmes and strategies to achieve rapid socio-economic development in the country. The Agriculture Development Led Industrialization Strategy (ADLI) is believed to be most effective in reducing poverty, improving welfare and accelerating the development of the national economy.

Mr Chairman,

Conference Participants,


In a country like Ethiopia, where poverty is mainly concentrated in the rural areas and agriculture is the mainstay o f the economy, agricultural and rural development is the quickest way of reducing not only rural poverty but also urban poverty. In view of this, various agricultural development programmes have been implemented throughout the country, including enhancing the capacity of farmers through training and education, the development of rainwater harvesting and utilization, irrigation, and the provision of packages of technology choices for farmers. With the objective of implementing Food Security Strategy, special programme has been put in place and this programme focuses on solving the problem of chronically food in-secured sector o f the society, which ranges

from 6-7 million every year. Bridging the gap between humanitarian aid and development is critically important under this scheme.

Moreover, the programme would include among the others as to how such a vulnerable group would be able to run sustainable life by way of undertaking voluntary resettlement in sparsely populated, fertile, and uncultivated areas of the country. In this regard, active and voluntary participation of beneficiaries has been taken as an imperative step for its success. Hence, the government with development partners would therefore be required to support the process by providing technical assistance to the settlers, conducting studies on land use system and settlement patterns, helping them to develop the area through developing basic infra-structures and services. In this connection, some regions have started implementing this strategy in some parts of the country in the process o f which many o f our development partners are actively engaged. Hence, such development activity that involves social mobilization has been designed to be instrumental in combating food aid dependency syndrome.

Mr Chairman,

Conference Participants,


I have learnt from the programme of the conference that, this forum will deliberate on policy and strategic issues that are pertinent to achieving sustainable rural development in Ethiopia. The development and efficiency of input and output markets, rural credit and finance institutions, improved water harvesting and irrigation technologies, the development of appropriate agricultural technologies and their wide adoption by farmers are essential elements for sustainable agricultural and rural development. In this respect, the recommendations that could come out of this important deliberation can be useful for the efforts underway to bring sustainable development in our country.

At this juncture, I would like to thank the executive committee o f the Agricultural Economics Society of Ethiopia for their efforts in organizing this timely and pertinent conference. My gratitude also extends to the sponsors of this conference namely, The Austrian Development Cooperation, the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa and the Development Bank o f Ethiopia.

Finally, I would like to extend special thanks to the organizers o f for inviting me to open this conference. Wishing you successful deliberations, I declare this workshop officially open.

Thank you,

Agricultural Econom ics Society of Ethiopia Bestows Honorary Membership To Dr. Solomon Bellete

Upon recognition of the remarkable and impressive contribution of Dr. Solomon Bellete to the Agricultural Economics Society of Ethiopia (AESE), and based on Article IV (7) o f the constitution ofAESE, the executive committee of AESE presented itsrecommendation to'bestow Honorary Member Status to Dr. Solomon Bellete to the General Assembly at its 7th Annual conference in August 9, 2003. The General Assembly approved the

recommendation unanimously. On behalf of the members of AESE, the executive committee of AESE hereby congratulates Dr Solomon Bellete for this honor and for his compassionate and outstanding contribution to the fulfillment o f the objectives of the Society.

Dr Solomon Bellete has served as vice-president of the Society for 10 years, since itsestablishment in 1995. Dr. Solomon’s dedication to serve the society has beenmanifested in his day-to-day unreserved efforts in facilitating the activities of the society and working towards the strength of the society. Dr Solomon has proven to be a crucial asset and supporter of the society. Cognizant of his exemplary contribution, the society has chosen Dr. Solomon to be its first honorary member.

Brief Biography of Dr. Solomon Bellete

Dr. Solomon Bellete earned his PhD in Agricultural and Resource Economics from Oregon State University, USA, in 1979; MSc in Agricultural Economics from Michigan State University in Agricultural Economics in 1972, and BSc in Agricultural and Business Economics from Alemaya College of Agriculture in 1968. Dr. Solomon is currently a registered and licensed management consultant. In 2004, he served as General Manager of Professional’s Management Contractors S.C .. He has been giving various consultancy services to national and international bodies since 1991, including to the UNDP, World Vision International/Ethiopia and World Vision International/US, WFP, and FAO, to mention only a few.

Dr. Solomon started his career with the Institute of Agricultural Research (LAR) (currently the Ethiopian Agricultural research organization, EARO) in 1968, where he served as Research Officer and Head of the Department of Socio-Economics Research Studies till 1981.

From 1981 to 1983 he has worked for Office of the National Committee for Central Planning as head of the Department of Agriculture. He has directed the preparations and coordination of annual and long-term plans for the development of the agricultural sector. From 1983 to 1988 he has lead the Regional Planning Office for North Eastern Ethiopia, o f the O N CCP with the rank of Commissioner. From 1989 to 1991 he has

XV

served as head o f the Price Studies and Policy Institute, which was established under the office o f the council o f Ministers.

Dr Solomon is a member o f several local and international professionals societies. He is currently serving as member and country representative o f the International Association of Agricultural Economists (LAAE); the editorial board, and treasurer o f the Ethiopian Journal of Agricultural Sciences (EJAS). He is also a member of NESIDA for Ethiopia and Africa, member of board of directors of Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural History Society, and chairman for board of directors o f Berhan, Ministry of Children and Women Development.

xvi

Market Response and Effect of Cash-for-Work Approach in Meeting Survival N eeds of the Poor: Experience and Lessons From Food Vulnerable Areas of Ethiopia

1Legesse Dadi and 2Chala Erko

IntroductionEthiopia is one of the poorest countries in the world and a large proportion of its population is highly vulnerable to shocks such as drought, pests, flood etc. Food insecurity is widespread; leaving alone food insecure areas, malnutrition is common even in non-drought years and in surplus producing areas of the country. The estimated daily average food intake per person is 1,518 calories, which is only 72% of the recommended 2,100 calories necessary for an active healthy life (Jenden, 1995; Tesfaye and Debebe, 1995). Insufficient dietary intake and poor child health are the two*most significant immediate causes of malnutrition in the country. According to these sources child malnutrition has increased and 50% of children are underweight. Stunting, a measure of long-term nutritional deprivation in children, is common in Ethiopia.

There is a growing structural food deficit as a consequence of an increase in demand generated by a rapidly growing (3%) population (Legesse et al., 2002). On average, over the last three decades, agricultural production grew at a rate lower than the population growth rate due to degradation of natural resources, recurrent drought, poor infrastructure, low technological base etc. Poverty is widespread and 52% of the rural population in Ethiopia do not afford the minimum food requirement for healthy life. The country does not produce sufficient amount of food. It has received food aid of almost 10 million metric tons during 1984-1998 and this accounts on average for almost 10% of national cereal production over the same period (Neun, 2000; Jayne et al.,2001).

In recent years, one of the controversial issues associated with aid programmes, has been whether the aid ought to be transferred in form of cash or food. These two approaches have their own merits and demerits. In time of severe food crisis, direct food aid is widely regarded as appropriate because the primary aim is rapid response to a crisis with the intent of saving as many lives as is possible (Faminow, 1995), Food transfer i.e. e. Food-For Work, may be opted for during a transitional phase from relief to rehabilitation and/or development. However, the food transfer approach is believed to have negative effects on domestic production and long-term food self-reliance of a country.

1 Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia2 German Agro Action, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia


There exists limited experience in Ethiopia in transferring aid/relief in forms of money/cash. The responses o f markets and beneficiaries to cash transfer is meagrely documented. Thus, this paper attempts to document responses o f beneficiaries and markets in meeting immediate food needs and increasing the capability to become self- reliant in food supply. It also documents beneficiaries’ preference and their perceptions on the effect of the Cash-For-Work approach in meeting survival needs of the poor. The paper also underscores lessons learned and experience gained in implementing CFW intervention. This stud^ is based on information collected from a Cash-For-Work (CFW) intervention project jointly implemented by German Agro Action (GAA) and Organization for Rehabilitation and Development of Amhara (ORDA^) in Ibnat and Belessa weredas (districts) in South and North Gondar Zones o f Amhara National Regional State. In the two weredas, poverty, drought, degradation of natural resources and low technological basis are fundamental causes o f food insecurity. Purchasing power of the people is limited due to lack of non-farm and off-farm job opportunities and low income from agriculture. Thus, a substantial proportion of the population living in the two weredas depended on food aid for survival over the past number o f years.

Cash-For-Work Rationale and Conceptual IssuesA cash transfer approach in supporting vulnerable groups is derived from the fact that food insecurity in some cases caused by lack of access to food rather than lack o f availability of food (Sen, 1981). It follows that an economic response aimed at boosting purchasing power and increasing food entitlement can be an appropriate, and perhaps preferable, alternative to general food distribution (Peppiatt et al., 2001). This alternative aid transfer approach is built on the assumption that food is locally available in markets and beneficiaries are partly food insecure because of lack o f access to food, owing to lack of purchasing power. It is argued that food available in adjacent surplus producing areas may be transferred through market mechanism and made available to needy people in food deficit areas. This calls for inter-connected responsive market network and improved purchasing power of vulnerable groups through job creation schemes. Most often, a large proportion of the population in food deficit areas has no alternative income sources and cannot purchase food’to maintain the required food supply.

The cash transfer approach aims at improving access to food by increasing the purchasing power of beneficiaries. This approach is more efficient and effective in addressing survival needs of the poor than food transfer by enabling beneficiaries to determine their own needs and requirements. Cash transfer makes the direct purchase of food supplies (items) possible as well as the payment of-debts and investment in productive assets and inputs. CFW allows to respect nutritional habits of participants since it gives the option to beneficiaries to decide on the type of food they want. The

3 ORDA is a non-governmental and non-profit making organisation focusing on rehabilitation and development of Amhara region. ORDA is responsible for the distribution of relief food in all food insecure weredas of Amhara regional state.

2 7th AESE Annual Conference Proceedings, 2003

Legesse Dadi and Chala Erto

nutritional status of the participants is improved and this will have a positive impact o,n the health status o f beneficiaries.

The other advantageous dimensions of cash transfer over food transfer are its speed and its low costs of delivery. In cash transfer, the beneficiaries undertake procurement and transport activities by themselves from close-by-local markets. Thus, grains are not transported over long distances. In this approach, beneficiaries share the burden of grain purchase and transportation and this improves the efficiency in grain transfer from surplus to deficit areas. It is often assumed that traders are more efficient in importing food than public institutions and relief agencies. Some researchers argue that, if cash transfer method is put in place in supporting food insecure people or to achieve a specified development goal; the private sector (traders) is more efficient and cost effective in importing food from surplus producing areas into deficit areas and allow food secure individuals purchase food from near by markets.

As compared to Food-For-Work (FFW), CFW is time saving and avoids cumbersome and Costly logistic arrangements required to transport (including shipment and inland transport), store and distribute grains. Transfer and payment of cash is easier than grain distribution. Peppiatt et al. (2001) estimated a 50% reduction-of cost for cash transfer as compared to food transfer. FFW payment is characterized by delays of many months due to problems with food transport and delivery. Webb et al. (1992) reported the prevalence of this problem in FFW in Ethiopia.

In addition to insuring beneficiaries' livelihood security, through the market mechanism, CFW contributes to an increase in production in the medium to long temvperiods. An injection of cash into a market incites demand, which in turn generates supply. Thus, implementing CFW activity builds up purchasing power of project beneficiaries. The injection of CFW and improvement of purchasing power will have spill over effects on the producers and other segments of the society within the target community and adjacent communities and the regional and national economy at large. This could be reflected through market incentives, i.e. fair prices paid to producers encourage farmers to produce more. This would further encourage farmers to protect the natural resources. Protection of the natural resource in turn increases productivity and production and this would ultimately help to achieve food security and to reduce vulnerability.

In another dimension, traders involved in gram and food trade will benefit from cash transfer and invest more in trade. This would further activate the local and regional economy. In addition, in a year with good rainfall and harvest the CFW activity also works against fall in grain prices. In the absence of such activity and other stabilisation measures, the fall in price can have a negative effect on agricultural production. In fact, in such circumstances importing grain from'abroad for FFW programmes aggravates the problem further.

Despite its advantage, there is a fear that the cash obtained from CFW may be used for unintended purposes (Peppiatt et al., 2001). It can be argued that poor households with

7* AESE Annual Conference Proceedings, 2003 3


severe food insecurity give priority to food in allocating their meagre income. The other fear associated with cash transfer is that CFW-money may cause inflation. This is actually determined by the availability o f marketable surplus in surplus producing areas, response of traders and existing market networks.

Sources and Methods of Data CollectionThe study was conducted in Ibnat and Belessa weredas located in South and North Gondar Zones of Amhara. National Regional State. The two weredas are among the 47 weredas identified as food insecure weredas. Poverty, drought, degradation of natural resources and low technological basis are fundamental causes of food insecurity in the study area. On average about 20% of the 450,000 people in the weredas require food aid every year; in years o f extreme drought, this figure can rise to 40%; in the best harvest year it can fall to 10%. Two kebeles: Geman and Wonberoch in Ibnat wereda and Gohalla and Bursa in Belessa wereda, were selected based on their proximity to markets.

Discussions were held with the project holder and line offices involved in the implementation of the CFW pilot project. The discussions were made at different levels and relevant persons and institutions were contacted. Separate sets of checklists were prepared and used to obtain the necessary information at kebele and weredas and zone levels. The line offices contacted include offices of agriculture, Disaster Preparedness and Protection Commission (DPPC), wereda administration, Amhara Saving and Credit Institute and zonal and regional food security coordination offices. Group discussions and interviews were made with beneficiaries, traders and kebele leaders as well.

The data for this study was collected through a multiple visit survey of 40 households. Both male and female household members were interviewed at an interval of 30 days from November 2001 to March 2002. Data were also collected from 2-3 key informants (ealders, merchants and teachers) and from groups of men and women (beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries) by organising focus group discussions in each kebele on monthly basis. Price data were collected from 4 markets at a weekly interval for two markets and at fortnightly interval at the remaining two markets. Descriptive statistics (mean and percentage) and correlation were employed to analyse the data.

Activities undertaken through CFW Pilot ProjectVarious activities that included road construction and maintenance, soil and water conservation, small-scale irrigation development, vegetable, forage and tree nurseries, roadside plantation and protected area guarding and rehabilitation have been undertaken.

Quality work has been done particularly in Soil and Water Conservation (SWC) activities because of better training, supervision and participants’ motivation due to relatively high pay rate per day. Soils and water conservation undertaken through Free



Mobilisation (FM) and EGS are of poor quality because of loose supervision and lack of motivation and interest by the beneficiaries in doing the work.

Description of Target Group, Size; Targeting Procedure and CriteriaTargeting Procedure: Beneficiaries were selected by kebele leaders. In some kebeles, development agents and ORDA's extension promoters were also involved in the selection process. At Geman kebele, kebele leaders initially identified beneficiaries and the list of beneficiaries was approved by the general assembly of Deber4 members. At Bursa and Gohalla kebeles, kebele leaders identified project participants. Representative of community members and elders have participated in identifying catchments for soil and water conservation activities. Moreover, experts from relevant institutions jointly identify traditional river diversion and nursery sites. A study done by Berhanu and Swinton (2000) confirmed that involving village committees supported by a community assembly is fairly effective at targeting the poor households for a FFW programme.

Targeting Criteria: The criteria used to identify beneficiaries included residence in kebele, wealth status of household and ability to .work. A person from poor household with age of 18-50 years is considered eligible to participate in CFW activities. In the selection process, poor households with severe food insecurity and ability to work were given priority. In cases where more work is available, non-food insecure were included later on. In addition, in areas where SW C activities been undertaken, residents and farmers having farms in a selected catchment were also included in the beneficiary list. The number of participants from a household was not restricted to one person. However, in most cases, only one person from a household had participated in CFW project (Table 1).

Table 1. Average family size and participation o f females and males per household

Description January February March Weighted averageFarm size 1.11 1.14 1.05 1.10Family size 5.77 5.91 5.81 5.82Number of children 3.74 3.91 3.82 3.81Number of male 0.97 1.08 1.08 1.03participated Number of female 0.23 • 0.25 0.30 0.25participated

Source: Household monitoring survey

Size of Target group and gender composition: Overall, 5824 people have participated in different activities. Most of the beneficiaries were involved in soil and water conservation and road maintenance activities. The rates of women participation in the

4 Deber is composed of two or more Gots, which receives religious service from the same church, while a Got is equivalent to a village.

7,h AESE Annual Conference Proceedings, 2003 5


pilot project vary with an overall women participation rate o f 29%. The participation of women in physically demanding activities such as SW C and road construction and maintenance activities appears to be low, while their participation in nursery management was as high as 66% (Table 2). Compared to SW C and road construction activities, few persons are required for nursery management.

Table 2. Gender participation in CFW activitiess

Number of Number of % ofActivities men women Total womenSoil and water conservation 2088 836 2924 29Road maintenance 1732 699 2431 29Vegetable nursery 12 23 35 66Traditional river diversion 162 57 219 26Closure area 4 0 4 0Road side plantation management 10 0 10 0Forage nursery 14 2 16 14Pyrethrum nursery 11 2 13 15Store and guard 22 2 24 8Total 4133 1691 5824 29

Source: ORDA

CFW Implementation Experiences and LessonsFinancial Management and Payment: The initial payment schedule was to effect payment at the end of each month. However, this was not duly exercised as paper works required more time than the time initially anticipated. As observed during the field visits, in view of the number o f target groups gathered to collect payments, cash payment was effected quickly and efficiently. At the time of payment, three to four cashiers were assigned to effect payments and field supervisors assisted cashiers in identifying payees. An attendance sheet was prepared by supervisors and endorsed by extension promoter, programme co-ordinator and project coordinator. Finally the payroll was prepared by the finance section and duly signed by all concerned parties. The kebele chairman has signed on each page of the payroll to witness payment.

Payment Rate for CFW: There are differences in the payment rate of CFW, FFW and EGS. The daily payment rate for CFW was higher than the daily payment rate for FFW and EGS. Although FFW, FGS or both were not implemented in the same kebele along with CFW, variation in payment rates may create social friction among the community and the project; and among the community members who participate in different projects. This may also create conflicts between beneficiaries and kebele leaders who identify beneficiaries for different programmes and projects. Community members and leaders emphasized this problem.

Different views were reflected regarding payment rates and using payment rates as a targeting tool. Many stakeholders, including some beneficiaries, felt that the high


Legesse Dadi and Ghala Erko

payment rate by the project has attracted less needy members of the community into the project and marginalized the most needy ones. To avoid such unintended negative consequences, alternative options could be sought to deter less needy groups. One option is to set a wage rate tHat is low enough to make participation unattractive to any but the poorest (Ravallion and Datt, 1992). However, in terms of ease of implementation, since rural wage rates fluctuate seasonally, it may be difficult to fix a single rate that targets the poor effectively throughout the year and at different locations. A low rate may not be sufficient for securing the daily calories required for maintenance and may not contribute to''productive assets creation. Therefore, it may not enhance long-term food security.

The other option is to determine cash transfer rate based on the norm developed for FFW. At the time of the study, 3 kg of wheat, equivalent to 3 birr, was paid for eight hours work in FFW programme. Experience from FFW suggests that this amount is low and does not allow assets creation. It may not lead to self-reliance in food supply.

The other alternative is to fix the payment rate on the basis of the market wage rate. Information collected by the researchers from different sources indicates that the ongoing wage rate in the area was 5 birr plus lunch and dinner at the time of the study. During harvest time daily wage rate was between 10-12 birr. The wage rate drops to 3-4 birr/day during weeding time at Geman kebele, Ibnat wereda. Although the rural wage rate in the project weredas appears to be high such job opportunities are not easily found. The payment rate for CFW for a person day3 was 7 birr and in view of the absence of job opportunities this appears to be high. The food security programme coordination office (FSPCO) pays flat rate o f 5 birr/day. There is a need to reconcile differences in payment rates.

Food Supply Assessment and Market Responses to CFW (cash transfer)Food Supply Situation in the Market: Basically, the demand for food is inelastic i.e. does not significantly change over time. In the project area, sources of food are from domestic production and imported grain for food aid. Domestic production includes local production and imports from other adjacent surplus producing areas of the country. In the project area local production is not sufficient to satisfy local demand. Local production is usually supplemented with food aid (through food for work, employment generation schemes and gratuitous food aid) and imported grain from surplus producing adjacent areas. Subjective assessment o f domestic grain supply by traders, key informants and farmers suggests that there was moderate supply in the market during the project intervention period, November 2001 to March 2002.

Some crops are exported from the project area to other areas including Addis Ababa, Gondar and Bahir Dar. Relatively high value crops such as lentil, sesame, chickpea, faba

5 One person day is equal to eight working hours.

7* AESE Annual Conference Proceedings, 2003 7


bean and field pea are exported. On the other hand, private traders import low value crops such as maize and finger millet. NGOs, government organisation (GO) and donors

" also import wheat into the area. Sources of imported grain were from surplus producing areas in East and West Gojam Zones including markets like Adet, Bure, Dangla, Marawi, Mota and Addis Zemen. Maize is also imported to Ibnat from Metekel (Chagni), a market at a distance o f 294 km. Traders hire trucks with a capacity ranging from 40 qt to 100 qt to transport grain to the area. The transportation cost from Merawi to Gohalla, for a distance of 202 km was 25 birr/qt, as reported by one trader. The grains were not only imported into the area by traders located in the area, but also by traders from adjacent markets such as Addis Zemen. These traders have their agents in markets located in the project area. The amount o f maize and finger millet imported at fortnightly intervals was estimated to be 2000 qt (Table 3) and 1000 qt, respectively.

The importers/distributors usually sell on credit to retailers and one distributor distributes to 20-30 retailers. At the time of Ibnat market visit, the researchers counted 140 maize retailers. The quantity of import as well as the number o f retailers increased in March-April, 2002 compared to the quantity of import and number o f retailers in December 2001 to January 2002. This is in response to a decline in quantity supplied from local sources. There were new retailers entering the market with the decline in local production to meet the local demand for food. Such a market based demand responsive mechanism appears to be more sustainable than domestic purchase by NGOs. Domestic purchase by N GO s and GOs require long and routine procurement procedures, which take more time and incur high transportation cost as compared to time and cost incurred by individual beneficiaries to purchase in local markets. There was an indication that the market was responding to the food shortage and vulnerability. Traders, in the area and in adjacent markets, were importing grain into the area. This development is encouraging as it is likely to scale up the CFW pilot project in addressing problems of vulnerable groups.

Table 3. Estimated quantity of maize imported at 15 days interwtl based on information obtained from traders

Markets Number importer/distributor Quantity in qt*Ibnat market in Ibnat 10 1000Gohalla market in Belessa 6 390Hamusit market in Belessa 7 700

Source: Estimated based on information obtained from traders (key informants)

* Quantity imported varies depending on demand. At Ibnat market the number of traders (importers) vary and may go up to A0 at time of high demand.

During the CFW pilot project period, beneficiaries were able to purchase their food requirements. The sources o f food supply were domestic production and import from adjacent surplus producing areas. Market networks have already been established with adjacent surplus producing areas and this has a positive impact on grain supply in the project area. The beneficiaries and traders did not report shortage of food. Thus, the



availability of locally produced and imported food supply favours cash transfer over food transfer.

Analysis of Market PricesGrain Prices: In the year 2001, there was favourable climate in surplus producing areas of the country. As a result the grain supply has increased causing grain prices to fall to extraordinary low levels. The prices also declined in food deficit areas like Ibnat and Gohalla market. In these markets, prices of major crops declined and reached their lowest levels in January and February 2002 (Figure 1). In the two markets, the prices o f major crops have shown little fluctuations with steady decline until January/February 2002. The seasonal price spread (the ratio between the lowest and highest average monthly prices in a project period) for red tef ranges between 0.72 and 0.75, between0.61 and 0.91 for sorghum and from 0.80 and 0.87 for wheat (Table 4). These high seasonal price ratios irtdicate slow change in the prices of food crop during the project period. Thus, the amounts of grains that could be purchased with cash transfer did not change much due to price fluctuations.

Table 4. Seasonal prices spread for major food crops

Ibnat wereda Belessa weredaCrops Ibnat Qualissa Gohalla ArbayaRed tef 0.75 - 0.76 0.72White tef 0.75 0.70 - 0.71Wheat 0.87 0.80 0.79 0.84Sorghum 0.91 0.61 0.81 0.73Barley 0.85 0.76 0.85 -Maize 0.89 - 0.83 -Field pea 0.75 0.50 0.65 -

Source: Estimated based on market prices monitoring data

Another important dimension of a market analysis is to examine whether differences exist in markets close to CFW intervention sites and markets away from intervention sites. Price data collected from intervention and non-intervention markets indicated that in Ibnat and Qualissa markets, prices of major food crops have shown similar patterns. This was also true for pairs of markets, Gohalla and Arbaya markets, in Belessa wereda. Since the prices at Arbaya and Qualissa have shown a similar trend as that of food prices in Ibnat and Gohalla, the modest grain price increase prevailing in March/April was not because of the injection of money into the local economy, but due to the fact that cash payment was not effected at the time prices started to increase and that the number of beneficiaries was too small to influence market prices. Thus, the increase in prices was influenced by other factors particularly by a decline in grain supply.



Z Q C l Q “5 U . U - 2 2 2 < Month and week

Figure I. Seasonal price variation for some major crops at Ibnat market

Livestock Prices: Oxen prices have shown a high fluctuation from January to March. Sheep and goat prices appear to be stable in Ibnat market (Figure 2). Except with the absolute value of prices, prices o f sheep and goats exhibited similar trends in CFW and non-CFW markets. Variations in absolute value of prices were due to the size of markets and demand. Increase in number of livestock and decline in their prices may indicate a massive sales of livestock as coping strategy to a disaster. However, this was not observed during the project intervention period.

^ <f° < f ° ' < f ' 'Z << <<?' ^Month and week

■Oxen•SheepGoat

Figure 2. Prices of medium size oxen, sheep and goats at Ibnat market

Prices of Other Food Items: Prices of other food items such as oil and salt remain stable in Gohalla, Arbaya and Qualissa markets. Price ot salt has shown a declining trend in January. This was not clear whether the decline was due to data recording problem or other unforeseen factors. The authors presume that it was due to data recording



problem. The coffee price showed a declining trend in the four markets due to high domestic supply as a result of a fall of coffee price in the world market. One may expect an upward trend in the prices of, these items. However, upward price trends were not observed. Therefore, it can be argued that CFW-money had no effect on salt, oil and coffee prices.

Expenditure Patterns of Cash Obtained from CFWBoth men and women were asked about their expenditure. It was found that beneficiaries use' money obtained from cash for work for food, clothing, medical care, over due credit payment, land use and agricultural income taxes payment and investment on assets (Table 5). Among these, as reported both by men and women, large proportions of CFW money was Spent on food (33%), debt settlement (23-33%), clothing (5-13%) and investment on assets (8%) particularly on purchase of small ruminants. Some beneficiaries saved cash received to purchase oxen. Expenditure on hiring labour, school fees, household items and petty trade accounted for a small proportion of cash received from CFW. The amount of cash spent on payment of debt increased after CFW intervention as confirmed by men and women. The expenditure pattern of CFW beneficiaries reflects that, in addition to addressing food security, the money received from CFW was used to meet survival needs.

Table 5. Proportion of money spent by household in different months as reported by women and men

Expenditure Women MenFood 33.16 33.54Debt payment 32.94 23.31Clothes 5.18 12.92Animal purchase 5.37 8.17Tax payment 7.76 4.81Human health 4.49 1.78Saving 4.79 5.20House construction 5.50 3.86Animal health 2.86 2.25Transport 2.42 0.82School fees 1.64 0.86Farm implement 0.08 1.66Household items 2.65 0.48Investment in petty trade 0.00 4.17Hiring labour 0.59 0.15Others 1.27 1.13

Source: Estimated based on household monitoring survey

Men and women were asked what would they do if they receive a little more money than they have spent on food and clothes. A large proportion (67%-97%) of the beneficiaries aspires to invest on assets (sheep, goats, oxen and inputs). A very insignificant number of

7lh AESE Annual Conference Proceedings, 2003 11


beneficiaries have shown an intention to spend extra money on clothes, petty trade and spend more money on quality food.

CFW and Gender Role in Household Decision MakingWith regard to role o f gender in cash resources control, there is a positive trend where men and women consult each other in making important decisions. Men largely decide on asset sale, food expenditure after consulting their spouses or the decision is equally made by husband and wife (Table 6). About 63% of male respondents indicated that they sell their assets after consulting their female partners. Comparison of figures in *-he two tables depicts that there is a shifting trend from individually made decisions to decisions based on consultation or equally shared decisions. Before CFW 22.9% and 28.6% of males decided on sales of assets and other household expenditure. These figures fell to 0% and 9.3% after CFW. Similarly, the proportion of females who decide on food expenditure declined from 28.6% before CFW to 10.1% after CFW. The figures show a great improvement in the involvement o f women in decision-making. As reported by women, the proportion of households in which women and men equally decide on asset sale, food expenditures and other expenses are 45.5%, 68.6% and 65%, respectively (Table 6).

Table 6. Role of women and men in deciding on food expenditure and selling of assets, (% responded)Male Female

I 11 111 1 II IIIBeforeCFW

AfterCFW

BeforeCFW

AfterCFW

BeforeCFW

AfterCFW

BeforeCFW

AfterCFW

BeforeCFW

AfterCFW

BeforeCFW

AfterCFW

Male 22.9 0 5.7 0 28.6 9.3 14.2 0 5.7 0 11.4 3.1Female 0 0 28.6 10.1 8.6 4.5 0 2.9 20.0 4.6 2.9 1.9

Male after consultation

62.9 62.3 20.0 29.9 20.0 41.6 42.9 51.6 25.7 26.8 25.7 30.0

Both equally V4.3 29.7 45.7 60.0 42.9 44.6 42.9 45.5 48.6 68.6 60.0 65.0

I = Sale of assets and agricultural produces; II = Food expenditure; III = Expenditure on health and investment


It is generally assumed that men control household resources including money and make important decisions. However, as revealed by this study, in a large proportion of households, women equally participated in important decisions regarding asset sale. Men also involved in decisions regarding food expenditures. Analysis of data has shown a positive development in gender relationships in a household. This is not in line with the gender relationship assumed to exist within a household in the area.

Beneficiaries Preferences and Perceptions of Effects of CFWBeneficiaries Preference of Food and Cash Interventions: Nearly all men and more than 85% of women interviewed preferred CFW over FFW (Table 7). The major reason they gave was that cash would give them option to buy what they require at a place and time they want. Very few female beneficiaries expressed their preference for combination



of both cash and food. Still this group wants to receive 75% of payment in cash form and the remaining 25% in kind to guarantee-both family food and meet other survival needs.

Table 7. Beneficiaries preference for CFW (cash) and FFW (food)

January February MarchType of payment No. % No. % No. %Male: CFW/cash 30 100 23 100 21 100

FFW/food 0 0 0 0 0 0Both 0 0 0 0 0 0

Female: CFW/cash 29 82.9 24 85.7 13 92.9FFW/food 1 2.9 0 0 0 0Both 5 14.2 4 14.3 1 7.1


Effect of CFW on Food Consumption: As !,hown in Table 5, large proportion of money received from CFW was spent on food. Th£ beneficiaries noted that they are able to feed their family. Considerable proportion of beneficiaries reported that the amount of food consumed increased and 49% of the female respondents claimed that their children were better nourished after CFW (Table 8). However, 52% of the beneficiaries felt that the income received from CFW was not sufficient enough to change the feeding patterns of their children. In terms of frequency of food consumption per day, there were no differences before and after the CFW intervention (Table 9). Nearly all the beneficiaries consume twice a day. There were no changes in consumption of meat and butter before and after CFW intervention. Food insecure households consider consumption of meat and butter as luxury food. Such items are consumed occasionally during some annual festival days.

With an increase in the magnitude of food insecurity the beneficiaries tend to switch from traditionally consumed crops such as tef, wheat and barley to maize, sorghum (Buie) and finger millet (Table 10). In the past either tef or wheat/barley was consumed. However, in recent years, tef is used for blending purposes i.e. grain assumed to be inferior (cheaper) are blended with preferred food grains, tef. Tef is more expensive than other cereals and consumed by better off urban dwellers. Maize, finger millet and sorghum are mostly purchased from the market and they were cheaper than tef and wheat. Maize, sorghum and finger millet were considered inferior as compared to the traditionally consumed crops. Maize, finger millet and sorghum were imported to the area by traders. Sorghum is also produced in small amounts in the project area.



Table 8. Effect o f CFW on amount and type o f food consumed (% o f female responded)

January February MarchDescription No. % No. % No. %Amount consumed increased 16 45.7 13 44.8 0 0Amount consumed not 11 31.4 7 24.1 8 57.1increasedAmount consumed increased a 8 22.9 9 31.0 6 42.9littleVariety of food consumed 15 42.9 13 44.8 0 0improvedVariety of food consumed not 16 45.7 16 55.2 14 100improvedVariety of food consumed 4 11.4 0 0 0 0improved a little Children better nourished 15 45.8 13 48.2 0 0No change in children nutrition 19 54.2 15 51.7 14 100


Table 9■ Frequency of food consumption and consumption o f meat and butter before and after cash transfer

Frequency of consumptionBefore After

November January February MarchConsumption food/day 2.08 2.11 2.04 2.70Meat consumption 0 0 0.14 0Butter consumption 0 0 0 0


Table 10. Types o f crops used for injera making by CFW beneficiaries

CropNovember January February March

No. % No. % No. % No. %Tef 27 90 23 66 21 75 9 64Wheat 10 33 10 29 5 14 1 7Sorghum 14 47 16 46 13 46 7 50Maize 19 63 16 46 18 64 10 71Finger 13 43 15 43 12 43 1 7millet

Source: Estimated based on household monitoring survey; Percentages do not add up to 100 because of multiple responses.

Effect of CFW on Migration and Selling of Assets: According to information obtained from group discussions (with men and women) and key informants, CFW intervention has reduced migration. As stressed by key informants and focus group participants, had it not been for the CFW intervention, many people would have migrated. In addition, the implementation of CFW has halted a massive sale of assets. Selling of asset was not a common phenomenon after the project intervention. On the contrary some beneficiaries have invested part o f the money received from CFW on productive assets


Legesse Dadi and Chaia Erko

such goat, sheep, oxen, seeds and farm implements. Such investment will have great impact on the food security of the household and the area as a whole.

Effect of CFW on Alcohol Consumption: Attempts have been made to know whether CFW money was used for unintended purposes or not. Direct beneficiaries, knowledgeable individuals (tella and areke vendors) and key informants were asked. There is no evidence that suggests CFW-money spent for untended purposes. As indicated by tella vendors, tella price at the two markets remained constant over the project period. Tella consumers also confirmed that tella price remained constant.

Conclusions and RecommendationsDuring the project intervention period, from November 2001 to March 2002, there was a sufficient supply in the markets and shortage of grain was not reported. A market network had already been established with adjacent surplus producing areas. Traders imported grains such as maize, sorghum and finger millet into the project area. Market based demand responsive mechanism appears to be more sustainable than even domestic purchase disregarding food aid import. But the market based mechanism and supply conditions in the supply market (area) should be continuously monitored in order to take necessary measures in case of price inflation. During the project period, grain prices were low. The prices recorded for different food crops were within reach of project beneficiaries and there were no complaints regarding prices.

It was found that beneficiaries use money obtained from cash for work for food, clothing, medical care, over due credit payment, land use and agricultural income taxes payment and investment on assets. It enabled beneficiaries to buy the type of food and items they required. This may enhance beneficiaries’ nutrition and contributes in meeting survival needs. Moreover, the CFW intervention had reduced migration and halted selling of productive assets. The effects of the CFW intervention have gone beyond meeting the immediate food need of the beneficiaries. The project has enabled beneficiaries invest in productive assets. Such investment enhances agricultural production and will have lasting economic effect. Moreover, CFW intervention has longterm impact on protection of natural resources, rehabilitation of infrastructure, development of small-scale irrigation, which in turn have positive impact on agricultural productivity and thereby on food security. Certainly it contributes in future self-reliance in food supply and food security.

Regarding the effect of cash income from CFW on gender relationships in a household, as contrary to well-established assumptions of male dominance in important decision making, in a large proportion of households, women equally participate in important decisions regarding asset sale. Men also involve in decisions regarding food expenditures. This is not in line with the gender relationship widely believed to exist within a household. Therefore, there is need to investigate in the future, the root causes of this


Legesse Dadi and Chala Erico

positive development. In addition, the positive development observed need to be encouraged and exploited.

Finally, the availability of food in the market at reasonable prices, motivation of beneficiaries and consequent quality of works performed, the absence of use of money for unintended purposes, CFW contribution to survival security, contribution in reducing migration and selling o f productive assets underscore the importance o f CFW intervention.

ReferencesBerhanu Gebremedhin and S. M. Summon (2000) “Reconciling food-for-work objectives: Resource

conservation Vs. Food aid targeting in Tigray, Ethiopia.* Ethiopian Journal of Agricultural Economics, 5 (I & 2): 1-.

Jenden, P. (1995) Cash-for-Work and Food Insecurity in Koish, Southern Ethiopia. Relief and Rehabilitation Network, Network Paper 11. London: Overseas Development Institute (ODD.

Jayne S. T., J. Strauss, T. Yamano and Daniel Molla (2001) “Giving to the Poor? Targeting of Food Aid in Rural EthiopiaW orld Development, 29(5): 887-910.

Legesse Dadi, Gezehegn Ayele and Tesfaye Zegeye (2002) Agricultural Technology Generation: Implications for Poverty Alleviation. Paper presented on Ethio-Forum 2002, Organized by Ethiopian Social Rehabilitation and Development Fund, January 16-19, 2002, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Maxwell, S., D. BeLshaw and Alemayehu Lirenso (1994) “The disincentive effect of food-for-work on labour supply and agricultural intensification and diversification in Ethiopia.M Journal of Agricultural Economics, 45 (3).

Neun H., (2000) Food Aid: Missed Opportunities and/or Latent Potential for Poverty Reduction and Alleviation in Ethiopia, Paper presented GTZ, Network Food Security Africa Annual Workshop, December 11-15, 2000, Hilton Hotel Addis Ababa

Peppiatt, D., J. Mitchell and P. Holzmann (2001) Cash Transfers in Emergencies: Evaluating Benefits and Assessing Risks. Humanitarian Practice Network (HPN). London: Overseas Development Institute (ODI).

Ravallion, M. And G. Datt (1992) Is targeting through a work requirement efficient? Some evidence for rural India. World Bank Conference on Public Expenditure and the Poor. Incidence and Targeting. World Bank, Washington, D.C.

Sen, A. (1981) Poverty and Famine, An Essay on Entitlement and Development. Oxford: Clarendom press.

Tesfaye Zegeye and Debebe Habtewold (1995) Food Security in Ethiopia: Situation Analysis. In Mulat Demeke, Wolday Ameha, Simeon Ehui and Tesfaye Zegeye (eds) Food Security, Nutrition and Povrty Alleviation in Ethiopia: Problem and Perspects. Agricultural Economics Society of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Webb, P., J. von Braun and Y. Yohannes (1992) Famine in Ethiopia: Policy Implications of Coping Failure at national and Household Levels. Research Report No. 92, International Food Research Institute, Washington, D. C.


Reversing Vulnerability of Rural Livelihoods in Ethiopia: Alternative Approaches for Improving Rural Livelihood

; Kebede Kifle

BackgroundAgriculture is the main activity in Africa in general and Ethiopia in particular. The activity is not dynamic rather it is on static level. The stagnation of agriculture in Ethiopia is largely due to drought, land degradation, poor technology, weak policies, and lack of good governance, poor marketing facilities and infrastructure. Eighty five percent of the population in Ethiopia derives sustenance and employment from this sector. Its economic development is directly linked with progress in agricultural output which entirely depends on the efficiency of the. marketing system at large. Here the government role is to bring change in the life of the peasantry through effective measures in all aspects.

Between 55 and 60 per cent o f the rural people in Sub-Saharan Africa are absolutely poor subsisting on less than a dollar a day. Again, more than three-quarters of the poor in Africa are in rural areas, dependent on small holder agriculture and related trade and crafts for their livelihoods. (Wekundah and Daniel: 2002). In the era of millennium of strategic approaches hopes are highly that Africa can emerge from stagnation and crisis that have characterized much of its independence period to dynamic economic development. The World Bank estimates that biotechnology could lead to an increase of more than 25 per cent in food production. (Macualey: 2002). This vision of an African renaissance is not a mirage tangible and encouraging progress has been made by many countries in reforming their economies and putting in place the right policies and good governance to reduce poverty. The key to establishing an enduring democracy and good governance is the emergency of a strong, viable and assertive civil society. (UNECA: 1996).

Production Prospects and its Major ProblemsThe world’s population may exceed eight billion and food needs in developing countries may nearly double. Extra food and other raw materials can be produced competitively by small farmers within food-deficit countries will benefit from biotechnology for food security by increasing supplies, reducing rural poverty. In most countries there is little room for the horizontal expansion of farming. Increasing the incomes of small holder farm families will depend crucially upon raising agricultural productivity. Expanding the output o f land through intensified crop, forestry and livestock practices will often have adverse environmental consequences such as deforestation, soil nutrient or ground water

1 EGTE

Kebede Kifle

depletion, chemical and waste pollution and loss of genetic diversity. (Wambugu:2002).

Agriculture is characterized by small farmers and the main factors of production are traditional. The work force entirely consists of family labour. The farm is fragmented and its production is small in quantity. A great portion of the farm output is retained on the farm for consumption and only small amount is sold in the market. Food production is an activity o f small farmers low level o f input cultivation with age-old farming technology and work force of family labour on a fragmented farm is the source of low income of the peasants. The energy required for the farm activity is provided by human muscle, which is inadequately nourished. The production obtained in this traditional way is not sufficient enough to support the ever-increasing population. The Country is struggling to meet the steady growing demand of food for the population. Production is impaired by various factors, the following are considered to be the major ones; The extension agents are not conscious in discriminating technological transfer suitable to the farmers, limited research capacity to meet the demand of all the farmers need at different eco-systems, high losses of farm animals due to diseases and drought, lack o f storage and transport facilities and inefficient marketing systems.

How to Develop the Rural Areas

It is easy to argue that poverty and backwardness are due to general shortage and inefficient use of the key factors of production. It is much difficult to determine or justify precisely why there should be a dearth of some factors and an abundance of others and why development may be a slow and lengthy process. (Thirlwall: 1989). Governments must provide continuing financial support and maintain the human capital of national agricultural research system's, even after increases in small-farm productivity have been achieved. Otherwise, the achievements will be short-lived.

It is good to indicate core points on the factors that cause variations in the development, which can explain the poor life of the rural people. Sometimes it comes to our mind why some countries develop earlier than others and why some have remained in traditional state. Geographical factors, God-given factors, prolonged war, type o f government and degree of technological advancement are the major elements. The degree o f variation in proper utilization of these factors envisages the level of development.

Some Economists have emphasized that the task of transforming traditional agriculture is not only a question of land reform, price policy, technological breakthrough and market structure improvement. It is entirely dependent on capital. However, other Economists e.g Schultz (1964) has argued that low productivity o f farm labour is due to an absence of the specific factor inputs like research and education, etc. not a shortage of capital as such. He emphasized that enhancing the efficiency of the existing agricultural activity through improvements of more quality inputs. We can achieve sizeable increases in agricultural productivity. So creating awareness depicts knowledge in the farmers’ consciousness, which in turn helps the wide use of technologies in the farms to further

18 701 AESE Annual Conference Proceedings, 2003

Kebede Kifle

promote technical progress of the application of high yield crops. What matters most in the development are the incentives and associated opportunities that farm people have to increase production. There is good evidence to suggest that countries with relatively good records of agricultural performance have been those in which agricultural producers have political influence and exert it in support of their interest. The essential political weakness of Africa’s rural people and small-scale farmers has often placed them at a disadvantage and many African governments have traditionally taken advantage o f this weakness. (UNECA: 2001). Increases in agricultural production and incomes can only be achieved and maintained if the majority of farmers are supported on a broad front by a set of institutions, both public and private which provide economic and other services that directly or indirectly influence the success of national food production goals and strategies. In order to develop the rural areas and to improve the livelihoods of the farms, we must primarily have farm policy goals that lead to income increase. WTiat are the farm policy goals? The goals which are envisaged to bring about change in the agricultural sector are classified in to three parts.

1. There must be a need to have the farm sector at such a level o f production efficiency and profitability that the country must not exhibit fear of shortage of food.

2. Desire should exist on the part of policy makers, legislators to have the economy operate in such a .way that all the people in the farming may contribute the use of all their talents and total productive powers p the benefit of all society.

3. There ought to be a strong desire to create legislation that will remove the instability of farm income.

If the goals for improvement have been designed, what come next are the policy alternatives to meet the end. (Synodgrass and Wallace: 1975). Although variations could be seen in the policy approaches, they can be grouped in to two; expand the demand for farm products both for domestic and foreign outlets, and establish programs of price supports and farm-products storage. Also application of Farm Bill is important.

Avoid Factors Having Influence on Farmers Income

The obligation to market produce through merchant who supplied credit put the farmers on extremely weak bargaining position and prevents any possibility o f improving his returns by switching to more advantageous outlets. Similarly, the merchants’ interest rates block the effect o f price incentive in directing production in the most advantageous ways. Farmers are under special pressure to market their crops immediately after harvest when prices are normally at their lowest. Increase can be mobilized for capital formation in two ways: Primarily, rural people must be persuaded or prevented from consuming more of their own produce and they must be forced to save more for investment in small-scale. Secondly, there must be availability of subsidy to strengthen the weak position o f the farmers to obtain inputs.

7th AESE Annual Conference Proceedings, 2003 19

Kebede Kifle

Integrated Aquaculture - Agriculture for Increased Income

It is based on locally available pond inputs and species that are easily grown and reproduced. Fisheries promote synergies between enterprises and it is continuum and evolution of systems. The benefits obtained from this culture are Increased production and profitability, increased access to fish grown in small-holder systems by rural people, provide technology for water management on small farms.

The requirement for success is the availability of natural resource base (water, land, soil) market availability and access, N GO and private sector involvement in technology transfer. Expected outputs enhanced farmers’ income increased sustainability of farming system improved individual and household food security amongst farmers practicing the system. (Jamu and Dugan: 2002).

Previously started acqua culture projects in different regions are found to be on better conditions in helping the farmers to generate income as well as in fulfilling nutritional needs to keep the people healthy and energetic in the farm activity. It is a feasible activity that must be encouraged in the potential areas. Acqua culture although it is a new technique, it is well developed in Southern Wollo Hike area, in most areas of Tigray, Amhara region and Melka Wakena area on a large scale. In Fincha and Koka area fish production is on big commercial base. In Amhara region 12 cooperatives are working on acqua culture to benefit themselves. However, the problem is lack of extension work in expanding the activity.

Marketing and Improvement Alternatives

Marketing Problems, Market Structure, Reform, Market Information and Market Extension

The marketing problems can be summarized by production pattern, lack of information, adapting marketing problems, lack of infrastructure development, lack appropriate market structure and strong marketing boards, lack o f marketing research and development, small market share both by the public and private enterprises.

• Market structure reform is a prerequisite for successful agricultural development. As a traditional economy undergoes the transformation leading to modernization, the share o f economic resources devoted to marketing of agricultural products grows. The proportion of food moving through commercial channels rises and the flow of inputs from the industrial centers to agricultural producers increases. As the market linkages between producers and consumers become increasingly complex there is a tendency to question the productivity of the resources devoted to marketing functions. (Hayami and Ruttan: 1971).

• It is essential for producers, traders and consumers, if market mechanisms are to work efficiently. Farmers need information to aid them in planning their operations from the time they plant until their produce has passed out of their hands on the

20 7th AESE Annual Conference Proceedings. 2003

Kebede Kifle

market. In fact, they look for guidance as to when, where, how, to whom their produce sold to the best advantage. It is also emphasized that they want to check the prices offered by various forms of marketing and by alternative outlets in each the information needed to meet these various demands. (Abott: 1958).

• Basic production and consumption statistics for the various commodities traded in the country and data related to the wide movement of trade, long-term trends and factors beaming on future prices are vital. Reporting of day-to-day prices and commodity movements as a guide in current transactions is important. The criteria for the evaluation of the effectiveness of market information services are derived from the information needs o f the market participants in order to aid decisions making.

• For the effective implementation of marketing improvement program an efficient marketing extension network is essential. It includes; advice on product planning, market information, securing markets for farmers, advice on sales timing, improved marketing practices, promote group marketing and advice on the establishment and operations of rural markets. Marketing extension is well practiced in South Korea, China, Papa New Guinea, Nepal and Zambia, etc. With regard to extension, the orientation in the less developed countries should be towards a pragmatic approach and strategy.

Rural Assembly Markets and Purchase Arrangements

The role of it is to bring together the relatively small quantities of produce which individual farmers may have for sale at anyone time. This type of market attracts traders because it provides access to larger quantities of produce and eliminates the need for the traders to locate and contact farmers at their homes. Rural markets are important in most African and Asian countries. For instance in India there are about 22,000 periodic primary markets and 4,500 regulated rural assembly markets. They serve some 60 million-farm families. (Abott: 1986) Purchase arrangements could be done in such a way that producers sell directly to the boards or temporary buying stations, and have advantage of higher prices. Producers sell to boards licensed buying agents and producers sell to a marketing organization provided by the government or regional marketing board acting as the agent of a central marketing board.

Individual and Group Marketing Strategy

Individual marketing involves open, closed and mixed marketing strategy. It gives the producer full control over what, how much, when, where and to whom to sell. Group marketing strategy is part of a general attempt to balance the power of farmers and ranchers on the one hand and commodity buyers and processors on the other. It could be done so on several different levels as voluntary bargaining associations, compulsory bargaining associations and marketing bargaining associations.


Kebede Kifle

International Market Prospects

The economic, political and social changes that have occurred over the last decade have dramatically altered the landscape of global business. To adjust and adapt a marketing program to foreign markets, marketers must be able to interpret effectively the influence and impact of each of the uncontrollable environmental elements on the marketing plan for each foreign market in which they hope to do business. However, the key to successful international marketing is adaptation to the environmental differences from one market to another. Global awareness also involves knowledge o f world market potentials and global economic, social and political trends. The firm has permanent productive capacity devoted to the production o f goods to be marketed on a continuing basis in foreign markets. (Cateora and Graham: 1996)

Pricing Policy

Farmers are the central figures of agricultural development. Hence governments must design and implement the policies that determine how farming and other economic units act in an economy. All countries sought to moderate price fluctuation from one season to another and from year to year. This objective was perused in ensuring a floor price or an incentive price to producers and a ceiling price to consumers in order to protect them from high or sudden rise in food prices. (Islam and Thomas: 1996). For instance Philippines, Indonesia and Thailand are using price stabilization policy. Greater stability of producer prices encourages production growth by reducing risk and uncertainty thereby encouraging a greater or more consistent use of purchase inputs. Most widely used national commodity intervention measures relevant to price policy in developing market economies. (FAO: 1987). Guaranteed floor price, government procurement and distribution and no monopoly, deficiency payments, buffer stock and funds and export and import subsidies are some of the policy measures. One of the major objectives of government policy in the agricultural sector is to maintain incomes for agricultural producers, in the face of the economic forces. Another objective o f government intervention was meant to smooth out the effects o f price fluctuations on farmers income by government purchasing in time of low price and selling in times higher prices. (Farrant: 1980). Determination of agricultural price is intensively political because o f its profound influence on equity, income distribution and economic development. Governments are generally aware o f the role o f agricultural prices in distributing income between farm and non-farm sectors among geographical regions and among classes. (Mellor and Ahmed: 1988).

Pricing policy implies some kind of control or regulations o f prices on interference with the free play of market forces by an external agency to achieve certain objective which may otherwise not be achieved (Saksena: 1986). The policy makers have to decide in regard to pricing policy what should be the nature, degree and stage of interference in the market mechanism in any given situation. The issue is to what extent and in what manner should market forces be allowed the freedom to determine the price. Thus

22 7 * AESE Annual Conference Proceedings. 2003

Kebede Kifle

freedom could be curtailed almost completely or restricted drastically by government through fixing a ceiling price above which the price is not allowed to rise, freezing the price determined by the free-play of market forces at a particular point of time, fixing a ceiling on a profit trade margins at the production or distribution stage, fixing a minimum “floor” or support price below which the price not allowed to fall and fixing “retention” prices based on standard costs. In America in 1933 price policy has been designed to influence the level and stability of the prices received by farmers for farm outputs. Policy is state intervention in the economy. Farm output price policy initiatives or objectives are: Increase aggregate agricultural output, increase output o f industrial crops, stabilize agricultural prices and improve farm incomes. Price control legislation applies the price of goods and services produced in the course of a business activity carried on by a business unit and the price commission was established as a corporate body under the Counter Inflation Act. (Quinta: 1977).

Criteria for Evaluation Alternative Pricing Arrangement

It is important to decide which of the several functions that prices expected to perform in an economy are given priority, and the speed and accuracy with which economic information is transmitted and integrated. The cost pricing under alternative arrangement needs to be considered. FAO in 1985 has suggested increase family incomes through export crops, promote a spirit of self-help and develop small coops between small farmers and traders as strategies to develop the market for small farmers.

Governmental Major FunctionsGovernment’s major functions consists of collecting and disseminating market news, crop reports, commodity situation analysis both domestic and foreign to promulgate grades and standards. In order to maintain stability in agricultural markets government’s direct participation is required in a way of marketing orders and agreements. (It is a mechanism under government auspices by which farmers may regulate the marketing of commodity), marketing boards, (eg. Canada, Great Britain (UK), Newzealand, Australia, etc.). The boards operational functions are controlling production, setting export prices, negotiating export sales, pricing for domestic and foreign markets, performing market research, development and establishing buffer reserve stock, price support programs. Direct participation by government in commodity prices, when, where, how the Federal government should support agricultural prices is a central question in course of agricultural policy and agricultural price analysis. (Branson and Norvell: 1983). Finally, it concentrates on international trade agreements

Government Intervention

Marketing strategists suggested that the government can contribute greatly in helping to mobilize the technical knowledge, administrative capacity and capital need to effect significant and essential improvements. Major types of measures that should be taken by


Kebede Kffle

them are: Regulatory, facilitating and interventionist. Statuary measures designed to control or to modify the process of agricultural marketing or to reshape the structure o f trade in agricultural produce are enforced in many parts of the world. (Abott: 1993) They are done in three ways: These are to raise the returns of producers, stabilize prices or incomes and reduce the number of intermediaries, control o f the channel o f marketing. In the interest of both efficiency and equity it would be useful to investigate the institutional mechanisms which facilitates small farmers access to credit, technical assistance and inputs and reduces the uncertainty in marketing their output. Eg. contract farming is useful to small farmers to solve their problems.

The Need and Causes of Intervention

Direct intervention is often necessary when both producers and consumers must be defended against the effects of chronic weakness in the working of a marketing system. The need for the maintenance of reserve stocks in public hands and for governmental intervention to secure equitable distribution o f short supplies or sometimes problems call for intervention such as: Violent fluctuation in supplies as a result o f climaticvariations, inadequate marketing facilities like storage, transport and credit, inadequate competition between traders, stabilization of prices to producers and consumers and state must take the initiative in fostering economic development which are beyond the capacity of commercial enterprises.

Subsidy

Future policy orientation should ensure easier access to credit and agricultural inputs (seed and fertilizers) through the encouragement of alternative group action by farmers such as joint ventures and farmer associations to improve their bargaining power and position. (UNECA: 2001). The rich world tells the poor world to get rid of subsidies but it continue to spend $1 billion a day subsidizing its own farming enterprises. Rich countries dump subsidized produce on developing countries, driving down the price o f local produce with devastating effects on the local economy. This uneven playing field has made many poor farmers even poorer. On the other hand, for every dollar given to poor countries in aid they lose two dollars to rich countries because o f unfair trade barriers against their exports. When exporting to rich countries producers in poor countries pay tariffs that are four times higher.

The Significance of Biotechnology• It is the responsibilities of African countries to elaborate strategies that will pave the

way for biotechnology to contribute to solving some of the problems. This will be achieved only if an African biotechnology agenda is clearly put in a right perspective focusing on indigenous basic research that will contribute to reduce the over dependence on scientific breakthrough from developed countries. (Lewanika: 2002). Africa is endowed with over 40,000 indigenous plants excluding bacteria and

24 7* AESE Annual Conference Proceedings, 2003

Kebede Kifle

fungi. At global level with over 250,000 plant species only about 10 per cent have been investigated for their potential medicinal values. The global resurgence in the interest and use of natural based products has created immense opportunities for Africa to diversity in to this sector of the economy. The multiple use of bio- resources with respect to medicinal, aromatic plants and dietary supplements, etc. creates high opportunities and economic growth to reduce poverty in Africa.

• This coupled to its low level of industrialization has limited its socio-economic development. The issue of food security confronts most countries albeit to varying degrees. The use o f biotechnology to increase food production has recently provided a new technological option. (Chetsanga: 2002). Besides, resource limitation and population pressure. The enabling political framework for agriculture and socio-economic development have been lacking in many African countries to bring about green revolution. Other forms of technologies minimizing inputs, biotechnology application is considered to be a part of the solution to agriculture and poverty reduction problems. Some of the uses in agriculture include producing of large quantities of disease-free planting material, DNA characterization of crops and the use of genetic markers to assist selection and breeding, hybridization of unrelated plant species, vaccine production and genetically modified organisms (GMO) production against biotic and abiotic stressors.

• Despite the above proven good uses of biotechnology there are potential or perceived risks associated with its use. There could be “genetic erosion”, danger of producing “super weeds,” danger to human health (allergies and antibiotic resistance) and bioethics of GMO production. (Allhassan: 2002). In the sphere of biotechnology, it is important that proper procedures be put in place for risk management so that the biosafety of individuals and the environment is assured. (Chetsanga: 2002). Constraints to the use of biotechnology in Africa are finance, human resource, laboratory, infrastructure awareness, bio-safety framework and intellectual property rights, lack of constitutional capacity or lack of legislative framework. When we look at the status of Biotechnology application in Africa. It is intensively used in South Africa, Egypt, Kenya, Cote d’Ivoire, Senegal, Nigeria and Cameroon, etc.

Poverty and its AlleviationPoverty is both a cause and consequences of a country low rate of capital formation. A poor may not have enough to eat, being underfed his health may be weak and being physically weak his working capacity is low and earns low income due to imperfect market which means that he is poor which again show that he does not have enough to eat. A country is poor because it is poor. (Jhingn: 1975). It is easy to argue that poverty and backwardness are due to a general shortage and inefficient use of the key factors of production. The vicious circles of poverty stems from the fact that total productivity is low due to deficiency of capital, market imperfection, economic backwards and undeT development. It is much difficult to determine or justify precisely why there should be a


Kebede Kifle

dearth of some factors and an abundance of others and early development may be a slow and lengthy process. (Thril: 1989). Identifying the rural poor and promote them an appropriate package program, increasing production, providing adequate credit and promoting marketing facilities are the alternative strategies to alleviate poverty.

Concluding RemarksAccording to Andrew (1990) agriculture is not treated only as a means of producing food for the urban and rural population, but as a powerful instrument for increasing income of employment. Hence, symphonic agricultural systems designates the evolutionary stage in the development o f sustainable agricultural production in which all the components of an agricultural action plan become mutually reinforcing when synergetic packages of technology, services, public policies are developed and introduced in mutually supportive manner. So, agricultural progress is rapid. For instances in India, rural developments, better communication, sound pricing policies for both inputs and outputs and other programs introduced to stimulate and sustained the growth of market-oriented farming.

Since the problems for the decline of production are numerous the measure supposed to curve unfavourable situation must be also organized in the same manner to get satisfactory results. In order to reverse the vulnerability of the rural livelihoods protracted efforts has to be exerted at different angles like a symphony orchestra. The government being an instructor o f the orchestra has to perform the following to increase production as well as farm income.

Regarding Production Increase

In increasing production, the following steps have to be undertaken.

• To develop the rural areas and to improve the livelihoods of the farmers, the government should have farm policy goals that should lead to higher income.

• Intensive applications o f biotechnology as well as integrated acqua culture and extension work must be done on a large scale.

• Government intervention should be intensified with provision of subsidy. To increase production, information has to be provided to the farmers in respect to the demand, price and optimum market facilities. Farmers evaluation and participation in research systems must be developed.

• Availability of cheap farm inputs must be available to reduce the pressure of subsidy on the government side.

• Government must provide continuing financial support and maintain the human capital of national agricultural research system even after small farm productivity increase is achieved.

• Design encouraging investment policy

26 7m AESE Annual Conference Proceedings. 2003

Kebede Kifle

Concerning Marketing Improvement• Strengthen market regulatory functions, cooperatives and construct modern storing

facilities to the farmers.• Provide appropriate price support skill• Improve rural banking system to avail door-to-door credit facilities• Organize marketing department in the Ministry of Agriculture to facilitate and

develop market information and market research at national level• Develop rural infrastructure and social services• Strengthen rural assembly markets, purchase arrangements and develop individual

as well as group market which ever is desired by the farmers.• Expand private and public micro finance institution by and large

Types of Marketing ChannelsType 1\ *

7tt' AESE Annual Conference Proceedings, 2003 27

Kebede Kifle

Type 2:

Symphonic Strategy Model

28 7® AESE Annual Conference Proceedings, 2003

Kebede Kifle

ReferencesAbott.J.C., (1958), Marketing Problems and Improvement, FAO, Rome. (p. 102, 106,124).Abott.J.C., (1986), Marketing Improvement in the Developing World, FAO, Rome. (p. 187)Allhassan, W.S. (2002), Biotechnology for Africa’s Sustainable Development, UNECA, Addis

Ababa, 3-5 July.Andrew, Speedy, (1990), Developing the World Agriculture, Oxford, (p. 10-14)Beckman, T. N. and William R. Davidson, (1962), Marketing, New York.Berhanu Nega and Befekadu Degefe, (2003), The Role of Urbanization in the Socio-Economic

Development Process, Ethiopian Economic Association, Addis AbabBranson R. E. and G. N. Norvell, (1983), Introduction to Agricultural Marketing, Macgraw Hill

Inc. (p. 181, 202, 236)Cateira, P.R. and John L. Graham, (1996). International Marketing, Irwin, Macgraw-Hill,

Boston, (p. 12,13, 16, 18)Chetsanga, C.J. (prof), (2002), Biotechnology for Sustainable Development through Poverty

Eradication.Cramer, Gail, L. and& Eric, J. Wales, (1993), Gram Marketing, Westview Press, Colorado.Eleni Zaude Gebremadhin, (2001), Market Institutions, Transaction Costs and Social Capital in

the Ethiopian Grain Market, International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington D.C.

FAO, (1985), Marketing Development, Rome. 22-24 Oct.FAO, (1987), Agricultural Price Policies, Rome. (p. 3, 38).Farrant, J.C. (1980), Food Policies, John Wiley & Sons, New York, (p.l 19, 187).Haymi. Y. and Vemon, W. Ruttan, (1971), Agricultural Development ; An International

Perspective, John Hopkins Press, Baltimore, (p. 264).Jamu. D. and Patrick Dugan, (2002), Integrated Aquaculture: Agriculture for Increased Income

and Food Security, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.Kebede Kifle, (1993), The Impact of Credit Restrictions on the Performance of Informal Food

Marketing, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.Kebede Kifle, (1996), Sustainable Agricultural Development and Food Crisis in Ethiopia, Addis

Ababa.Kebede Kifle, (1999), The Role of Public Enterprise in the Marketing of Grains, Oilseeds and

Pulses in Ethiopia, Addis Ababa.Lewanika, M. M., (2002), Towards BiO'based Economics, UNECA, Addis Ababa. 3-5 July.Macualey, H. R. (Dr.), (2002), Reviewing the Progress made by Countries in Addressing

Biotechnology Issues, UNECA, Addis Ababa. 3-5 JulyMellor, J. W. and Raisuddin Ahmed, (1988), Agricultural Price Policy for Developing Countries,

John Hopkins, Baltimore.Quinta, R. W. (1977), Guide to Price Control, London, (p. 5, 18).Saksena, K. D., (1986), Pricing Policy and Price Controls in Developing Countries, London, (p.l,

50).


Kebede Kifle

Schultz, T. W. (1964), Transforming Traditional Agriculture, Yale University Press.Synodgrass, M. M. and L. T. Wallace, (1975), Economics and Research Management, Printice

Hall Inc., Newjersse-y. (p. 437-441).Titanji, V. P. K. (Prof), (2002), Biotechnology and Health in Africa: Challenges and

Perspectives, University of Bvea, Cameroon, (p. 1-4).UNECA, (1996), A Framework Agenda for Building and Utilizing Critical Capacities in Africa,

Addis Ababa. 12-13 April, (p. 22, 88, 90, 94, 95).Wambebeb, C. (Prof), (2002), Biotechnology for Poverty Reduction in Africa: Natural Resources

in Biodiversity, UNECA, Addis Ababa, (p. 1, 24, 28).Wambuga, F. (Dr.), (2002), Biotechnology for Sustainable Agricultural Development in Sub-

Saharan Africa, UNECA, Addis Ababa. 3-5 July.Wekundah, J. and Aghan Daniel, (2002), Biotechnology for Africa’s Development, UNECA,

Addis Ababa. 3-5 July. (p. 2, 3, 16)World Bank, G8, World Fact Book, OXFAM International, UNDP, 2002 Zeller, M. Gerturd Schrieder, Joachin Von Braum and Franz Heidhues, (1997), Rural Finance for

Food Security for the Poor, IFPRI, Washington D.C.

30 7* AESE Annual Conference Proceedings. 2003

Decision Making Power of Women in the Rural Areas of Hararghe

1Hedija Mohammed and 2Be^abib Emana

IntroductionDecision-making is one of the core elements of empowerment. Empowerment is described as people fully participating in the decision making process that shapes their lives (Oxaal and Baden, 1997). However, currently empowerment corresponds to women challenging the existing power structure that subordinates women (Oxfam, 1995) and hinders them from participation in national and international ecosystem management for sustainable development.

Women in rural areas constitute a significant portion of the households’ agricultural labor force and produce over half of the food required by a family, bear most responsibilities for household security and contribute to the welfare of the household through income generating activities. As a result, women shoulder the bulk of both productive and reproductive works of the rural household and work longer hours than men. In addition to traditional activities such as childcare, cooking, fetching water, fuel wood collections, etc., they are contributing more than 50% of the total labor force in crop production involving in different tasks such as weeding, harvesting, food processing, and other post-harvest operations (FAO, 1996) as well as in livestock production. In spite of these facts, most of the agricultural technologies that can be used to increase the productivity of the agricultural sector are not targeting women to improve efficiency and labor saving. As a result, the participation of women in the extension activities remained dubious.

Farm households rely on agricultural production for their livelihood. Availability of resources such as land, labor and capital plays a significant role in the production process. In areas where resources are not available for renting, the decisions on what to produce, when to produce and how much to produce are influenced by resource ownership. It has been argued in the literature that there exists a gender bias in the resource ownership and the distribution of income derived from the production and marketing of agricultural commodities. This aspect of gender has in deed been taken as a natural fact and became part of the contemporary development discussions. It is, however, evident that farmers are rational in their decisions. Thus, there is a presumption that there exist well accepted rules governing the decision making process

1 Ethiopian Cooperatives Commission2 Oromia Agricultural Research Institute, P. O. Box 1195, Adama, Ethiopia. Tel. +251-2-128421, Email: [email protected]



regarding resource and income distribution among the members o f a household so that it maximizes the utility of the household as a whole.

The information on the rules governing the decision making power and resource distribution among the members o f the household and the implications on the livelihood of the members of the household is scant. Moreover the perception of the members of the households about the extent of gender bias regarding decision making process, income and resource distribution is not adequately studied. The objectives o f the study are, therefore, to identify the extent of gender based distribution of the resources, of a household and command on the utilization of resources and income of the household, and to investigate how the decision making process is gender oriented.

Data collection and analysisA multistage random sampling technique was used to sample the cases for interview using survey questionnaire. In the first stage of the sampling, 5 districts were randomly selected among 25 districts of Hararghe highlands, namely, Babile, Alemaya, Qarsa, Meta and Xullo. In the second stage of the sampling, 12 farmers’ associations were randomly selected from the sampled districts. In the third stage of sampling 20-30 sample farm households were randomly selected from each farmers association for the survey. In total, the survey covered 328 sample households including the farmers (head of the household) and her/his spouse or productive youth, in case the youth is responsible for the household affairs. With respect to gender about 43% of the sample cases were female.

To meet the objectives o f the study, the available information was analyzed in terms o f frequency distribution, means, percentages, etc. The decision making process and the r.ole o f gender groups in income generation and consumption decisions were analyzed.

Results

Education Status of the Respondents, Who Decides?

Low level of education and high illiteracy rate is typical in many developing countries such as Ethiopia. Moreover, the inequality of male and female members of the household in the area o f education is considerable. In the study area, about 64% of the sample respondents were not able to read and write and from these cases the majority was women. Another 34.5% of the households could have the chance to attend formal education at elementary and secondary schools. Women respondents appeared to benefit less from the formal education. Furthermore, from men respondents only 6.6% could attend their education at high school level whereas this proportion was only 3.1% for female members o f the household

As indicated in Table 1, the male members o f the family with age o f eleven and above have higher opportunity to continue their formal education than the female members o f



the household. This can be evidenced by the fact that, from the total male members of the household about 41% of them could have a chance to attend formal education at middle and high school levels. But from the female family members o f the household, only 22% of them attended their education at middle and high school (grade 5-12) levels. When we compare the proportion of male and female members o f the household attending lower level of education (grade 1 to 4), there was more proportion of female attendants than males indicating that the current policy that encourages the education of girls and gender equity started to show impacts to a certain extent.

Table 1. Education level by sex and age groups (% of family members)

Education levelSex Age group No schooling Grade 1-4 Grade 5-8 Grade 9-12 Total

6-10 10.5 16.6 1.6 0.0 28.6

Male 11-18 3.0 11.4 17.0 2.0 33.4>18 8.2 9.1 16.1 4.5 38.0

Total 21.6 37.0 34.7 6.6 100.06-10 15.9 22.5 2.2 0.0 40.5

Female 11-18 3.1 17.2 9.7 1.8 31.7>18 7.9 11.0 7.5 1.3 27.8

Total 26.9 50.7 19.4 3.1 100.0Source: Own survey, 2002

The decision to send children to school is mostly made by the father. Accordingly, 47 and 12% of the respondents indicated that the father and the mother respectively have the authority of sending children to school. About 28% of the respondents indicated that the decision is jointly made by the father and the mother.

Labour Division an d Time Allocation Decisions

Family labor is the most important factor of production in agriculture. But, women are viewed as invisible agricultural producers since the farm owned by the household is literally recognized as owned by the head of the household, which is usually male. It has been observed, however, that women shoulder cumbersome agricultural and non- agricultural workloads of the household.

Apparently women perform reproductive and productive activities. The general reproductive activities include childbearing and infant care, as well as looking after and upbringing of children. On daily basis, women undertake cooking, fetching of water and firewood. Women are also involved in tiresome activities such as house construction and maintenance. The productive activities women undertake include production of food crops both for consumption and sales, processing of food, tailoring, bond crafts to supplement the cash requirement of the household. Management o f animal husbandry and guarding o f crop field against wild animals are also duties o f women and children. Due to these activities, their leisure time is the time left for meals, personal hygiene, and

7“* AESE Annual Conference Proceedings, 2003 33


social obligations (Ellis, 1988). All these activities naturally demand intensive labor input, hence cost much of the time of the women and affect their health.

Despite the significant contributions of women to the well being of the household, they enjoy less authority in the aspects of decision making with regard to the job allocation of their own activities and that o f the other family members. As a result, women are forced to perceive their role in the society in general and in the household in particular as a subordinate and accept that it is men’s responsibility to control all resources including women’s own time and labor (Peter and Peters, 1997).

In the study area, the decision to assign members of the household to perform different activities is made by the men as indicated by 59% and 42% of male and female respondents, respectively (Table 2).

Table 2. Gender based decision making on job allocation (% of respondents)

Decision maker Male respondents Female respondents All casesMen 59 42.1 52.9Women 2.1 26.4 11.3Children 1.5 0.8 1.2Individuals decide their own 2.1 1.2

All family members discuss it 4.1 5.0 4.3

Men and women 31.3 23.1 28.1Women and children 2.5 0.9Total 100 100 100Source: Own survey, 2002

Apparently, male respondents undermine the decision making role of women compared to female respondents (2% versus 26.4%). In most cases, women decide on the time allocation to daily reproductive and household activities.

Generally, 99.7% of the sample cases believe that the decision making process about the time/job allocation of the members of the household is fare. The reasons why the household decision making process is positively valued by the respondents are given in Table 3. Accordingly, about 37% of the respondents consider that the men, who are the heads o f the household, are broad minded and responsible for decision making over the households job allocation. Due to the fact that the women, who sometimes are the heads of their respective families, make decision by themselves or the men discuss with women to make decisions, constitute the second important category of authority in the household. In some instances, the decision about who should do what in the household is discussed among all members including the able children. Cultural hindrances to job allocation among the households is well taken by the society though this might change as educational status o f individuals advances and socio-economic transformation takes place.



Table 3. Reason for positive valuation of job allocation procedure (% of respondents)

Male Female All casesReasons respondents respondentsMen are responsible for the family, 39.9 31.7 36.6broad mindedWe are both responsible for our family 6.7 6.8 6.5There must be job division between 9.0 1.7 5.9family membersMuslim religion/culture does not allow 5.1 4.3 5.2participation of ladiesWomen have limited vision 3.9 0.9 2.0No husband 18.8 8.5Participatory decision avoids conflict 28.7 30 29.1Women do not have equal right in

3.9 1.7 2.9critical decisionMental sickness of the father 0.9 0.7Mother decides on household activities 2.9 3.5 2.0and father, farm workTotal 100 100 100Source: Own survey, 2002

Decision on Crops Grown and Farm Operation

As shown in Table 4, the decisions concerning type o f crops grown, the timing of farm operations and whether to join work groups such as guza are determined by men. The second largest group of decision making unit is men and women jointly sharing the responsibilities of the household. The role of able children in decision making is also found to be quite important since they have some contributions in the decision making process about farm operation and utilization of labour in consultation with their mothers and fathers.

Table 4. Decisions on crops grown, farm operations and labour exchange (% o f household

Decision maker Crops grown Farm operations Date of GuzaMen 71.3 70.4 47.9Women 6.2 6.2 7.1Children 2.2 2.5 2.2The whole family discusses on it 4.0 7.8 6.0Women and men 12.5 4.0 28.6Men and children 0.9 5.9 4.4Women and the children 2.8 3.1 3.8Total 100 100 100Source: Own survey, 2002

7m AESE Annual Conference Proceedings, 2003 35


Gender and Ownership of Resources

Economic empowerment of the household members is embedded in the possession and command o f the individuals or group of individuals on the resources under the disposal of the household. These resources include cultivated land, livestock and other assets such as household and farm implements. Income generated from crop and livestock production and off-farm activities and the command over it also constitute important source of empowerment.

The survey result reveals that farmland owned by the household is generally small and belongs to the men (Table 5). The male respondents indicated that only 2% o f the farmland belongs to women whereas the female respondents reported that this proportion is as high as 19%. This could be due to the fact that some of the female respondents aTe widows and they have the responsibility of managing the resources of the households. However, there are some women whose husbands have died but do not feel that they own the land.

Table 5. Land oumerskif> (ha)

Land type and ownershipMale

respondentsFemale

respondents t-value Sig. Level

Farm land owned by men 0.60 0.46 2.59 0.010Farm land owned by women 0.01 0.11 -5.31 0.000Total land owned by men 0.74 0.54 2.63 0.009Total land owned by women 0.01 0.12 4.99 0.000Total land of household 0.75 0.66 1.18 0.230Average number of plots 1.91 1.64 2.69 0.008Source: Own survey, 2002

Attempts have been made to gather information on men’s attitude regarding ownership of land in the household. The result shows that 88% of the respondents feel that the land should belong to the men. This result is consistent with the fact that there is an understanding of men as being empowered with the responsibility o f making key decisions for the households.

Decision on Owning Perennial Crops

Khat plant is the most commonly grown cash crop in the study area. It is grown by 48% of the sample households with an average size of 0.1 ha, planted with 180 bushes. Only few farmers have planted coffee. Perennial crops such as khat and coffee are appreciable assets of the household. Ownership of these assets ensures access to cash income, which is useful for acquiring food and other household items. Table 6 shows that most o f the households’ khat and coffee plants owned by the father. The survey further reveals that the men sell khat and appropriate the income. The women’s share o f receiving the income from sales of coffee appears to be higher though only few of the households realized the income.

36 7lh AESE Annual Conference Proceedings, 2003


Table 6. Ownership of perennial crops and benefit (% of respondents)

Obtaining khat Owning khat Owning coffee Obtaining coffeeincome plant plant income

Family members N, 108 N, -158 N, 26 N, 26Men 74.1 77.8 88.5 33.3Women 14.8 4.4 3.8 55.6Children 1.9 1.9Whole family 9.3 15.9 7.6 11.1Total 100 100 100 100Source: Own survey, 2002

Livestock Ownership

In the study area, 18% of the sample households do not own afry animal. On average, the households who rear livestock own 2.9 LU of animals and the largest proportions of it is owned by men. Among the households surveyed, about 59% of the men own some animals while it is only 46% of women own some animals. Men own highly valuable animals such as oxen, young bulls, cows and equines whereas women possess mostly milking cows. Only in 10% of the households that children own animals, the average being about 0.6 LU.

Animals are sold to generate cash income to cover the expense of the household. About 60% of the respondents sold their animals for this purpose but the decision to sell animals and using the income generated thereof varies among the households. About 76% of the respondents reported that the decision to sell animals is made by men. Moreover, the income from sales of animals is also allocated by men, as indicated by about 68% of the respondents. The second important system of decision making is participatory discussion among the family members. Poultry and dairy constitute the two important sources o f livestock income of the farm household. About 59% of the respondents have reported that they have sold milk to generate cash and women play a dominant role in marketing, decision on selling of milk and disposing of income generated from sales of milk and poultry products.

Household Income from crops and Gender Empowerment

Crop production is the major source of the livelihood of the farming community. Other sources of income include livestock production and off farm activities. The reply to who decides on the disposal of the yield of crops produced on farm revealed that the men dominate the decision making process. The proportion of the respondents (both male and female) that says women decide on the disposal o f crop yield is about 10% (Table 7).



Table 1. Decision on the disposal of crop income

Percent of respondentsWho decides? N * 325Men 71.7Women 9.8The whole family 13.8Women and men 4.6Source: Own survey, 2002

The disposal o f crop income includes allocation for consumption, seed, livestock feed (e.g. poultry) and sales. The amount sold and the revenue generated has important repercussion on the livelihood of the members o f the household. Those receiving the income and having command on it will be better off. The survey result shows that 30% of the grain produced was sold during the 2001. ln this case, women play leading role in marketing o f agricultural products and thereon deciding on the allocation of the income (Table 8). Usually females sell food items in smaller quantities and procure household items such as cooking oil, salt, spices, meat, etc. Men involve in sales o f larger quantities and procurement of goods of high value.

Table 8. Participation in decision to sell crop products (% of respondents)

Members of the family

Persons selling the products

N, 261

Person appropriating the income

N, 232

Decision on how to use the income

N, 267Men • 37.2 42.7 33Women 42.5 46.6 34.8Children 3.4 2.6Women and men 16.1 7.8 18.7The whole family 0.8 0.4 13.5Source: Own survey, 2002

About 98% of the respondents judge the decision-making processes o f disposing farm income as fair. Despite the argument in the literature that advocates for the gender bias in utilization of income, the respondents do not show this as a major problem. To them the overall household poverty is of paramount importance to deal with.

Off-farm Income

With a rapidly growing population and critical shortage o f farmland, off-farm activities provide some alternatives to generate income for the welfare of the household. The major off farm activities available in the area are petty trading, food processing and selling, beekeeping, working as laborers, etc. The survey result shows that bout 59% of the respondents took part in off-farm works of some sort whereas the proportion for women falls to 26%. Moreover 11% of children of less than 15 year old participated in 50

38 7m AESE Annual Conference Proceedings, 2003


off-farm activities. Those women participating in off-farm activities could succeed to generate more income (Birr 1100) than their men counterpart (which is Birr 660).

The decision on assigning members of a family to off-farm work or taking the job by oneself is one of the main empowerment questions. In the study area, in most of the farm households involved in off-farm activities, it is the men who make the decision on income from off-farm activities (54%). About 22% of women have the opportunity to make decision on the appropriation of income from-off farm activities.

Decisions on Consumption and Health care

Women are mostly responsible for food processing, feeding and caring of members of the household in general and children in particular. The decision regarding who should consume and how often food is consumed a day are taken as indicators of the empowerment of consumption of food. The study result shows that 32% of the respondents eat two times a day whereas about 47% of the members eat three times a day. It is the adult group of the household member who eats less frequently. Moreover, about 20% of the household members have more than 4 meals a day and they are more often children including infants who should be fed even more than five times a day. However, depending on food availability, different household members are given priority for food. The decision of prioritization is apparently governed by the tradition of the society. The majority of the respondents give priority to children in case of food shortage (Table 9). Next to the children, most of the households provide food for the men. Despite the tremendous workload of women, they consume after the other family members are served.

Regarding the meal time and amount of food consumed, women play decisive role as 80% and 93% of women have decision making power with respect to the mealtime and the amount of food to be served for the household respectively.

Table 9. Priority o f food consumption under critical conditions

Family members N = 323

(% of respondents)

Men 17.0Women 6.8Children 73.1All family members equal 0.6Women and men 2.5

Source: Own survey, 2002

With regards to health care, different family members are treated differently. The survey result shows that about 73% of the sample respondents have visited health services during the survey year. In treating the family members, priorities are given to children followed by men and then women.



Extension Services

The agricultural extension services provided targets more towards the household rather than specific member of the household. About 62% o f the respondents acknowledged receipts of extension services. But the proportion of women who reported that they get extension services is only 25%.

The extension services provided are more concerned with improvement of crop production. It appears that the extension services rendered to women deal most often with household management as reported by 67% of participated women. One of the important issues o f booming population is not properly addressed. Moreover, sanitation and health care, which are crucial, are not on the agenda of development agents in the study area.

Saving and Credit

About 22% of men and 41% of women were organized in credit and saving groups. But the groups are not strong to mobilize saving and mechanism of its operation is not well established. Despite the gender-based membership in the saving and credit groups, the benefits are extended to those members of the household in need of the services, although it is the member (men or women) of the household who receive the major share o f the benefit (Table 10). Apparently the credit is extended to the client but the actual utilization is determined within the family. Hence, the actual use can be extended to other family members.

About 82% of the credit received by the men member o f the household is used for improving crop productivity. They received credit in form of fertilizer, seed and cash. Women received cash to finance income generation activities such as petty trading. They also received cows and goats on credit to benefit from the milk and offspring production and increase women’s income.

Table 10. Persons benefiting from saving and credit groups

Family membersIf men are members

of the groupIf women are members

of the groupMen 58.7 3.8Women 7.9 75.0Children 0.8All family members 22.2 15.1Women and Men 11.1 5.3Source: Own survey, 2002

ConclusionsThe study revealed that men are key decision makers determining the current living status and future livelihood as well as the labor allocation of the members of the

40 7n AESE Annual Conference Proceedings, 2003


households. Women alone rarely decide on time allocation of members of the households although they participate in the decision-making processes together with men. Moreover, men also dominate in deciding the cropping pattern, farm operations and disposal of crop products. Women and girls often participate in marketing activities and sales of grains whereas men control sales of high value animals and crop products such as khat. Women are more empowered in owning certain categories of livestock than they do in crop farming. Women are responsible for sales o f milk and use of the income generated for procurement of consumable goods such as cooking oil, meat, salts, spices, and grain.

Thus, women development project should focus on resources and enterprises over which women have higher empowerment. Education has a long-term impact of empowering women. Hence, girls should be further encouraged to attend schools and attempts should be made to minimize school dropouts. Besides, building women’s capacity to engage in income generating activities is an instrument to empower women. Thus, training women on small business operations and expansion of Micro Finance Institutions that can encourage the saving and credit for rural women would be essential to empower rural women.

ReferencesEllis, F. (1988): Peasant Economics: Farm Household and Agrarian Economics, Cambridge

University Press, Cambridge.FAO (1996): Improving Extension with rural women. Food and Agriculture Organisations of the

United Nations, Rome, Italy Oxaal, Z and Baden, S. (1997): Gender Empowerment: Definitions, Approaches and Implications

for Policy. Bridge, IDS Report No. 40.Oxfam (1995): The Oxfam Hand book of Relief and Development. Oxfam, Oxford.

Peter, S. and C. Peters, (1997): Empowering Communities: A Casebook from West Sudan.

An Oxfam Publication, Oxfam UK and Ireland.

\

7th AESE Annual Conference Proceedings. 2003 41

The role of rainwater harvesting in mitigating risk' and achieving sustainable rural development in Ethiopia

’ Lakew Desta

BackgroundDry lands in Ethiopia comprise about 67.7% of the total landmass, 45%. of the total arable land and over twenty million of the population. Because o f erratic nature and at times also low rainfall and high temperature, these areas are characterised by shortage of water. The rainfall in these areas is extremely variable and unpredictable. Unpredictability increases with increasing aridity. Problem of environmental degradation, drought, famine, and population pressure are common phenomenon. Rainfall in arid and semi-arid areas is typically of short duration, relatively high intensity (storms are usually heavy) and limited aerial extent. In these areas rainfed agriculture has become a lottery and a risky business to deal with. The rainfall may come in one or two seasons. Generally, these areas have average annual rainfall of 200-800mm. The average temperatures are above 18°C and the rainfall to evaporation ratio (R/Eo) could range0.15-0.5 (EMA, 1998). Seasonal or permanent streams are far away from the reach of poor farmers and so do their scattered parcels. Settlements are widely spread like stars on the sky. Streams are not spread accordingly. Ground water is either deep or not available at all. The only water resource available is rainfall as a local source. In such an environment, normal crop production without irrigation water for crops is difficult unless supplemented by adding runoff from elsewhere. This phenomenon has in the near past (2002/2003) has left nearly 14 million people victims of drought and subsequent famine. In each year it is obvious that there are drought stricken areas affecting not less than 5 million people. On the other hand the country is known as the Water-tower o f North-Eastern Africa where it is the source of 10 big River Basins2 including the Blue Nile. The existence of chronic food insecurity problem remained to be a paradox.

The overspill o f population from the humid highlands fragmented holdings and severe degradation is leading to increased settlement and agriculture in the marginal and dry areas. In the dry areas, other than in-situ moisture management practices, there is very limited specific water harvesting techniques. Crops are primarily cereal grains. The cost of irrigation is high, or no adequate and clean water for irrigation is accessed. The overall experience and knowledge base on irrigation is very limited. The country is currently economically unable to optimally utilise its large rivers for different

1 (Soil and Water Conservation, MoA)2 MoA, September, 2003 - 1. Abay, 2. Awash, 3. Baro, 4. Afar, 5. Genale, 6. Mereb, 7. Gibe, 8. Lakes, 9. Shebele, and 10. Tekeze.

Lakew Desta

development purposes in line with national, regional and local interest. Most techniques for water collection make use o f large water sources such as rivers and ground water and require large-scale investments.

Run-off arising from uncontrolled rainwater is the' greater agent of soil erosion. This is especially so in arid and semi-arid lands where the rainfall is erratic and the soils are fragile. It is common to experience a situation where crops are destroyed by flooding at the beginning of the season, only to have the planted crops destroyed by drought later in the season. The prevailing soils in these environments generally cannot absorb the amount of water, which falls in such a short time. As a result rainfall in these areas is often accompanied by large amount o f surface runoff. Soils o f the bottomland o f hilly areas usually have high silt (disperses under wetting giving rise to considerable runoff) and clay content.

There is a vast majority inhabited by pastoralists and agro-pastoralists, though some of them carry out opportunistic cropping of sorghum and maize. The major part of this area is a non-dissected sedimentary plain with soils o f low fertility. Livestock could spend 50-75% of their time looking for water. This reduces the grazing time leading to reduced growth and productivity. Construction o f small water storage structures (reservoirs) to reduce the walking distance to 5km radius will optimise feeding time and hence livestock productivity.

In the majority of arid and semi-arid areas, rural households directly or indirectly spend much of their productive time to procure domestic water. O f the household members usually women or children travel about, on the average, 20 km per day (average 5 km travelled to the source twice) to fetch the daily requirement o f water. Promotion of appropriate rainwater harvesting techniques, therefore, can reduce drudgery and the opportunity cost incurred in obtaining water instead of doing something useful. Therefore, this is why rainwater/runoff harvesting is extremely necessary. Rainwater harvesting should be promoted where irrigation by river diversion or dam construction is not a viable option. Where the potential exits and it is within the reach of the farmer use of alternative water resource should be the strategy.

Water is one of the most critical elements for plant growth. On average to produce one kilogram o f marketable crop (grain) 1000 - 3000 litres o f water is required (Isaya v - Sijaii 2001). When the amount of water required for crop production is viewed against domestic demand the amount is many fold times more. This is not well understood or perceived by the public other than farmers and agriculturalists. The main reason why so much water is needed by plants is related to the process of evapo-transpiration. This is again further a function of plant stomatal opening, radiation, temperature, humidity, wind and the process of photosynthesis.


Lakew Desta

Basic Concepts/principles of RWH

Definition of RWH

RWH is the process or system of collecting, directing and concentrating all possible rain/runoff for productive uses. It describes methods of collecting, storing and spreading various forms of runoff from different sources for domestic, livestock and agricultural uses. Instead of runoff being left to cause erosion, it is harvested and utilised for improved soil moisture regime. Rainwater harvesting is an insurance business that avoids risks.

Water harvesting is different from the practice of in-situ moisture conservation where the runoff catchment to cultivated area ratio is one to one. In rainwater/runoff harvesting there is a separate land (catchment) to be set aside for the generation of runoff. Additional runoff is directed from this catchment to the cultivated area. Rain/runoff is multiplied or amplified by a factor greater than one. The concept differs from the practice of Soil and Water Conservation (SWC) and in-situ moisture conservation. In SW C Multiplying Factor (MF) = 1 where as in Rainwater Harvesting MF >1 (ICARDA, 2002, M. T. Hai 1998, Oweis T., D. Prinz and A. Hachum. 2001). This does not mean, however, RWH is an independent subject. In soil conservation the ultimate goal is to minimize the slope so that in-situ conservation is approached. In RWH some slope at the catchment should be maintained. RWH involves two distinct areas namely: the catchment where the runoff is collected and the target where the collected rain/runoff water is targeted.

Benefits of RWHThe role of rainwater harvesting in the context of household food security is to insure availability o f drinking water for domestic, water supply for livestock, homestead crop production, treatment and protection of local micro catchments, make marginal land productive, increase yield of rain-fed farming and minimise risk in drought prone areas.

Technology Limitation on RWHWhile RWH makes plant production more reliable by harnessing otherwise destructive runoff, it has certain drawbacks that need to be acknowledged (Will Critchley and Klaus Siegert 199, FAO, Rome, Italy). Water Harvesting in years of very little or no rainfall, water harvesting will not work because it is dependant on rainfall. Due to the fact that too much water is needed for crop production we can not change or create new cropping season as can be done with irrigation where permanent water source is available. It can be counter-productive during years of excess rainfall as field structures can easily be breached by the high intensity of the rains. In an effort to collect additional moisture for a cropped area loss of productive area as a catchment is needed to get the run on. Water


Lakew Desta

harvesting is not a free standing technique and needs integration of other disciplines such as soil fertility improvement, consetvation tillage, extension, etc.

Government policy and strategyFor many years in the country policy on rainwater is either lightly mentioned, or not there at all. There are no adequate guidelines or code of practices on RWH (both in rural and urban), conveyance mechanisms and construction standards for structural/soil storage facilities and non-inclusion of RWH to the institutional curricula.

Under the umbrella policy of the Agriculture development led industrialization (ADLI) there is Rural Development Policy and Strategy Document and in this document it is clearly stated that the main problem in the so called dry/moisture deficit/drought stricken areas is not shortage of rainfall rather its utilization (Rural Development Policy and Strategy, 1994 E.C, Amharic version). The country is found in three broad agroclimates- namely: Wet, Dry and Pastoral. The strategy for the wet is use o f high input, market oriented and production of high value crops for export; the strategy for the Dry is Sustainable Development and Poverty Reduction Program (SDPRP); and that of Pastoral is livestock marketing and insuring water availability. Rainwater harvesting is strongly linked to the later two strategies. More than 214 Weredas of the country are said to be food insecure. Also, according to agriculture sector review undertaken in Ethiopia to tackle the problem of food insecurity and rural livelihoods it is recommended that investment need to be made on rainwater harvesting. To insure food availability water centred development is required. According to the Food Security Strategy Document o f the country in the coming 3 - 5 years 5 million people would be made to be food-secured and an additional 10 million people improve their food security status. For this water-centred development is the key strategy. RWH both as soil and structural storages, small scale irrigation, subwatershed development/management and soil conservation activities are targeted. For backyard production rainwater harvesting has two purposes.

1. To raise vegetable as well as fruit seedlings during the dry period and carry it to rains when they set in.

2. To provide water as supplementary irrigation whenever there is a shortfall in wet seasons, especially until the crop matures.

Based on this the MoARD and Regional Bureaux

• Acquired different technologies within the country and abroad (China, Kenya, Yemen, Israel, India, Sudan, etc.), which was carried out before two years.

• Household based rainwater harvesting systems are more favoured because they are said to be divisible in the use of water for human, livestock drinking and backyard high value horticultural crops.

• Piloted technologies and prepared technological packages (Rainwater Harvesting Extension Packages Ministry of Agriculture 1994 E.C).


Lakew Desta

• Provided practical training to ToT at various levels• Prepared RWH courses (RWH Technology I, II, and III) and started giving to the 25

agricultural TVET colleges reaching 37,582 students• Carried out monitoring and evaluation o f implemented packages

Type of rainwater harvesting measures implemented

Structural storages3

Structural storages facilities consist Surface ponds covered with and without plastics, Micro-ponds (hemispherical/trapezoidal), Cisterns (dome, brick, bottle, spherical, sausage), Shallow wells, Spring development and Rock catchment

Soil storages

These consists of Flood diversion and spreading, Eyebrow terraces, Trenches and Negarims, Contour stone/soil bunds, Contour bench terraces, and Semi-circular bunds.

Water lifting and applications

Low cost water lifting and water applications include Low-cost human operated lifting pumps, Treadle pumps, Rope and washer, Rower pumps, Family drip systems and Improved as well as using locally available materials

AchievementsA detailed achievement by regions (main four regions) is given in Annex 1. Double of this is planned this physical year (1995/96, E.C). A Water Harvesting working title has been permitted at all levels (Ministry of Agriculture and rural development, Bureau of agriculture and rural development and Weredas) and qualified professionals were assigned. Most of them are from Arbaminch Water Technology Institute. Some regions have established and others are on the process of establishing plastic welding centers for lining surface ponds.

Along with the storage facilities low cost water lifting and family drip equipments/systems have been and are being promoted. This includes treadle pumps, watering cans, family drip kits and tie-ridgers. Procurement, welding and distribution of geomembrane plastic for pond lining is also another major activity being carried out. The involvement of private entrepreneurs in the production as well as distribution of the above items is growing from time to time.

There are a lot of technologies under development and testing. For example use of bamboo for rope and washer pumps substituting PVC pipes (Amaro Wereda from South), use of micro-tube drip systems with local filter material by Arbaminch Water

3 Rainwater Harvesting Extension Packages Ministry of Agriculture 1994 (E.C)


Lakew Desta

Technology Institute, among others could be mentioned. Also there are prototypes of collapsible bladder tanks acquired fot testing. These will have great contribution to the promotion of RWH, thus alleviation of household food security.

RWH Courses are being given in the Agricultural TVET CollegesThe Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MoARD) is presently running 25 Agricultural Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) colleges situated in different parts of the country. The major role o f the TVET colleges is to train 10th grade complete school leavers in agriculture i.e. rainwater harvesting, soil conservation, crop sciences, animal sciences, among others. Rainwater harvesting is one o f the main courses that is being given in these centres together with many other agricultural courses. The training is given both on theoretical and practical techniques including field study visits and practical exercising as well as by incorporating successful experiences in other parts of the country and abroad. Instructors are dominantly graduates of Arbaminch Water Technology Institute, Alemaya and Awasa Universities and some are also having their second degrees. There are also expatriate instructors from China. In total there are 37,582 students attending the course. At the end the trainees would have sufficient knowledge and be qualified to adopt the innovative techniques in their respective places of assignment in the rural areas of Ethiopia. There have been efforts made to prepare curriculum on rainwater harvesting. However, there are some loose ends and gaps. As water harvesting is a developing science the curriculum is progressively under improvement and further development.

Problems constraints encountered so far4• Soil storage and watershed treatment has not been given adequate attention, with

some variation among regions.• Lifting and water application required and adequate equipments not made available

resulting in wastage of stored water not being used for intended purposes. Hand lifting and watering using cans is time and labor consuming.

• Land lost to the structure example surface pond is high (more than 140m2 ) and the possibility of placing on marginal lands

• Seepage losses - 24 liters/day.m2 on surface ponds• Evaporation losses - 6 liters/day.m2• Siltation/sediment - need o f silt traps and watershed treatment• Limited in capacity because of stability (in the case o f cisterns)• Cost versus benefit is of excessive payback period - expensive in the case of cisterns• There is technical capacity limitation at the grass-root level• Health issues on open - malaria is a concern

4 Most of the constraints are related to structural storages under practice

48 7*' AESE Annual Conference Proceedings, 2003

Lakew Desta

• Marketing will be a potential challenge. Enough market is not available for vegetables and because they^are perishable there could be a risk of overproduction.

• Cereal and non-perishable crops not addressed (see experiences with other countries in annex III). As most targeted crop under the practice is only vegetable production and the possibility of supplementing cereals is limited by the amount of water made available.

• Farmers are not maintaining already constructed tanks, wells and ponds• There is no adequate follow up on already established schemes

ConclusionIn the current practice both by Regions and Federal level it is felt that the emphasisgiven to soil storage aspect of rainwater harvesting that is runoff farming is little if notnil. Therefore,

1. Rainwater harvesting that targets crop production (cereal)5 should also be given importance by focusing on soil storage aspects of RWH. Because:a) RWH according to catchment/watershed principles need to be followed b) Catchment to Cultivated Area Ratio than VI, c) Cost is low compared to deep ponding/cisterns, d) No need for Lifting and Water Application, e) Ample traditional knowledge already exists, f) Adoption is high compared to structural storage, g) Problem of soil erosion can be addressed

2. RWH by structural means (i.e. deep ponding) should be seen as a water source to first produce seedlings during dry period second to overcome the extended dry spells that occur within the rainy season to ensure crop production (supplementary irrigation) but not for dry season cropping. With regard to deep ponding storage volumes of an instant time only should not be assumed. Depending on the rainfall and its subsequent utilization potentially there is high chance of elasticity.

3. Community participation/implementation modalities must be improved to ensure that the farmers and the communities understand the interventions proposed and how to operate/maintain them. Enough time should be given for piloting before technologies are disseminated. Target driven implementation should be minimised. Appropriate technology where there are already better niches for it should be promoted.

4. RWH through structural means has a role as one contributor to food security at HH level. It must not however, be seen in isolation. Issues o f catchment/watershed treatment, soil and water conservation, conservation tillage, soil fertility, crop selection, provision of credit, integration of low cost lifting techniques and family drip systems, among others are also critical.

5. Because adequate lifting and drip systems are not available there is wastage o f stored water not being used for intended purpose. Hand lifting is time and labour

5 M. T. Hai 1998


Lakew Desta

consuming. Also there is an observation that farmers are not maintaining already constructed tanks, wells and ponds, there should be a follow up. Maintenance should be planned and targeted. Maintenance crew should be trained and assist farmers .There should be a follow up on already established schemes.

ReferencesRural Development Policy and Strategy, 1994 E.C, Amharic version).Isaya v - Sijali 2001. Drip Irrigation, options for smallholder farmers in Eastern and Southern

Africa. Published by Sida’s Regional Land Management Unit (RELMA), Nairobi Kenya. Technical Handbook N° - 24.

Oweis T., D. Prinz and A. Hachum. 2001. Water Harvesting: Indigenous knowledge for theFuture of the Drier Environments. ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria. 40pp. ISBN: 92-9127-116-0

Ethiopian Mapping Authority (EMA), 1998.Lecture notes on Rainwater Harvesting, ICARDA 2002.Rainwater Harvesting Extension Packages Ministry of Agriculture 1994 (E.C)M. T. Hai 1998. Rainwater Harvesting an Illustrative Manual for Development Techniques for

Crop Production in Dry Areas. Regional Land Management Unit, Nairobi, Kenya.ISBN 9966 - 896-33 - 3.

Will Critchley and Klaus Siegert 1991. Water Harvesting: A Manual for the Design and Construction of Water Harvesting Schemes for Plant Production FAO, Rome, Italy.

William Critchley, Chris Reij, and Alain Seznec 1992. Water Harvesting for Plant Production, Volume II: Case Studies and Conclusions for Sub-Saharan Africa. World Bank Technical Paper N° - 157, Africa Technical Department Series.

Kidane Giorgis on Conservation Tillage for Dryland Farming, 2000, Workshop Report N° 3, RELMA.


Lakew Desta

Annex IRWH Activities Planned and Achieved in 1995 E.C6

Type of Technology

YearlyPlan

Accomplishment up to last monthN" Region Unit

Completed Ongoing/ re quested Total Remark

Ponds' No 83,400 18,675 37,114 55,789 Capacity is 120-180m1

Hand dug wells8 No 6,100 84 428 512

I Oromiya Cisterns/ tankers No 500 975 2800 3,775

Total No 90,000 19,734 40342 60,076 75% (dry), 25% (wet)’

1 SNNP10

Watering cans Total structures Traditional ponds Shallow wells Cisterns Total

NoNoNoNoNo

115.000

115.000

5533540628

1.7731.773

450

5533

2,3132,401

Distributed

70% of the

3 Amhara Ponds No 30,979 4,983 39,339 44,322ongoing

constructio

Shallow wells Cisterns (hemispherical) TotalOther activities Spring devt. River diversion Moisture cons"

No

No

NoNoNo

17,608

33,257

81,844

8.684

9.668

23,335

3,764

10,755

53,858

70487

12,448

20,423

77,193

70487

n is completed

Digging trenches Meter - - 69,309 69,309

4 Tigrai

Compost

HH Ponds Dugout ponds Cut and fill ponds TotalGrand Total

No

NoNoNoNoNo

41.000

41.000 327,400

30.000400700

31,10074,797

1,513

95,973

1,513

30,000400700

31,100170,770

8 - 10m’ capacity

6 Source: Translated from Regions Report as of July, 2003.7 The size of the pond is on average 143 meter cube and will provide supplemental irrigation to 300 meter square of crop land.8 Hand dug well it is assumed that 300 meter square area can be fully irrigated two times in a year, hence 600 meter square.9 75% and 25% of the activity is carried out in moisture deficit and sufficient deficit areas. Along with in Oromiya region, 50 treadle pumps and 50 drip systems have been distributed.10 For SNNP source is Extension Department, May 2003, Amharic Version.


Lakew Desta

Annex IIResponse to Production of Some Rainwater Harvesting Practices in Ethiopia and other countries11

Country Activity/Measures_____Crop type Response to production'* Remark

1Burkina Fasso-Risllamregion

same

Permeable Rock dam

Contour stone bunds/zay pits

Sorghum

Sorghum

Treated

1.9 tonv'ha

1200kg/ha (40%)

Untreated

1 toi\/ha

nill

2Kenya(BaringoDistrict)

Semi-circular hoops Foragecrops 12 15kg/ha 17kg/ha

same Contour ridges Sorghutn 300% more

3 Mali Demi - lunes Millet 600-800kg/ha nill

4 Somalia Bunding Grain 820-1750kg/ha 840-1220kg/ha

5 Sudan Teras Sorghum ?50kg/ha

6

7

Zimbabwe

Ethiopia in Kobo/Melkass

Tied furrows

Tied furrows

Sorghum,Maize,cotton

Sorghum

14-25% more (1715kg/ha for sorghum)

2.95tonsAa

1415kg/ha for sorghum

1.2tons/haaKoboKobo

samesame

MungbeaMaize

0.7ton/ha 2.7 ton/ha

0.4ton/ha1.2ton/ha

Yield increases with the age of the structureThis is where barren land is rehabilitated Cenchrus ciUaris, Eragrostis superha, Cymtopogan spp, Heteropogan machros.Consistent yield as compared to control This is yield for good year otherwise 250kg/ha

Use of watermelons on the bottom bunds

Ridge spacing vary according to crops

11 Source: Compiled from a) William Critchley. et.al (1992) Water Harvesting for Plant Production, Vol.II, World Bank Technical Paper N ° - 157, African Technical Department Series, and b) K. Giorgis on Conservation Tillage for Dryland Farming, 2000, Workshop Report N° 3. RELMA. C) William Critchley, Chris Reij, and Alain Seznec 1992.12 The financial costs of constructing RWH structures can vary from less than 100 US/ha to over a 1000 US/ha, but the basis of cost calculations is highly variable and not always known.

52 7“' AESE Annual Conference Proceedings, 2003

Monitoring and Evaluation of Potato Seeds Production in Ffarm ers’ Field

1Hailu Beyene, Chilot Yirga, Mesfin Haile

IntroductionAgricultural research has more than four-decayed history in Ethiopia. A more coordinated work on potato improvement started in 1975 with the initiation of the Ethiopian Potato Improvement Program (Berga et al., 1994). In the past years high yielding and disease resistant cultivars that are suitable to different agro ecologies were developed. Improved potato varieties have been released, multiplied, and distributed to potato producers. The request for improved varieties has been increasing through time articulating the need to study farmers' potato seed management systems. The Holetta agricultural research center (HARC) initiated its outreach program by releasing improved potato and creating all possible ways of distributing these varieties to farmers through informal seed system.

Until recently much of the potato production have been targeted for home. As potato becomes increasingly a cash crop, the need for quality and high yielding potato varieties has become apparent in the country. Potato production for seed purposes is a recent phenomenon initiated by the Potato Program o f HARC in an attempt to address shortage of improved varieties, which has been cited as the major cause of low productivity in the country. To assist these efforts it was very important to monitor and evaluate farmers' potato seed production. The objectives of this study are to identify the major problems encountered by farmers to produce seeds, farmers' strategies to secure seeds every year, and indicate directions of future interventions in the provision of improved seeds for potato growers.

This study was conducted in Welmera and Shasemene Weredas. Welmera and Shashemene weredas are located in west and east Sheiva zone of Oromia regional state, respectively. The farming systems of these two areas are characterized by crop-livestock mixed farming system. Area allocated to potato production show an increasing trend in the study area. In Welmera a total o f 650 ha (out of 32,633 ha) of land was allocated for potato production where as in Shashemene Wereda a total o f 12,500 ha of land was allocated for potato production out of the total cultivated land of 50,000 ha in 2000 crop season.

' Holetta Agricultural Research Center P.O. Box 2003, Addis Ababa

Hailu Beyene, et al.

MethodologyThis study was undertaken from 1998 to 2000. Potato seed producers and peasant associations were purposively selected from the two-study areas. Two groups of farmers; namely, participant and non-participant were identified. Participant farmers are those who got improved potato seeds from HARC and have constructed diffused light store. Senior technical assistances and researchers from HARC, and Bureau of Agriculture (BOA) staff interviewed farmers using structured-questionnaire. Moreover, key informants and traders were also interviewed during the study.

sIn the first year, thirteen farmers, seven participants and six non-participants, were purposively selected from two peasant associations (PAs) in Welmera wereda. In the same wereda, eighteen farmers, eight participants and ten non-participants were interviewed, in the year 1999 from four PAs. In 1999 nineteen farmers, six participants and thirteen non-participants were interviewed from two PAs in Shashemene wereda. In 2000, twenty- nine farmers, of which eleven participants, were chosen only from Welmera wereda. Simple descriptive statistics were used to analyze data.

Result and discussion

Farmers' knowledge of potato varieties

Farmers in Welmera and Shashemene weredas know more than sixteen varieties under production. Roge was the common local variety produced in Welmera wereda. Wechecha, M enagesha, A wash, and Genet were the improved varieties grown by large number of farmers in the first two years at Welmera (Table 1). At Shqshemene, Genet and Au/asK were the improved varieties grown by large number of farmers in the year 1999. Nech Abeba was the local variety produced by 32 per cent of potato farmers.

About 48% o f potato producers in Welmera Wereda planted the most widely produced local variety, Roge, during the year 2000 while the rest planted the improved varieties, Wechecha, Tolcha, Tsedey, and Menagesha (Table 1).

Although, the number of farmers using improved varieties has increased recently due to increased outreach program of HARC, majority of farmers still use local potato varieties. The two widely grown local potato varieties are Roge, introduced in the area in 1982, and Tsedey introduced in 1988 (Table 1). Among the improved varieties Wechecha is by far the most popular variety grown by about 40% of the sample farmers.

The information collected from Welmera Wereda in year 1999 revealed that varieties preferred by most farmers were Wechecha (28%), Tolcha (22%), Awash and Genet, each, as reported by 17% of farmers. These varieties were preferred for their high yield (39%), late blight tolerance or both as reported by 22% of farmers. Roge was also preferred by


Table. 1 Farmers planting improved and local varieties in Wolemera and Shashemene Weredas (1998- 2000)

Varieties

Mean area, ha No. of farmers

Wel

mer

a ‘9

9

Wel

mer

a ‘0

0

Shas

hem

ene’

99

Welm

era

‘98

Welm

era

‘99

Welm

era

‘00

Sash

emen

e’99

Awash 0.13 - 0.29 3(23) 3(17) - 3(16)Genet 0.1 0.08 0.35 3(23) 2(11) 3(10.3) 15 (58)Menagesha 0.19 0.04 - 4(31) 4(22) 4(13.8) -Tsedey - 0.28 - - - 5(17.2) -Roge 0.42 0.23 - 7(54) 13(72) 14 48.3) -

Tolcha 0.25 0.11 - 2(15) 1(6) 6 (20.7) -Wechecha 0.15 0.08 - 5(38) 5(28) 11 (37.9) -Nech Abeba - - 0.46 - - - 6(32)Holland - 0.28 - - - 2 (6.9) -England - 0.03 - - - 1 -

Source: Survey results; Figures in parentheses are percentages

28% of farmers because seed is easily available in the market. The main reason why farmers wanted to grow improved varieties was to get high yield (67%) and improve their living by selling these varieties (33%). Farmers' evaluations using different criteria such as color/ shape of the tubers, taste and texture of the cultivars showed that Tolcha, Menagesha, Awash, Wechecha and Genet ranked in the order of acceptance (Geberemedhin et al, 2002). Similarly, in Shashemene Wereda varieties preferred by farmers were Genet (84 %), Nech Abeba (58%) and Awash as reported by 47% o f farmers. Genet and Awash were preferred for their high yield and tolerance to late blight. Nech abeba was preferred for its medium size, high yield and tolerance to late blight, and color.

At Welmera, farmers used to grow potato only in Belg season due to late blight problem. Meher season production started with the introduction of improved varieties. Potato in the study area is primarily produced during the off-season commonly known as Belg using the small rain and/or using supplementary irrigation. In 2000 in Welmera Wereda about 41% and 31% of the sample farmers produced potato in the Belg season using supplementary irrigation and under rain fed conditions, respectively while 24% of the farmers produced in the main rainy season commonly referred as Meher. In Shashemene, potato is produced both in Belg and Meher. Ware potato was produced on large scale during Belg (February/March- June/July). Potato seeds were also produced during Meher (July/August- October/ November).


Hailu Beyene. et al.

About 93% of the household, in Welmera Wereda, reported that the local variety, Roge, is grown during the Belg season when the late blight pressure is less severe as the variety is highly susceptible to late blight if planted in the main season. Farmers also indicated that the improved varieties, Wechecha, Tolcha and Menagesha could be grown in the main season as the varieties are less susceptible to late blight.

Table 2. Farmers planting different potato varieties in the main and off-season in Welmera wereda (1998-2000)

Variety Planting time Season No of farmers growingRoge October-January Off-season 13(93)Tsedey December-January Off-season 4(75)Wechca May-June Main season 11 (100)Tolcha June Main season 4(67)Menagesha May-June Main season 3(75)

Source: Survey result s; Figures in parentheses are percentages

Seed production as a system

Seed channel

Welmera, Jeldu and Dendi Weredas have better access to improved potato varieties due to its proximity to HARC. Potato seed channel shows potato tuber flows as far as Weiliso, Metu and Dembidolo for the purpose o f seed (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Seed flow channels of potato market network.

Farmers in Shashamane area reported that potato produced in their locality could not serve as planting material for the next production season for the same locality. If used,



Traders transport potato seed from one area to the other. Potato producers in other areas know availability of improved potato seeds at Welmera, Ginchi and Jeldu. The current seed flow among potato growers in different agro-ecologies in Ethiopia encourages the promotion of varieties that are widely adaptable and multiple criteria is important in selecting varieties that will be used in diverse area (G/medihn et al., 2002). Conversely, potato is subject to different viral, bacterial and fungal diseases that may be carried by tuber. Hence, it is important to find a way for providing quarantine service.

Farmers in Shashemene area reported that potato produced in their locality could not serve as planting material for the next production season for the same locality. If used, potato yields decline dramatically mainly due to late blight and bacterial wilt problems. Hence, most farmers in Shashemene purchase seed tubers from the market produced in other areas such as Adje, and Shamena (Figure 2). For the belg planting much of the seed tubers for Shashamane area comes from Adje area in Sirraro Woreda and Shamana area in Awassa Zuriya Woreda. Shashamane area in turn supplies seed tubers for Adje and Wondo Genet areas for Meher and irrigation production, respectively. Farmers in Shamana area, however, do not receive potato tuber as a seed from other areas. Rather, these farmers produce seed in Belg and preserve it from five to eight months for Meher production.

seed

Currently, the majority of potato growers in Wolemera Weredas depend on either local or improved potato obtained from local market, other farmers or HARC. In 1998, 31% of interviewed farmers reported that their main seed sources were HARC while 23% maintained their own seed from last harvest. However, in the following year (1999) the sources of improved seed in Welmera were HARC (58%) and other farmers (33%). The sources of seed in 1999 in Shashemene Wereda were BOA (58 %), other farmers (26%), own last harvest (21%) and local market (21%) as reported by of interviewed farmers. BOA and other farmers were major sources of the improved variety, Genet, while the



local market was for the local variety, Nech Abeba. In the 2000, the primary source of improved varieties for all participant farmers in Welmera Wereda was HARC. About 62 % of the non-participant farmers in Wolemera area purchased the local variety, Roge, from the local market whije 28% of the non-participants who plant improved varieties received improved varieties from neighbors.

Among farmers interviewed in 1999, considerable number of them started planting improved varieties for the first time from 1992 to 1998 (Table, 3).

Table 3. Time of planting and improved varieties groum by farmers in Welmera wereda

Year No of farmers growing Varieties1992 1 Awash1995 3 Awash1996 3 Awash1997 3 Awash1998 1 \v cuiecna

Source: Survey result

Seed production objectives

The main objectives of seed production are to keep the preferred seed for the coming season, give some to other farmers usually relatives and friends, and sell for cash. On the average farmers sold 36% of their produce. Amount sold and prices obtained from each variety are indicated in Table 4.

Table 4. Total produce and amount of potato seed sold by farmers in Welmera wereda, 1999

Varieties Produce, qt Amount sold, qt Price /qtAwash 11.17(3) 6.92(3) 85.35Genet 5.25(2) 2.00(1) 80.00Menagesha 6.5(4) 4.17(3) 65Roge 26.38(13) 9.35(13) 77.7Tolcha 27.3(1) 2.50(1) 75Wechecha 9.7(5) 6.00(5) 83.35

Figures in parentheses are number of farmers Source: Survey result

In Welmera Wereda, farmers kept on average 0.5 qt of Awash, 4.5 qt of Genet, 1.25 qt of Menagesha, 5.55 qt o f Roge, 24 qt of Tolcha and 3.9 qt of Wechecha for seed for the coming season. Farmers also gave seed to other farmers. Two farmers gave 350 kg of improved variety (Wechecha 100 kg, Tolcha 250 kg) to 5 farmers. Few farmers (22%) also reported that they have sold potato seed as ware because they need cash for family expense (75%). In Shashemene Wereda, farmers also kept part of their produce for seed. On the average, 3.7 qt of Genet and 7 qt of Netch Abeba were kept for seed as reported by 13 and 2 farmers, respectively. Fourteen farmers also gave an amount of 8.5 qt of Genet seed to an average of 3 farmers each.



Use of improved practice

Storage

In Welmera, almost all interviewed farmers (92%) in the first year of the study stored potatoes. They store for seed and to get higher price as reported by 85% and 23% of interviewed farmers, respectively. About 69% of interviewed farmers used the improved type of storage, Diffused Light Store (DLS). These farmers stored potatoes for 5-8 months. In the absence of storage technologies, for both seed and ware potatoes, farmers keep potatoes in the ground for longer period. This remarkably reduced tuber yield (Berga et al, 1994). Diffused light store technology as part of the improved potato production package was demonstrated to potential improved potato seed producers in the study area. O f the participant farms interviewed in the year 2000, about 52% constructed and used DLS while the rest 48% stored either in their homes or in some sort of a shade. The most important merits of DLS reported by adopters include: reduce tuber rotting (93%), help preserve seed for a longer period with out major quality loss (87%); sprouting of tubers improved (33%); reduce weight loss of tubers (13%); and do not require sacks (13%).

Seed rate

The seed rates used by farmers at Welmera, in the year 1998, were 12.64 q t/ ha for rain fed and 11.38 q t/ ha for irrigated potatoes. In the same area, average seed rate used in the year 1999 was 12.0 qt/ha if the seed size is small and 16.0 qt/ha if the seed size is medium. In Shashemene area, the average seed rate used by farmers was 16.20 qt per hectare with a range of 9.0 to 19.0 qt/ha. Seed tubers that produce many smaller tubers are good for seed production and the opposite holds true for ware potato production (Berga et al., 1994). The recommended potato seed rate ranges from 18 to 20 quintals per hectare depending on tuber size, the smaller the tuber size the lower the seed rate and vise versa. Both Participant and non-Participant farmers reported having used somewhat close to the recommended seed rate for the improved varieties and lower seed rates for the local variety, Roge (Table 5).

Planting time, spacing and harvesting time

In Welmera Wereda, the planting time for the Belg season is from October to January and for Meher Season from May to June. Farmers’ Meher planting time is in line with the recommendation of mid June for Holetta. As planting date delays, there was a gradual decline in yield of potato (Bekele et al., 2000). Virtually all farmers in the study area plant potato in rows. Distance between rows ranged from 35cm to 60cm, with an average of 48cm in Welmera. In Shashemene areas, distance between rows ranged 50 to 80 cm while distance within rows ranged 10 to 25. Closer intra row spacing of 10 or 20 cm in the rows of 75 cm apart would be advantageous for seed and larger seed tubers (45- 55cm) do better than the smaller ones (Berga et al., 1994). The harvesting time is from March to June for Belg season and from September to February for Mehere season



depending on the planting time. Potato should be harvested at 120 days after planting. If potatoes are kept in the ground for long period of time remarkable tuber yield reduction will result (Berga et al., 1994).

Table 5. Potato seed rate for participant and non-participant farmers' in Wolmera, 2000.

VarietyParticipant farmers Non-Participant farmers

Mean (qt/ha) Mean (qt/ha)Roge 13(14) 13.3 (88)Wechecha 17.3(17.3) 17.7 (27)Genet 22 (33) 15(67)Tolcha 15 (75) 20 (25)Menagesha 22.9(100)Other varieties 14(3) 16(4)

Source: Survey result; Figures in parentheses are percentages

Use of chemical fertilizer

All sample farmers reported using fertilizer for the production of potato in all the three years. In 1998, 77% of the interviewed farmers in Welmera Wereda used a combination of DAP and Urea while 23 % used only DAP. The rate of fertilizer applied by sample farmers is by far lower than the research recommendation. The mean rates used were 125 kg DAP and 84 urea per hectare. In Shashemene, all interviewed farmers applied DAP while only 74 % of farmers applied Urea. In the year 2000, sample farmers applied on average 108/96 kg/ha of DAP/Urea compared to the research recommendation of 165/195 kg/ha of DAP/Urea. All sample farmers unanimously reported high fertilizer cost and low potato prices as the two most important reasons for the use o f sub optimal rates of fertilizers for potato production.

Use of manure

In most cases, potato fields situated closer to homestead are relatively reach in organic matter compared to fields located far from the homestead as a result of earlier application o f manure and household wastes. About 46% and 28% of interviewed farmers used manure for potato production in the year 1998 and 1999, respectively. The method of applications was broadcasting before planting (40%) and broadcasting during-

Table 6. Amount of DAP and Urea applied by farmers in Welmera wereda, 1999.

Varieties DAP, kg/ha Urea, Kg/haAwash 123 128Genet 100 80Menagesha 88 47Roge 113 72Tolcha 160 80Wechecha 122 93

Source: Survey result

60 7*1 AESE Annual Conference Proceedings, 2003


hoeing (60%). The majority of the interviewed farmers did not use manure for potato production in the year 2000. Farmers in Shashemene Wereda reported that manure availability is limited in amount. Farmers realized that manure applied would not be available for planted potatoes in a form of nutrient in the same year. Cognizance of this, farmers apply some amount of fertilizer with manure. As a result, fertilizers support the crop for the first year. However, in consecutive two years farmers do not apply fertilizer on planted potatoes.

Late blight management practices

Late blight is the most important disease, which causes significant yield losses in potato production. This finding is in line with farmers appraisal at Galessa that late blight is the first major constraint in potato production followed by cut warm, mole rat, porcupine and red ant in descending order (Bekele et al., 2002). The impact of late blight on potato production depends on planting time, which in turn influenced by on-set, distribution and intensity of rainfall, temperature, and humidity. Farmers do not know the sources, causes and factors affecting late blight and believe that, fog and rain are the causes of the disease. Some farmers are using fungicide to control late blight (Bekele et al., 2002). Application of fungicides, use of resistant varieties and shifting planting date are the control methods to reduce late blight problem (Bekele et al., 2000). Fungicide use in the study area is a recent phenomenon mostly used on late-planted potato to control late blight. In 1998 and 2000, respectively, about 50% and 41% of the sample farmers in Welmera Wereda sprayed once or twice depending on the intensity o f the late blight pressure and chemical availability. In Shashemene, only 37% of interviewed farmers sprayed Ridomil MZ 63.5% WP. Ridomil MZ 63.5% WP is the most common fungicide known and currently in use for the control of late blight at the rate o f four cups dissolved in 16 liters o f water, which is equivalent to 1.3 liters dissolved in 64 liters of water. Recommended rate of Ridomil (MZ 63.5% WP) is 2 kg per hectare (Bekele et al., 2002).

Marketing of potato seed

Seed production as a business

O f the total improved potato varieties produced in the study area, on the average about 30% were sold as seed to neighbors, the Wereda Agricultural Development Office, N GO s and in the local market. Farmers involved in seed production reported that similar management practices were used for the production of ware potato except that potato seed was planted on the best part of the fields. Non-participant farmers indicated that they could not benefit from the improved varieties produced in the study area in the initial years when the improved varieties could give high yields as access is mainly based on kinship ties with participant farmers who received the improved varieties from the HARC. In subsequent years, however, the demand for the improved varieties produced in the area from recycled improved potato seeds decline as the productivity of the



varieties decline dramatically, i t was noted that the improved varieties degenerate rapidly most often within three years of introduction resuJring in poor productivity.

Advantages obtained from seed production

Farmers in Welmer Wereda reported that potato sold for seed purpose fetch better price than as ware. Participant farmers in Welmera area increased land allocated to potato production; however, it is in the expense o f Te/and Faba bean. This might be because of the intensive farm activity required for Tef and Faba bean. In addition, at times of data collection almost all grain crops had low marker value as compared with previous year's prices. Income obtained from potato seed production used to purchase additional oxen, construct new house and to pay over due losn. Similarly, potato producers in Shashemene witnessed advantages obtained from potato seed production as source of cash for family expenses (84%), means to construct new houses (31%) and enable purchase of cattle, horses and cart as reported by 26% of farmers.

Production and mareting constraints

Bekele et al ( ) reported late blight causes yield loss from 34 to 97 per cent on different cultivars. In 1998, farmers reported late blight, red ant and shortage of improved varieties as the major production problems in Welmera.

In 1999, problems farmers faced in growing improved potato seeds were varieties have started being affected by late blight mainly Menagesha (33%) and Awash (17%), red ant and yield decline, each, as reported by 17% o f farmers. In Welmera some farmers mention seed mixture as a problem. Therefore, farmers should be advised to handle no more than one variety per season. Production constraints in Shashemene area includes improved varieties planted in the Meher season did not grow due to rainfall shortage. Moreover, seed decay when kept long (53%), late sprouting of Genet (47%) and large tuber size (26%) which is not needed for seed. Farmers also reported that they were selling potato seed as ware (89%) because other farmers could not buy all what they produced (58%) and they need cash for family expense (47%) and tubers have bigger size which is not needed for seed (26%).

In 2000, unreliable rainfall both in terms of on-set and amount, and inadequate irrigation water were major constraint of potato production in the Belg season. While late blight and lack of resistant varieties hampered potato production in the main rainy season, Meher. The major marketing problem reported by farmers was low price of potatoes as rhe cost o f fertilizer getting higher and higher.

Conclusions and recommendations• Both participant and non-participant farmers in the two study areas reported lack of

improved seed tubers as a major problem. Besides, those farmers who have obtained the improved seeds were reluctant to give these seeds to their neighbor. To encourage seed exchange among farmers it is important to establish small peer

62 7,n AESE Annual Conference Proceedings. 2003


groups. The objective of establishing these groups is to give revolving seeds on credit basis for individual farmers. At maturity, the credit has to be returned in kind to other farmers in the peer group. The second member again provides clean seed for the third person till the seed degenerate. For sustainable seed production there should be replacement of clean tuber seeds at every four or five years and one farmer should not grow more than one variety per season.

• Most of the farmers' practices for improved technologies are sub optimal. The national potato research coordination in collaboration with regional bureau of agricultures have to direct any potato seed intervention to Welmera, Gincki, Jeldu, Shashemene and Shemena so that other potato producing areas can have an access to the improved practices from aforementioned areas. Moreover, strengthening the extension wing should not be overlooked to increase national average yield.

• Farmers’ demand for improved potato seed is very high. However, no single institute is involved in seed multiplication. To encourage clean seed provision to farmers, it is important to encourage private seed producers to get involved in potato seed industries. As an alternative, it is possible to guide and help smallholder farmers to specialize in seed production. Hence, to make potato seed production a viable business to smallholder farmers, disease free and high quality fresh stock seeds should be supplied regularly by an organization.

• Potato is subject to different viral, bacterial and fungal diseases; tubers may carry these pathogens. Farmers follow their indigenous knowledge to select clean seed and minimize pathogen movement but this is not enough to avoid the transmission. Hence, it is important to give training to potato seed growers and find a way to provide quarantine services.

• Currently, seed flows among potato growers follow informal channels. Government and non-governmental organizations should complement different interventions of informal potato seed system. Indeed, a good understanding of the traditional potato seed production and seed flows within a locality and across localities, Weredas and regions is a prerequisite if seed intervention programs have to be successful.

ReferenceBekele Kassa and Gebremedehn Woldegorgis. 2000. “Effect of planting dates on late blight

severity and tuber yields of different potato varieties.” Pest management Journal of Ethiopia. Vol. 4 (1&2): 51-63..

Bekele Kassa , Gebremedehn Woldegorgis Fasika Kelmewerk, Awel Mela, O.M Olanya,P.T, Ewell, R. El-Bedeury and O. Orteza. 2002. Integrated potato late blightmanagement: Experience of farmers field school (FFS) in Dendi District. pp56-67. In: Gemechu

Keneni, Yhannes Gojjam, Kiglu Bedane, Chilot Yirga and Asgelil Dibabe (eds). Proceeding of client- Oriented Research Evaluation Workshop, 16-18 October 2001, HARC, Holetta, Ethiopia.

Berga Lemaga, Gebremedehn Woldegorgis, Teriess Jaletta and Bereke-TscKai Tuku. 1994. Potato Agronomy Reseach. pp. 101-119■ In: Edward Herath and Lemma



Desalegne (eds). Proceedings of the second National Horticultural Workshop of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Gebremedehn Woldegorgis and Berga Lema. 1989. Effect of planting dates on yield Components and tuber yield of some potato (S. tuberosum L ) cultivars. Sebil. 2(l&2): 25.

December 1989, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.Gebremedehn Woldegorgis, Endale Gebre, Bekele Kassa and Atsede Solomon. On- Fami Evaluation of Potato Varieties in West and Northwest Shewa zones, pp. 230-239. In; Gemechu

Keneni, Yhannes Gojjam, Kiglu Bedane, Chilot Yirga and Asgelil Dibabe (eds). Proceedings of client-oriented Research Evaluation Workshop, 16-18 October 2001, H ARC, Holetta, Ethiopia.


Rural Poverty in Central Highland of Ethiopia: The Case of Bereh-Aleltu District

1Adane Nabso and 2Bezabih Emana

IntroductionRural poverty is a complex, interlocked and multi dimensional phenomenon which could be reflected in income and non-monetary factors such as, output, modes of production, attitudes, institutions, socio-economic relations, political, cultural and psychological aspects of welfare (Sen 1992; Tsui 1996; FAO 2001).

Despite the rich natural resource endowment and bio-diversity of the country, poverty is aggravating in the rural areas of Ethiopia and worsening from year to year. The GDP per capita by the year 1999 were US $100. Using US $1 per person per day as a poverty line, 31.3% of the total population of Ethiopia lives below the poverty line at the beginning of 1995 (Decron and Kirshan, 1996) while 76.4% of the population lives on less than US $2 per day (World Bank 2001). The country is also described by average life expectance o f 42 years, 75% of the population having no access to safe water, 54% without access to health services and 81% without good sanitation (UNDP 1998).

The factors o f poverty vary from place to place and from time to time. For instance, excessive poverty in Ethiopia is interlocked with the problem of severe land degradation due to deforestation and erosion (Muluneh, 2001; Dessalegn, 2001). Besides, the capacity of the nation to produce food for increasing population is low, causing low living standard, famine and poverty (Muluneh, 2001). Overpopulation, political and economic forces that relate to the peasant agriculture exerted enormous pressure on the agro ecosystem making even life-sustenance hard for the desperate poor (Ayalneh, 2002).

Various literatures reported that poverty is caused due to limited access to high-paid employment opportunities (Parkin et al., 1997 and Muluneh, 2001), lack of assets, demographic factors (e.g. age, sex, family size and education); low income, health status of the working family members; low factor markets, etc. (FAO 2001).

With this background, the purpose of this paper was to examine the extent of rural poverty at household level and to find out the socio-economic characteristics of poor and non-poor farm households in Bereh-Aleltu district.

1 Jimma University, email: [email protected] Oromia Agricultural Research Institute, Tel. +251-2-115382, email: [email protected]




Methodology

Sampling and Data Collection

The research was conducted in Bereh-Aleltu district, North Shoa zone of Oromia National Regional State, in central highland of Ethiopia. It is located about 80 kilometres from Addis Ababa between 8°55'-10°23' North and 37o01''38°55' with an altitude ranging from 1000 to 3500 meters above sea level. Information from the district office shows that the average temperature ranges from 7.9°C to 20.3°C whereas the average annual rainfall is 975 mm.

The data used in this paper were collected from randomly selected 120 farm households in three peasant associations of the district during August and September 2002. Based on the proportion of households in the respective peasant associations, 24, 44 and 52 households were selected from Bura Didibe Kike, Bido Tereko and Tebo peasant associations respectively, accounting for 20%, 37% and 43% of the total sample size.

Structured questionnaire was prepared and pre-tested to collect data on household demographic characteristics, land use system, crop-livestock enterprises, major agricultural constraints, consumption, expenditure, income, public infrastructures and household survival strategies. Nine experienced enumerators who have a minimum of diploma were recruited and trained to conduct the interview under strict supervision of the researcher.

Data Analysis

The most commonly used indicator that distinguishes the poor and non-poor households is the poverty line. Here, a person is considered as poor if the per capita income or consumption level falls below pre-determined minimum level necessary to meet daily basic needs. There are three commonly used indices to measure poverty. These are the head count index, the poverty gap index, and the severity index or Foster-Geer- Thorbeke index. The head count index is defined as the proportion of the population whose measured standard of living is less than the poverty line. However, the index does not capture the difference among the poor. The poverty gap index shows the intensity of poverty, which is the deference between the poverty line and the mean income of the poor expressed as a percentage of the poverty line. The severity index measures the mean of the individual poverty gaps raised to the power of a (i.e. poverty aversion parameter) reflecting society's valuation of different degrees of poverty. In this study, the Foster, Green and Thorbecke (1984) class of poverty measure was employed. This poverty measure is expressed as follows:

Z



Where, p = poverty indices, a = poverty aversion parameter and this parameter

commonly assume a value of 0, 1 and 2 implying head count index, poverty gap index and poverty severity index respectively. N is the total population sampled for the study whereas q indicates the total number of household falling below poverty line. Z shows the poverty line implying food caloric intake just sufficient to meet a pre determined food energy daily requirement that is 2100 cal/day/adult equivalent. Alternatively, per capita expenditure is used as the best proxy of household income. In this study, a national average per capita consumption expenditure of 497 Birr/adult equivalent/year that was established by Central Statistical Authority (1997) has been used as a benchmark. Subsequently, the poor and non-poor households were compared and characterised descriptively using mean comparison and independent t-test.

A logit model is used to measure the effect o f socio-economic variables such as sex and age of the household head, dependency ratio, family size, productivity, use of agricultural technologies, livestock holding and involvement in non-farm activities on poorness.

Results

Extent o f Poverty

Among the three most commonly used measures of poverty, namely the head count index, the poverty gap index, and the severity index or Foster-Geer-Thorbeke index, the latter is said to adequately measure the degree of poverty. The head count index shows the proportion of the population whose measured standard of living falls below the poverty line. The poverty gap index shows the intensity o f poverty, which is the diference between the poverty line and the mean income of the poor expressed as a percentage of the poverty line. The severity index measures the mean of the individual poverty gaps raised to the power reflecting society's valuation of different degrees of poverty. In this study, Equation (I) was used to estimate the level of poverty at a household level in the study area.

The expenditure approach of poverty head count index (O' = 0 ) clearly indicated that 80% of the sample households live below poverty line. However, this index doesn't show the depth o f poverty below poverty line. Thus, the second index of poverty measure ( a = 1) was computed resulting in 31%, which implies that the poverty deficit weighted by the head count index. It indicates the average shortfall of minimum living standard below the benchmark i.e. the intensity of poverty in the study area. The sensitivity to inequality at ( a = 2 ) was also high (i.e. 12%). The mean expenditures for the poor and non-poor groups of households were about 304 and 665 Birr per adult equivalent respectively. The mean expenditure is significantly different between the two groups at less than 0.01 probability level. At the same probability level, there is a significant difference between average caloric intake of the poor and non-poor households, which amount to 1347 and 2967 calories per adult equivalent per day for the respective groups.



Characteristics of the Poor and Non-poor Households

Fam ily com positions

There are two controversial views on the relationship between family size and the welfare of the household. The first argument states that households who have larger family size are supposed to be better off than those having smaller family size, since there are advantages in consumption economies of scale and availability o f more working labour forces to generate income. In contrast to this there is another convincing argument that as family size increases the probability that a household fall in poverty would increase by creating more labour forces leading to disguised unemployment due to scarcity o f capital and also due to increased dependency ratio. The finding of the study has supported the latter idea in that 27% of the poor and 14% of the non-poor households had an adult equivalent of 7 and above. Besides, the mean family size were about 5 and 4 adult equivalent for the respective groups which is statistically significant at 0.05 level of probability (Table 1).

The poor household had large proportion of dependent children, whereby 28% of the household have at least 5 children of less than 14 years, while only 8.6% of the non-poor have the same size of children. There was a remarkable difference observed between the two groups with regard to children o f less than 14 years having a mean of 3.2 and 2.4 respectively, and significant at less than 0.05 level of probability. Alike, children dependency ratios for the poor and non-poor households were 0.33 and 0.18 respectively.

The aggregated family size does not give full picture o f the impact on the welfare since it is rather the labour force rather than mere family size that contributes to income generation. Accordingly, the result affirmed that the average family size falling in the active age group ranging from 14 to 64 years was 3 for the poor and 2.5 for the non-poor group though there is no remarkable difference between them. Moreover, 26% of the poor and 23% of the non-poor have at least 4 persons in working age group.

The age structure of the household head is another area that should get due consideration since it has an important implication on economic productivity, experience and asset endowment. The mean age of household age was 43 years for the poor group and that of non-poor group was 45 years. Probably, as the farmers get older they can acquire farming experience through their life and can accumulate assets that could have a positive contribution in raising their living standards. About 8% and 17% of the poor and non-poor group of the household heads are o f 65 to 77 years old respectively.

A lot o f study indicated that the household head is highly influential decision maker in the Ethiopian family. This clearly implies that his/her education level does matter for the welfare of the family. Astonishingly, the result showed that the education level attended by the household head was very low. Tangibly, 65% of the total sampled households were illiterate, and about 83.3% was either illiterate or could only read and

68 7U' AESE Annual Conference Proceedings, 2003


write without formal schooling. Though the non-poor group was in a better position having an average grade of 1.29 than that o f the poor which was 1.02, statistically there is no significant difference between them. Only 7% of the poor household heads attended 7 to 12 grades while the proportion of the non-poor in the same grade was about 9%.

Land resourceThe land use pattern in the study area was categorized into four major groups, namely cultivated, fallow grazing or forest, and wasteland. The mean land size allotted to crop cultivation by the poor and non-poor groups is the same in size, which was 1.5 hectare per household. Cereals such as wheat, wild oats, and barely are the major crops grown in the study area with a mean productivity of 3.49 quintals per hectare for the poor and 5.57 quintals per hectare for the non-poor households (Table 1). The difference in productivity was significant; at 0.01 probability level.

Moreover, the poor households have less opportunity in using productivity increasing inputs such as fertilizer, pesticides and herbicides compared to the non-poor households. For instance, the later have an average of 4.2 years experience in using either of the mentioned inputs continuously for the past five years while the poor households have used only for 2.84 years. Statistically there is significant difference between them at 0.1 probability level. The increase in productivity and categorization of the households were found to be related to the extension visit by development agents.

Livestock holdingLivestock rearing in the study area is a very important source of food, traction power, and income to finance household expenses including school fees. Livestock also serve as source of collateral, social prestige and manure. Generally, the livestock reared by the households include cattle, sheep, donkey, horses and poultry in descending order of importance for the whole sampled households. The mean livestock endowment for the whole sampled household in Tropical Livestock Unit (TLU) per Adult Equivalent (AE) was one whereas that of the poor and non-poor group was 0.88 and 1.3 TLU /A E respectively which is significantly different at 0.01 level (Table 1).

Oxen are the main traction power but unevenly distributed between the two groups i.e. 35% of the poor households owned no ox whereas 15% of them own only one ox. The proportion of non-poor households who have no ox is 28.6% whereas 15% of them own only one ox.

Besides the income from crop and livestock production, household income is also affected by the level of off-farm income. The poor group of households earned smaller off-farm income than the non-poor group and the difference is significant at 10% probability level.



Summary of Key Variables Affecting Poverty

Table 1 summarizes the variables used to characterize the poor and non-poor households. These include age, sex and education o f the household head, family size, dependency ratio as represented by proportion of children and old to adult members of the household, livestock size reared by a household, non-farm income, land productivity and number of years modern technologies are used by a household and extension visit by development agents.

Table 1. Mean values of variables affecting poverty

Poor group Non-poor T-valueVariables (N-85) group (N=35)Age of the head of household 43.31 45.09 0.64Education of the head 1.02 1.29 0.49Completion of primary education (dummy), % completed 7.1 8.6 X2 = 0.08

Sex of head of the household92.9 85.7(dummy), % of male X 2 - 1.55

Dependency ratio 0.33 0.27 -1.65Family size (AE) 4.91 4.03 -2.23**Livestock (TLU/AE)3 0.87 1.3 2.62*No. of years technologies are used 2.84 4.2 1.87***Productivity (kg/ha) 3.49 5.57 4.37*Off-farm income (Birr) 117 196 1.65***Extension visit (dummy), % with yes 55.3 48.6 X2 = 0.45

*, ** and *** implies mean values are different at 1%, 5% and 10% level respectively.

Source: Own survey

These variables are used to identify the determinants o f probability of being poor by using logistic model. The dependent variable is a dichotomous variable, which takes a value o f 1 if the household falls in the poor group and 0 otherwise. The maximum likelihood estimate o f the model shows that family size has a positive association with the probability of being poor implying that reduced family size reduces the chance of getting poorer since the per capita income declines with increased family size. On the other hand, productivity of crop production, experience in using modern technologies, income generating off-farm activities, livestock ownership and completion of primary education have significant and negative influence on the probability of being poor. Hence, an increase in the magnitude of these variables would reduce the probability that the household falls below poverty line (Table 2).

TLU was computed using the following conversion factors: calf=0.25, heifer=0.75, cow and ox=1.0, donkey=0.7, sheep and goat=0.13, chicken 0.013 (Storck, et al., 1991)



Table 2. Maximum likelihood estimates of the logistic model

Variable Parameter Odds ratio Wald statisticsConstant 8.482 6.318Age -0.013 0.987 0.418Education -0.332 0.718 1.547Dependency ratio 0.189 1.209 0.10Family size 0.352 1.422 3.607**Land productivity -0.428 0.652 11.827*Years modern technology is used -0.123 0.884 2.882***Non-farm income -0.003 0.997 2.933***Livestock size -0.702 0.497 4.727**Sex of the household head -0.506 0.603 0.382Completion of primary education -4.757 0.009 2.933***Extension visit -0.726 0.484 1.555Log likelihood 104.22y} value 40.65*Correct prediction, % 80

*, * * and * * * implies mean values are different at 1 %, 5% and 10% level respectively Source: Own survey

Survival Strategies

The livelihood of the households depends on crop production and animal rearing. The most dominant crops produced in the study district are wheat followed by lentils, teff, wild oat, haricot beans and barley in order of importance. The livestock reared are cattle, sheep, goats, horse, mules, donkey and poultry.

The sample households have been practicing adaptive strategies against the effect of persistently deteriorating poverty. The respondents perceive that poverty is not some sort of transitory phenomena rather it is a natural phenomenon occurring time and again. As they reported, the misery life that they have been leading due to overwhelmed poverty that parallel with natural calamities, such as drought, frost, land infertility, water logging, lack of working capital, lack of oxen power, land shortage, insufficiency of feeds, etc.

To cope with the aforementioned problems, the households involve in non-farm income generating activities mainly hiring out family labour, temporary migration, having an employment opportunity as guards, selling of fire woods especially the leaves of eucalyptus, trading of live animals and little support from relatives and food aid. During the survey year, the poor group earned an annual average of 117 birr per household while the non-poor earned about 196 birr per household from the non-farm activities which is not statistically different from that of the poor group.

The first step taken by both the poor and non-poor group, with different degree, against poverty was self- physiological deprivation by reducing the amount or frequencies of meal consumption per day. Accordingly, about 72% of the total sample households used

71” AESE Annual Conference Proceedings, 2003 71


this measure. Secondly, they also seek for non-farm income/ by hiring out the family labour to earn some daily wage or engage in the collection and sale of eucalyptus leaves. When the income earned this way is not enough or could not earn at all, they decide to sell their livestock, which would lead to depletion of livestock asset, further aggravating poverty. Those households who do not have livestock or have a few of them borrow money from neighbours/relatives or get food aid through relief program (e.g. 21% of the poor and 14% of the non-poor group used this option during the survey period). Finally, when situations are out o f hand, they leave their environment and temporally migrate. Despite the categorization of the surveyed households into poor and non-poor using the parameter used in this study, 7% of poor and 5.8% of non-poor group indicated that they adopt the migration option when they cannot find other options o f mitigating poverty.

ConclusionsDespite the complexities of poverty, attempts have been made to distinguish the poor and the non-poor households, in relative terms. According the survey result, the poor households are characterized, by high family size, high dependency ratio in the family, aged household head, low education level, limited experiences in using agricultural productivity increasing inputs and having few number o f livestock.

With respect to policy to combat poverty, Glewwe and Van der Gaag (1988) identified three policy thrusts. They are (a) direct transfer; (b) increased relative prices or wage rates to raise incomes; and (c) policies to change income earning capacities and opportunities, such as education and training, new agricultural techniques, credit access, etc. Clearly, the first two would be of immediate effect, but would be only short term. The third has long-term effects that take time to show results, but the effects are long lasting.

The result-based recommendations to tackle the observed problems of poverty in the study area include the following:

Employment opportunity

Human capacity building through education is an important input in raising the well being o f the rural households and ultimately reduce poverty since it help to create high paying job opportunities, help proper allocation of resources and their management, etc.

Increased use of modem agricultural inputs

Farmers training on the advantages o f using improved technologies, facilitation of farmers access to micro finance services to alleviate capital shortage, making appropriate technologies available would be some of the policy measures to enhance productivity and reduce poverty.



Livestock development

Since livestock ownership has direct relationship with the level of poverty, there shouldbe apparent livestock development policies and management in the area. Research basedlivestock development intervention is recommended.

ReferencesAyalneh Bogale.2002. Land Degradation, Impoverishment and Livelihood Strategies of Rural

Households in Ethiopia. Farmers' Perceptions and Policy Implication. Institutional Change in Agricultural and Natural resources, Vol. 8. Aachen:Shaker Verlag.

Central Statistical Authority .1997. Report on the 1995/95 Household Income, Consumption and Expenditure Survey, Vol. I, Statistical Bulletin 170, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Dercon, S and P.Krishinan.1998. Changes in Poverty in rural Ethiopia 1989-1995: measurement, robustness tests and decomposition center for the study of African Economics, oxford University and Katholieke Unversiteit Leuven.

Dessalegn Rahmato.2001. The Landscape of development: A complex reality. In: Food Security through Sustainable Land Use: Population, Environment and Rural Development Issues for Sustainable Livelihood in Ethiopia. Taye Assefa (ed).pp.7-1 7. Proceedings of 2nd national workshop. Addis Ababa: NOVIB Partner Forum.

FA0.2001. Food, Agricultural and rural Development .Current and Emerging Issues for Economic Analysis and Policy Research, Economic and Social Department,(ed.) Stamoulis, K.G. FAO: Rome

Glewwe, P. and J.Van der Gaag.1988. "Confronting poverty in developing countries: Definitions, information, and policies," living Standards Measurement Study, Working Paper No.48, Washington DC:The World Bank.

Muluneh Woldetsadik.2001. Impact of Population Pressure on land Resources as Reflected in Land-use/Land-Change in Ethiopia: Lessons Learned from West Gurageland. Jn: Food Security through Sustainable Land Use: Population, Environment and Rural Development Issues for Sustainable Livelihood in Ethiopia. Taye Assefa (ed.).pp.43-88. Proceedings of 2nd national workshop

Parkin, M.; M. Powell and K. Matthews. 1997. Economics, 3rd ed. Addison Wesley Longman Limited, England.

Sen, A 1992. Inequality Re-examined. Oxford:Claredon press.SStorck, H. Bezabih Emana, Berhanu Adenew, A. Borowiecki, Shimelis W/Hawariate. 1991.

Farming Systems and Farm Management Practices of Smallholders in the Hararghe Highlands. Farming Systems and Resource Economics in the Tropics, Vol. 11, Wissenschaftsverlag Vauk Kiel, GernMny.

Tsui, K.1996. Growth-Equity Decomposition of change in poverty; An Axiomatic Approach. Economic Letters, Vol.50, No.3.

UNDP.1998. Human Development Report, New YorhOxford University Press.World Bank 2001. World Development Report 1999/2000: Entering the 21st century. World

Bank: Oxford University Press.

7tt' AESE Annual Conference Proceedings, 2003 73

The Nature and Development of Local Agreements to Get Access to Farmland: The Case of Wonqa kebele, East Gojjam

1Getachew Senishaw

Introduction

Besides the institutionalized means o f getting access to farm land through land distribution, inheritance and gift, local transaction agreem ents are other m eans to get access to farm land. It is a very im portant breathing space for the landless and land-short households. The availability o f the two factors o f production (labour and capital) are very im portant condition to get access to farm land through local agreem ents. The role and the value o f these factors o f production vary from time to tim e along with the varying value o f land across tim e. An attem pt has been m ade in this paper to show the nature and developm ent o f local land transaction agreem ents in the study area, since the 1975 Land Reform .

The Study Area and Methodology

W onqa Kebele is one o f the forty kebeles o f G ozam in W oreda, which is located in the central parts o f the Woreda, East G ojjam Zone, under the A m ahara Region. T he altitude o f the study area ranged from 2,300 - 2 ,600 meters A SL . A ccording to the Kebele statistics, there were 2,929 males and 2,313 fem ales out o f the total population o f 5 ,242 under 1087 households in W onqa Adm inistrative Kebele in 2002. T he econom y o f the study area is predom inantly plough-based labour intensive agriculture. Livestock rearing has a secondary im portance in the econom y o f the study area. The average oxen holding is 1.08 oxen per household and 58% o f the households have no oxen to plough their plots. Average plot size is 1.2 hectare per household. However, 6 .6% o f the households are landless. Besides, 57% o f the households have lass than 1 hectare o f land.

D ifferent m ethods were employed to collect valuable data for this paper. Survey was conducted in 2002; in-depth interview and focus group discussions were held with various categories o f household heads. Life histories o f selected household heads were studied to understand the different strategies, which household heads used to maximize their farm land holdings.

1 Cultural Heritage

Getachew Senishaw

local agreement (Hoben, 1973). In the study area, handicraft workers who were not descended from Jirremin, the wanna abac o f Wonqa people, did not have access to rist land even for a homestead. However, they could get access to homestead land through the agreement with a land rich balabat as a reward for their service to make cloth, iron or pottery that was used for the consumption of land rich's household. Other peasants had to pay either in cash or in kind for their service. Besides, they could conclude sharecropping agreements with land rich peasants to produce for subsistence.

The ‘land rich’ peasants, who gave their land to the sharecroppers, were usually those who held more land, female, aged, ill and unfortunate household heads. Therefore, those household heads who needed farmland could obtain it easily through local agreements, which was locally known as timado (lit. paired or engagement). In North Shewa it is called megazo (Ege, 1994; Teferi, 1994; Yared, 1999). The agreement was usually verbal in Wonqa. Thus, the two major types of sharecropping agreements, before 1975, were erbo and siso.

1. Erbo (one-fourth): This meant the value o f the land is one-fourth of its produce. If the ‘land rich’ peasant said, "I gave my land to erbo arash," it meant that he gave his land to a farmer who agreed to pay one-fourth of the produce o f the land as a value of the land. The remaining three-fourths of the produce could be the value o f labour and capital (oxen and seed) of the sharecropper.

2. Siso (one-third): This means the ‘land rich’ could get one-third o f the produce o f the land as a value o f the land and oxen since oxen are provided by the 'land rich'. On the other hand, the cetemag (sharecropper) could get two-thirds of the produce as a value of his labour. In this case, usually, the 'land rich1 contributes land and capital especially oxen and sometime seed, depending on the agreements. The sharecropper could only get access to farmland through his labour. Usually local agreements were siso since most of the ‘land rich’ could afford to provide capital; only a few unfortunate ‘land rich’ could not afford capital. On the other hand, only few sharecroppers those who had enough wealth could afford to provide capital.

Most of the informants indicated that land was not scarce during the period of Haile Selassie I, rather labour was the constraint, due to low population density. Thus, the value of labour was two-thirds of the produce of the land in sharecrop agreements. Therefore, there was no problem to the sharecroppers to get access to farmland through local agreements. On the contrary, it was somewhat hard for the 'land rich' to get strong sharecropper. Thus, some plots were left fallow for a year or two.

Local Agreements during the Derg PeriodProclamation No. 31/1975 gave good opportunity to the sharecroppers. According to Art. 22.1 of the proclamation “Landless tenants in Rist...areas should have possessor right over the land they till..." Besides, Art. 6.4 stated that, “The tenants shall have the right to retain agricultural implements and a pair o f oxen belonging to the land owners


Getachew Senishaw a

for which a reasonable compensation shall be paid to the land owner with a period not exceeding three years...” (Proclamation No. 31/1975).

The tenants in Wonqa were very happy because they got access to land as well as capital. As stated above, in most cases the 'land rich' also provided capital (oxen) for sharecroppers. Thus, some sharecroppers agreed with the efforts o f elders to return half o f the oxen and to pay the price of the other half within three years. According to my informants, some sharecroppers refused to give the share of the land rich from lately harvested products of that year. However, most sharecroppers gave the agreed amount of produce.

This condition had a velatively negative impact on local agreements in two ways: First, former sharecroppers had land due to the implementation of the 1975 Land Reform. Second, the proclamation forbade land transactions except for few. Only female-headed, ill and aged household heads were allowed officially to conclude sharecrop agreements. Therefore, everybody was afraid of loss of land. Thus, considerable pieces of land were left fallow for a year or two. Then, as in the case of North Shewa (Yared, 1999), local agreements started to be concluded underground with close kinsman.

The first development in the Derg period was that access to sharecropped land was possible only through capital (oxen). When land was distributed, some household heads had enough plots. They had labour too; however, they faced serious capital constraint. In addition, they were afraid to give their land for sharecroppers. Therefore, those who had capital could get access to farmland through sharecropping. In this case, those who contributed capital did not only provide oxen but also it included the costs o f fertilizer, seed and feasts at the field, if necessary. The final products of the land, which were ploughed with oxen of the rich peasant, were usually divided four to five (four-ninths of the produce to those who contributed capital and the remaining five-ninths for the contributor of land and labour). Those members o f the producers' cooperative, who had more than a pair of oxen, were engaged in such kinds of agreement. The pre-1975 tenants, who did not get access to capital, got nothing except becoming taxpayers through the land distribution. Because they could earn 2/3 (66.66%) of the produce as a value of their labour before the reform. But after the land reform, they got 5 /9 (55.55%) of the produce as a value of their labour and land. Moreover, those peasants who were allowed to give their land to sharecroppers could get only one-fourth of the produce as the value of the land.

At the end of the Derg regime, especially after the proclamation of the mixed economy in March 1990, not only officially allowed household heads but also those who faced labour and capital limitations began to give their plots officially to sharecroppers. The value of land varies from siso (one-third) to hulet le-sosit (two- fifths) of the produce of the land depending on the fertility of the plot. Still most people preferred to conclude the agreement with their kinsmen. Especially elders wanted to give their land to the newly


Getachew Senishaw

married sons or grandsons, because at the end of the Derg period the kebele committee was not able to allot land to the newly established households due to land scarcity.

Local Agreements in Post- 1991In addition to the above stated sources, the lands of those who live outside the kebele are also becoming a source o f land for local agreements under the EPRDF, because the government allowed non-residents o f the kebele to possess farmland. Since 1991, landless, land-short, and wealthy household heads have been engaged in local agreements to get access to farmland. Land transactions are possible under the EPRDF government, through different local agreements like sharecropping, land rent and informal land sale.

Sharecropping Agreements

In the mid 1990s, land became scarce even compared to the second half of 1980s and early 1990s because the numbers of newly established households kept growing. In addition, the 1997 reallocation also increased sharecroppers. The socalled "bureaucrats" (those who worked in any committee during the Derg period) and "kiret feudals" (those who worked as atibya dagna, chika shum and nech lebash during the period of Haile Sellassie I) have lost more than half o f their holdings and were limited to one hectare, though most of them have a larger household size (labour) and enough capital! Therefore, to feed their household members, most o f them have engaged in sharecropping agreements to compensate for their loss through labour and capital. Due to increasing demand of land, the value of sharecropped land increased relatively from one-fourth and one-third to one-third and two-thirds and even half of the produce of the land based on its fertility.

The fertility of the land determines the value of the land when two parties are concluding sharecrop agreements. If the land is fertile, the cost o f fertilizer will be low and the productivity per hectare is high. On the other hand, if the fertility o f the land is low, it needs a high cost of fertilizer and labour to produce more, thus the value o f such kinds of land is relatively low because most o f the sharecroppers are contributing labour as well as capital since early 1990s. Having this in mind, there are different types of sharecropping agreements in Wonqa based on the value o f land. The major ones are:

1 Ye-ekul (fifty-fifty or half each): In this kind of agreement, the value o f land is half of its produce. For instance, tvihageb (water accessed or irrigated) land could cost half of its produce, due to its fertility. That means the cost o f fertilizer is minimum or nil and the productivity of the land is high. In addition, the agreement is either annual or seasonal because one can produce on such kinds of land twice a year, by using irrigation water. Likewise, ambazur (land around the homestead) land, on which cattle's dung manure is used to keep the fertility of land, is the other type valued at half of its produce.

78 7*1 AESE Annual Conference Proceedings. 2003

Getachew Senishaw a

2 Hulet le-sosit (two to three): In such an agreement, the value of the land is two- fifths o f its produce. In this case, the fertility o f the land is medium. Such land need more fertilizer and labour cost compared to the above stated categories of land.Therefore, the value o f the land is two-fifths of its produce. The remaining three- fifths is for the value o f labour and capital.

3 Siso (one-third): This means, the value o f the land is one-third of its produce. This is the category of less fertile land, which needs more fertilizer and labour compare to the above stated caterers of land. And yet, its productivity is relatively low per hectare. Therefore, the value of the land is relatively low, which is one-third of its produce.

4 Erbo (one-fourth): In this case, the value o f the land is one-fourth of its produce.Very few less fertile lands, which are affected by insects, are categorized under this agreement, because it needs insecticide, which means additional cost. Therefore, the value of such land comes down up to one-fourth of its produce.

However, the share of the ‘land rich’ may increase if he/she contributes capital. For instance, if they share the price of fertilizer based on their agreement, the share of the 'land rich' could increase from one-third to two-fifths or from two-fifths to half, depending on the agreement. But basically the value of the land depends on its fertility.

Besides the higher value of land, scarcity makes the competition very high to obtain farmland through sharecropping agreements. Thus, priority tends to be given for those sharecroppers who have Strong labour and capital. The 'land rich' refer to this kind of sharecropper that who benefits himself and me. The ‘land rich’ argue that if the sharecropper is a hard worloen has enough capital to use an appropriate amount of fertilizer (some used less amount due to shortage of capital) and strong oxen, the productivity of the land will be higher unless there is a natural disaster. For instance, if someone that is weak in terms of labour and capital needs to give half of the produce of the land to the 'land rich', on the other hand, if one stronger sharecropper in terms of labour and capital needs to give two-fifths of the produce, most ‘land rich’ prefer to conclude an agreement with the stronger one. Because they argued that, the final two- fifths product of the stronger sharecropper could be higher than the half product of the weak sharecropper per unit of land. Thus, the combination of strong arm and capital get priority to conclude sharecropping agreements.

The second priority for the land rich to conclude local agreements is with kinsmen. If a kinsman has strong capital and labour, no doubt he could get top priority. If. the kinsman lacks one of the two or is an average in both cases, and if the 'land rich' could not get strong sharecropper, he prefers to give the contract to his kinsman rather than others get the benefit. Sometimes this has a negative effect on the ‘land rich’, especially, as grandsons do not give the agreed amount of share to grandparents, due to their close relation. Generally, the second preference of the 'land rich' to conclude share agreements is with kinsman.


Getachew Senishaw

Social networks and good behaviour, especially honesty, to give the agreed amount and to plough the sharecropped land on time, side by side with his plot, are taken into consideration during the selection of sharecroppers. Because most o f the sharecroppers give priority for their fields, if they have.any, they give the sharecropped land secondary attention.

Nowadays, it is hard to get access to farmland only through labour. Even if they get a sharecropping agreement, the value of labour is usually one-fifth or one-sixth o f the produce of the land depending on the strength of the person as well as the agreement. The remaining four-fifths or five-sixths o f the produce could be the share of the land and the capital. Therefore, some of the newly established household heads have to go to other areas for money to buy oxen by which they hope to improve their access to farmland through local agreements.

Some of those household heads who lack land and capital are also forced to dissolve the household temporarily by sending the wife to her parents' house and the husband has to work for rich peasants on an annual contract basis. The contract is usually from February to February (for a year) at the cost of 250 to 300 Bin depending on the employee's strength. In addition, he has to feed himself and reside at the house o f his employer.

Those newly established household heads, whose father have enough capital, could use their father to conclude local agreements on behalf of them. In this case, the father could give the land and capital to his son, under strict supervision, and then pay the agreed amount to the 'land rich'. In some cases, the father concludes the agreement and provides the capital (oxen and the price o f fertilizer and selected seeds). The son contributes labour. Finally, after they have paid the value o f the land, which is one-third, the remaining two-thirds will be divided equally, one-third each, between the father and the son as a value o f capital and labour respectively. In this case, the value of labour became one-third of the produce, which is very high compared to the market value of labour, which is one-fifth o£ the produce. However, this is a common way in which parents' assist their children's newly established households.

After the selection of the sharecropper, the agreement will be concluded usually in writing. Both sides can select thtee elders who witness the agreement. In this agreement, issues like who covers the cost o f fertilizer and seed, the amount o f share for both parties, and the period of the agreement, which is usually one year, should be stated and ratified by the signatories, and witnesses. Usually the amount o f money to be paid as penalty will be stated if one of them abrogates the agreement before the stated period of time. If they need to renew the agreement for the next year, they call it malemlem (lit. become green), it could be done verbally without the involvement of witnesses. Unlike Wonqa, in some parts o f the zone, like Bechena, the sharecroppers have to pay 20 to 100 Birr to renew the agreement. On the other hand, if the 'land rich' person is dissatisfied with the sharecropper or needs to replace him with another


Getachew Senishaw a

sharecropper, he/she has the right not to renew the agreement. Though it is rare, ther^ are conditions in which a sharecropper does not ne^d to continue the agreement for extra years in cases when he has lost his oxen or if he gets another plot better than the former.

In general, before the 1975 Land Reform, the value of thfc land was 1/4 (25%) of the produce and the value of labour was 2/3 (66.67%) of the produce. Therefore, the value o f capital was 8.33%. Then in the Derg period when sharecropping agreements were officially fprbidden, the value of capital became 4 /9 (44.55%) of the produce. The value of land was 1/4 (25%) of the produce. Thus, the value of labour should be 30.45% of the total produce. In 2002, the value of medium land is 2/5 (40%) of its produce. The value of labour is 1/5 (20%) of the produce of the land. Therefore, the value of capital is 40% of the produce of the land. This data could be drawn in the following table:

Table 1: The Share of the Three Factors of Production during the Three Periods

Factors of ProductionPercent in Periods

Pre-1975 Derg EPRDFLand 25 25 40Labour 66.7 30.6 ?oCapital 8.3 44.4 40Total 100 100 100

This data shows that the value of land increased from 25% to 40%. The value of capital increased even more from 8.33% to 40%. On the contrary, the value of labour declined from 66.67% to 20%.

Land Rent

Though it is not common, land rent also exists as one means to get access to farmland through capital in terms of money. This kind of local agreement preferred by those household heads who live outside the kebele and those who need the money before the harvest, because the money will be paid on the spot, when the agreement is concluded. Those who had nothing to live on during the rainy season are also forced to rent their land. However, most of the 'land rich' argued that, the price of the land in rent agreement is extremely low; thus, they prefer sharecrop agreements. Sharecroppers also argued that the payment for rented land could be a total loss if there is crop failure. Thus, the price of land rent has to consider such kinds of risks.

Land rent started in the last six years. At the time, a timad (0.25 hectare) o f land was rented for 70 Birr per year. Then after two years, it became 90 Birr, and then 100 to 125 Birr per year. By 2002, fertile land couH cost up to 200 Birr per timad for a year, and the medium land is 150 Birr per timad for a period of one year. This shows that the price is continually increasing. In Wogda North Shewa, a timad of land could be mortgaged from 50 to 200 Birr depending on the productivity of the land (Yared, 1999).

7W AESE Annual Conference Proceedings, 2003 81

Getachew Senishaw

Besides individual farmers, the KA also started to rent the land of the diseased and those who left the area (gemote keda) in the last three years, a timad o f land for 40 Birr per year, to the newly established households. However, it did not last long because the children of the deceased persons appealed to the regional state based on proclamation No. 49/2000 of the regional state, which allows inheritance. Though land rent is rare compared to sharecropping, and the price o f rented land has continuously increased in

N Wonqa.

Informal Land Sale

'Land sale' started in the kebele especially at Deber got two years ago, though it is limited to homesteads especially water-accessed homesteads. The price o f land varies from 800 - 4,000 Birr depending on the size of plot and its accessibility to irrigated water. For instance, one female household head sold her 0.10 hectare homestead land at the price of 4,000 Birr. Others have sold half o f the above size for 800 Birr. A chairman of the kebele also bought a small piece of homestead land at the cost of 900 Birr. Informal land sale is conducted under the cover o f house selling and still limited to homesteads because, from experience, homestead land is relatively secure compared to farmland. In general, the informal land sale is a recent phenomenon in Wonqa.

Conclusion IThough it varies from place to place, local agreements are used as a means o f access to farmland for those who have insufficient or no plot for household livelihood during the last quarter of a century. During the periods o f Haile Selassie 1 and the Derg, the value of land was uniform; however since the early 1990s the value of land has been dependent on its fertility or whether it needs more capital and labour or not, because almost all peasants started to use fertilizer in the late 1980s. Similar cases aTe observed in North Shewa, in the late 1980s and the early 1990s in which the value of land was determined by its fertility (Ege, 1994; Teferi, 1994; Yared, 1999; 2002). Moreover, the value o f land has became high compared with the period of Haile Selassie 1. During the Imperial era, the value of land was one-fourth of its produce, while in 2002, its value varied from one- fourth to half of its produce depending on its fertility.

Furthermore, during the Imperial period, those who had labour and needed to conclude sharecropping agreements in Wonqa were able to get access to sharecropped land. Then in the Derg period, like the case in North Shewa (Yared, 1999), kinship got priority. However, since 1991 a person who could produce more (who has strong capital and labour) gets priority.

In general, sharecropping agreements show the changing value of factors o f production over time under the three regimes. In addition to the sharecropping agreements, which existed during the Imperial period, land rent and informal land sell developed in Wonqa. The value o f land, which was uniform during the Imperial era, started to be

82 -------- 7* AESE Annual Conference Proceedings. 2003

Getacfiew Senishaw a

determined by its fertility. The selection o f sharecroppers is primarily based on capital and labour amount. Besides, the role of capital, in the form of money, became important in getting access to rented land as well as to buy homestead land. Therefore, currently, local agreements developed a market nature in which everybody needs to maximize his/her share depending on the value of the factors o f production, land, labour and capital.

ReferencesBauer, Dan F. 1975, " For Want of an Ox...: Land, Capital, and Social Stratification in Tigray."

In Harold Marcus (ed.) Proceedings of the First United States Conference on Ethiopia Studies. Michigan: Michigan State University, pp. 235-248.

Council of the Amhara 'National Regional State 2000, Rural Land Administration and Use Policy. Bahir Dar.

Dessalegn Rahmato 1984, Agrarian Reform in Ethiopia. Uppsala: Scandinavian Institute of African Studies.

1990, "Cooperatives, State Farms and Smallholders Production." In Pausewang e{; al. (eds.)Ethiopia: Options for Rural Development. London: Zed Books, pp. 100-110.

Ege, Svein 1994, "Land Tenancy in Northern Shawa." In Dessalegn (ed.) Land Tenure and Land Policy in Ethiopia After the Derg. Norway: Reprocentralen. AVH, pp. 163- 189.

Hoben, Allen 1973, Land Tenure Among the Amhara of Ethiopia: The Dynamics of Cognatic Descent. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

2002, "Ethiopia Land Tenure Revisited: Continuity, Change and Contradictions.” In Workneh et al. (eds.) Current Issues on Land Tenure in Ethiopia: Access, Food Production and Natural Resources Management. Addis Ababa: IDR.

McCann, James 1984, ”Household, Peasants, and Rural History in Lasta, Northern Ethiopia, 1900-1935." Ph.D. Dissertation, Michigan State University.

Negarit Gazeta 1975, Public Oumership of Rural Land Proclamation No 31/1975. April, 29, 1975. Addis Ababa.

1997, Federal Rural Land Administration Proclamation No. 89/1997. July 7, 1997. Addis Ababa.

Netting, McC. Robert 1993, Smallholders, Householders: Farm Families and the Ecology of Intensive, Sustainable Agriculture. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

Pausewang, Siegfried 1983, Peasant, Land and Society: A Social History of Land Reform in Ethiopia. London: Weltforum-Verlag.

Scott, James 1976, The Moral Economy of the Peasants: Rebellion and Subsistence in Southeast Asia. New Haven: Yalle University Press.

Teferi Abate 1994, " Land Scarcity and Landlessness in North Shewa: A Case Study from Wayu and Anget Mewgiya PA" In Dessalegn (ed.) Land Tenure and Land Policy in Ethiopia After the Derg. Norway: Reprocentralen. AVH, pp. 95-116.


Getachew Senishaw

1995, "Land Redistribution and Intra-household Relations: The Case of Two Communities in Northern Ethiopia". Ethiopian Journal o f Development Research, Vo!. 17, No. 1,pp. 23 - 42.

Ya-gatar Limat Policy 2001, Addis Ababa: Ministry of Information.Yared A mare 1994, "Land Distribution and Socio-economic Changes in Ethiopia: The Case of

Wogda, Northern Shewa" In Harold Marcus and Grover Hudson (eds.) Paper o f the 12th International Conference o f Ethiopian Studies, Vol. II, pp. 636 - 663.

1995, "Land Redistribution and Its Implications for Peasant Differentiation in Wogda, Northern Shewa" Ethiopian Journal of Development Research, Vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 1 - 22.

1999, Household Resources, Strategies and Food Security in Ethiopia: A Study of AmharaHouseholds in Wogda, Northern Shewa. Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa University Press.

2002, "Land Redistribution and Household Agricultural production: A Case Study in Wogda, Northern Shewa." In Workneh et al. (eds.) Current Issues on Land Tenure in Ethiopia: Access, Food Production and Natural Resources Management. Addis Ababa: I DR, pp. 39-60.

Yigremew A dal 2001, "Some Queries About the Debate on Land Tenure in Ethiopia" In Mulat and Tassew (eds.) Proceeding of the Tenth Annual Conference on the Ethiopian Economy. Nov. 3-5, 2000, Nazareth, pp. 51 - 68.

Zikre Hig of the Council of the Amhara National Regional State in the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia 1996, Proclamation No 16/1996: A Proclamation to Provide for the Reallotment of the Possession of Rural Land in the Amhara National Region. Bahir Dar.

2000, Proclamation No 49/2000: Proclamation Issued to Determine the Administration andUse of the Rural Land in the Amhara National Region. Bahir Dar


The Role of Research in Technology Development and in M itigating Risk and Achieving Sustainable Development in Ethiopia

1Tesfaje Zegeye and2Senait Regassa

IntroductionAlthough agriculture is the mainstay of the Ethiopian economy, agricultural productivity and production are among the lowest in the world leading to poor economic growth and chronic food insecurity in some parts o f the country. Exploitation of the natural resources base is, generally, unsustainable leading to environmental degradation, which is reflected in the form of land degradation, erosion and loss of soil fertility, degradation/drying up of water bodies with subsequent decline/loss of organisms inhabiting them, decline/loss of biodiversity, environmental pollution and global warming, etc. Although Ethiopia is said to be the "water tower" of northeastern Africa (high rainfall, many rivers, streams and lakes), all these assets are poorly managed. The rivers, rather than building soils, instead carry previous topsoils across national boundaries. As a result, our country suffers from recurrent drought and famine (Mengistu, 1996).

The size of Ethiopian population is expected to double in about 20 years. It has been estimated that agriculture will have to grow at a rate of not less than 4% per annum in the coming 10 to 15 years, to attain and maintain food security in Sub Saharan Africa (Abalu, 1997). However, in Ethiopia growth of the agricultural sector is lagging behind the rate of growth of the population. The low agricultural productivity and environmental degradation prevalent in Ethiopia have been attributed to several constraints, which can be generally categorized as biological and ecological/climatic, socio-economic, policy, institutional arrangements, scarcity of resources (skilled manpower, physical & financial), and lack of appropriate technologies and knowledge, all of which are further aggravated by the widespread poverty.

In the past, land suitable for agricultural production was abundant and-population density was also low. But at present, the possibility of increasing production through expansion of farmland or the frontier approach is limited. Therefore, increasing productivity through generation and adaptation of appropriate technologies is indispensable to ensure sustainable development in Ethiopia.

'Agricultural Economist, Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO), Addis Ababa Agricultural Economist, Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Centre (DZARC), Debre Zeit


This paper attempts to briefly present the history of agricultural research and its role in mitigating risk and attaining sustainable development, past achievements, challenges and recommendations.

The SettingThe climatic condition of the country varies with the topography, and can be categorized as dry, tropical and temperate rainy climate types, with three sub-divisions each, making a total o f nine principal climate types. Temperature varies from as high as 47°C in the Afar Depression to as low as 10°C in the highlands. The southwestern parts of the country are the wettest, receiving the heaviest rainfall, i.e. mean annual rainfall (MAR) of about 1500 mm (-2800 mm) and with only two to four dry months per year. MAR decreases gradually towards the northeastern and eastern parts of the country. In the central and north-central parts, MAR is about 1100 mm, with some pockets receiving more than 2000 mm (Anonymous, 1988).

Ethiopia is an agrarian country, and agriculture accounts for 54% of the Gross Domestic Product, employing about 85% of the population, accounts for about 90% of the exports and supplies over 70% of the raw materials for the agro-industries. The country has huge potential resources base, which can be used to improve agricultural productivity and production. These include diverse conducive agro-ecological zones and climatic resources, a total surface area o f 113 million ha with more than 56% of potential arable land (currently 14% is utilized), 113 billion m3 of water resources and 3.5 million ha of potentially irrigable land (currently 0.05% under irrigation), many farmers’ varieties of crops selected over thousands o f years, more than 360 different varieties o f improved crops released from research, 134 million heads of livestock resources (cattle, sheep, goats, equines, camels & poultry) and 10 million honeybee colonies, 27.5 million ha of forest resources (EFAP, 1994) and enormous human resource.

In the size of livestock resources it owns, Ethiopia is the first in Africa. But paradoxically it is a place where the contribution of livestock products to food consumption of households is extremely low. In terms of beef production, the level of productivity in Ethiopia (110 kg/head) is about 25-30% lower than the productivity in East Africa (143 kg/head). Annual meat production for small ruminant is barely more than 3-3.5 kg per year per animal (FAO, 1995. The bee population in this country is the fourth largest in the world (EPA and MEDaC, 1997). But honey production is very low because of low productivity due to inefficiency of the traditional techniques o f production.

In spite of the immense natural resources it is endowed with, Ethiopia is among the poorest in the world. Comparison of economic indicators for Ethiopia and other sub- Saharan countries depicts the awesome poverty in which the country is indulged in (Table 1). The Gross National Income (GNI) per capita for Sub-Saharan Africa as a whole is more than four fold for that of Ethiopia. Life expectancy at birth is lower in

86 7** AESE Annuel Conference Proceedings. 2003

Tesfaye Zegeye and Senau rcegassa

Ethiopia (42 years) as compared to the average of SSA, which is 47 years. There are more illiterate people in Ethiopia, as a percentage of the total population, than in the SSA. The prospect for improvement of living standard of the population in the near future is not promising as population growth rate (3%) surpasses the rate of growth of the economy, which is 2% (The world fact book, 2001). Close to 47% of the total rural population lives in absolute poverty (MEDaC, 1999.

Table 1: Indicators o f development for Ethiopia and Sub-Saharan Africa, 2001

Indicators________________________________ Ethiopia Sub-Saharan AfricaPer Capita GNI (USD) 100 470Life expectancy at birth 42 47Infant mortality 98 91(Per 1000 live births)Child malnutrition (% of children under 5) 47Access to an improved water sources 24 55Illiteracy (% of population age 15*) 60 37Gross primary enrolment 71 78(% Of school age population)

Source: World Bank, 2001

History of the Ethiopian Agricultural Research SystemThe history o f well-organized research in the world dates back to the middle of the nineteenth century. At the first half of the twentieth century, most of the industrialized nations developed extensive national agriculture research system and more focused with resource was further extended after Second World War. The large focus on research stemmed from the realizations of generous returns from investments in national agricultural research.

Though it is difficult to trace the exact date of the beginning of agricultural research in Ethiopia, it goes back to the 1930s and even before. However published documents indicate that organized agricultural research started in the 1950s (Demese, 2000). Available documents indicate that the research in the 1930s focused on crops and, prior to the 1930, crops research dealt mainly with scientific expeditions, germplasm collection, identification and characterization. The introduction and testing o f exotic germplasm under local conditions began in the early 1930s (Hailu, 1991). However, formal agricultural research in Ethiopia can be said to have commenced following the establishment of Jima and Ambo Technical Schools as well as Alemaya College of Agriculture and Mechanical Arts in the late 1940s and early 1950s. The Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Centre was established in 1953 as a satellite experiment station for the then Alemaya College of Agriculture and Mechanical Arts (now Alemaya University). In this regard, the Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Centre (DZARC) could be considered as the oldest research centre in the country. Other agricultural colleges were

T®1 AESE Annual Conference Proceedings, 2003 87


also involved in agricultural research activities until the establishment of the Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR).

LAR was established in 1966 with a mandate to: (a) formulate national agricultural research policy/guidelines; (b) coordinate national agricultural research; and (c) undertake research in its centres and sub centres located in various agro-ecological zones of Ethiopia (Seme Debela, 1986, 1987). LAR functioned by undertaking full-fledged agricultural research involving crops, livestock, agricultural mechanization, and agricultural economics and farming systems for about three decades. It did so by pulling the human, fiscal and material resources of the country, which existed in the various developmental, educational and research organizations. It developed a structure and approach, which encouraged teamwork of scientists in the public, private and donor supported agencies. Higher Learning Institutions (HLI), Development Organizations such as Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit (CADU) and Wolaita Agricultural Development Unit (WADU), and International Organizations such as ILCA/ILRI and CIMMYT have been parts o f the Ethiopian Agricultural Research System in the last four decades.

The change of Government that occurred in 1991 in Ethiopia brought a new setting of the National Agricultural Research System (NARS). The Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia started to promote a decentralized political system, which led to the creation of different National Regional States (NRS). This necessitated the splitting of the previous research centres o f IAR in to two, namely Federal and Regional Research Centres without properly investigating their future implications and or effect on the development of the country. The Federal Research Centres remained under the umbrella o f IAR while those transferred to their respective National Regional States (NRS) were organized under Research Coordination Offices (RCOs) within the Regional Bureaus of Agriculture (BOA).

Following this decentralization, the Federal Government o f Ethiopia found it essential that agricultural research shall be undertaken in a systematic and coordinated manner in order to ensure sustainable development in production and productivity o f the agricultural economic sector of the country. Therefore, the Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO) was established in 1997 by proclamation (Federal Negarit Gazeta, 1997). The proclaimed objectives o f EARO were to: (a) generate, develop and adapt agricultural technologies that focus on the needs o f the overall agricultural development and its beneficiaries; (b) coordinate research activities o f the agricultural research system and other related establishments which undertake agricultural research on contractual bases; (c) build up a research capacity and establish a system that will make agricultural research efficient, effective and based on development needs; and (d) popularise agricultural research results. EARO has been given responsibility to formulate agricultural strategies and determine on research priorities in accordance with the country’s over all development objectives. It is also mandated to

88 7°' AESE Annual Conference Proceedings, 2003


undertake or cause the undertaking of agricultural research activities and advise the government on issues related to agricultural research.

In the proclamation, “Agricultural Research” has been defined as “research undertaking aimed at improving the production and productivity of plants, animals and natural resources"; and “Natural Resources” refer to “soil, forest including water related to agriculture” (Federal Negarit Gazeta, 1997). Therefore, the rights and duties of the Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Center (From Alemaya University), Forestry Research Center, W UARC, Fisheries Research Center, Animal Health Research Centre and Nationals Soil Laboratory (from MOA) had been transferred to EARO by the proclamation.

Generally, EARO was established with the understanding that new technologies will be generated, indigenous technologies will be improved, foreign technologies will be adapted and new scientific knowledge and information will be developed in order to increase the production and productivity of agricultural resources and ultimately improve the living standard of the farm population of the nation across the different Regions. It is established to set strategies o f the NARS capable of tackling the major challenges of the 21st Century (Demesse Chanyalew, unpublished report).

More recently, five Regional Agricultural Research Institutes (RARIs) have been established by proclamation of their respective National Regional States (NRS), thereby replacing the Research Coordination Offices (RCOs) in the BOA. These are Amhara, Oromia, Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples, Tigray Regional and Somali National Agricultural Research Institutes. The Regional Agricultural Research Institutes (RARIs) are mandated to undertake agricultural research, mainly, focusing on agricultural constraints/problems pertinent to their respective Regions.

The driving forces of the evolution of agricultural system discussed in the previous subsections could be grouped as internal and external. T1 e overall internal driving force of the evolution of agricultural research in Ethiopia is the great pressure and challenges on the Governments to bring about economic growth required to either reduce or eradicate poverty in the country, which, in turn, depends directly on the performance of agriculture (productivity and production), the main stay of the economy.

The specific internal driving forces of the evolution include the country’s desperate need to: (i) feed the ever-increasing human and livestock population (food and feed security); (ii) increase the production of diverse agricultural commodities, both in quality and quantity, for export (export promotion); (iii) enhance the production of agricultural commodities for reducing imported products (import substitution); (iv) enhance the production of enough quantities of quality agricultural raw materials for domestic (agro-) industries; and (v) halt/prevent and revert the prevailing disappearance and/or degradation o f natural resources while, at the same time, promoting the development, sustainable utilization and conservation of the remaining natural resources.



The external driving forces include sub-regional, regional, continental and international concerns regarding the welfare of humans, animals, plants, micro organisms and the environment as a whole, all o f which have direct bearing on agriculture and, hence, agricultural research.

The Role of Agricultural Research in mitigating risk and attaining sustainable developmentAgriculture is a risky venture. Risk is an important aspect o f the farming business. The uncertainties o f weather, yields, prices, government policies, global markets, and other factors can cause wide swings in farm income (ERS, 2001). According to the same source, the major types of risk affecting the farming population are the production risk, price or market risk, financial risk (in ability to repay debt) and human or personal risk (related to health problem that affect the farming business).The farming population of Ethiopia is so poor that it is extremely vulnerable to risk. Many of the food insecure and poor developing countries are socially, economically and environmentally vulnerable and climate change may exacerbate the situation, and make it difficult to realize the goals of poverty and hunger eradication. Added to this are other confounding factors such as land, and, in some cases, political instability, all o f which constrain the achieving of sustainable development (ILASA, 2002).

Climate change puts agriculture at risk. Some 40 least developed countries with a projected population o f some 3 billion in the 2080s, may lose on average 10-20% (up to 75% in Sub Saharan Africa) o f their cereal production potential due to climate change. Most of the discussion on climate change has focused on mitigation measures, for example the Kyoto Protocol. Not much attention has been given to climate-change adaptation, which will be critical for many developing countries. For developed countries, the issue of adaptation to future climate change is not a priority, as they already have the means and resources to respond. In contrast, the developing world must recognize the urgency to put this issue of adaptation to climate change on the global agenda (IIASA, 2002).

The answer to the question of adaptation to climate change should come partly from agricultural research. Agricultural technologies generated and introduced should aim not only at increasing productivity but also at mitigating risk and attaining sustainable development.

Ethiopian farmers, particularly maize growers, have faced market or price risk because of excess output supply that has resulted due to increased maize productivity. Moreover, financial risk, risk that occurs because of inability to payback debt is also one of the constraints to sustained growth in the agricultural sector.

Agricultural research can be an extraordinarily powerful tool for development. When research succeeds, it often means that a small team of researchers raises the productivity and incomes o f millions o f farmers. The benefits o f research results can go well beyond



the farm households. Benefits for biodiversity and environmental protection in general can be substantial, when higher yields on existing fields alleviate the pressure to clear new land for cultivation. Poor consumers who spend much of their income on food typically benefit greatly when research leads to lower food prices. By reducing food import bills or by increasing earnings from agricultural exports, agricultural research can save or earn money for education, health and other pressing needs o f the country.

The role of agricultural research can be summarized as:

• Generating and adapting technologies, which can increase agricultural productivity, including intensive production of food and cash commodities;

• Providing efficient methods of processing, marketing and utilization o f food commodities and non-food cash crops;

• Developing sustainable production systems, particularly for the more fragile areas;• Generating technologies which can provide productive employment and greater

returns to labor in rural areas; and• Contributing to food security, export promotion <Sc import substitution, enhanced

raw material production for domestic industries <Sl conservation and sustainable utilization of natural resources.

Past AchievementsTo summarize 390 crop varieties (Legesse, 2004), 25 farm implements, 28 recommended tree species, 16 soil and water conservation techniques, 10 livestock breeds and 17 forage species have been developed, tested and released (ESTC, 1994; Tesfaye, 2001). Less than half of the crop varieties are currently under production; many have been supplanted by higher-yielding varieties, others have gone out o f production because o f disease susceptibility and other factors, and others may have never been widely adopted because of problems of seed availability, input market opportunities or other system constraints (Haward et al., 1995; Tesfaye, 2001).

Adoption and impacts of technologies

Adoption and impact assessment studies are usually conducted to identify the changes that have been brought about by agricultural research. Adoption studies present whether the technologies generated or adapted by research are taken up or rejected by farmers. It also shows the reason why farmers are reluctant to adopt the technology and these reasons will be considered by biological scientists in the their future endeavour to develop appropriate technologies. The percentage of farmers adopting a particular technology indicates the level of spread of the technique among the farmers. For the purpose of identifying the factors affecting adoption of technologies a number o f studies have been conducted by employing a multivariate analysis (Logit, probit and/or tobit models). A review of only few of such studies is presented below.



A survey was conducted in 1989 around Bako area in order to examine level of adoption of the maize recommended package comprising variety, fertilizer, and raw planting. Among the surveyed farmers, 67% had adopted maize variety, 64% row planting, and 60% fertilizer (Beyene et al, 1991). Adoption rate is high, however, there are still many farmers who use none of these technologies. A significant adoption of these recommendations occurred in 1987. This was the year during which the government launched a food self-sufficiency campaign through intensive extension services in areas designated as potentially surplus-producing districts, which include the study area. In 1989, the extension service was not as active as it was in 1987 owing to logistic problems. This resulted in decline o f the number of farmers adopting the technologies. The fact that most o f the farmers learned using the recommendations from extension agents clearly underlines the importance of the role played by the service (Beyene, et al., 1991).

A survey conducted in 1997 indicated most farmers in the lowland zone (56.6%) and intermediate zone (48.1%) in the Sidama and North Omo zone preferred local maize varieties for their early maturing and high yield characteristics. 32% and 30% of farmers in the lowland and intermediate zones, respectively, preferred BH-140 for its high yield (Getahun, et al., 2000).

Recommended fertilization rate for both DAP and Urea is 100 kg/ha. In 1997, lowland zone farmers used about 72 kg per ha of DAP while intermediate zone farmers used about 101 kg/ ha. In lowland and intermediate zones, 84 and 88 kg/ha of urea, respectively, was applied. About 26% in lowland and 34% in intermediate zones used credit to buy fertilizer. One constraint that hampered use of credit was the high interest rate (i.e 16% in lowland and 14% in intermediate zones) (Getahun, et al., 2000). Some of the significant factors positively affecting adoption of improved maize verities were livestock ownership (TLU), extension visit, off-farm income, use of credit, the use of hired labour, and membership in an organization, and credit and being a contact farmer significantly influenced the adoption of fertilizer. Livestock ownership significantly influenced the adoption of improved maize technology by enabling farmers to pay the 25% down payment required to obtain inputs (fertilizer and seed).

In Bako area, about 85% of the surveyed farmers adopted one or more o f the technologies available to them while 15% of the farmers did not use any of the improved production technologies (Asfaw et al., 1994). About 42% adopted variety, fertilizer and row planting altogether, 17% adopted improved variety only, and 16% adopted fertilizer and row planting. Attendance at field days by the farmers and timely availability of improved maize seed significantly influenced the farmers' use o f improved variety. Past use of fertilizer and its use in 1989 for maize production were related to farmers' formal education, oxen ownership and credit use.

A survey conducted in 1998 in Yelmana Densa and Farta Districts o f North Western Ethiopia showed that about 98 % of those included in the survey knew about the improved varieties. The rate of adoption of improved wheat varieties in this area increased from less than one percent in 1981 to 72% in 1998. This dramatic increase



was because of the national extension package programme. The study has also indicated that there was a systematic association between adoption of improved wheat varieties and access to credit, indicating that farmers with access to credit are more likely to adopt improved wheat varieties than farmers with out access (Tesfaye, et al., 2001). Factors that positively affected adoption of wheat varieties were farm size, participation in an on-farm demonstration, contact with extension agents, contact with representatives of service cooperatives, contact with PA chairman, attendance at agricultural training course, radio ownership, membership in a producer cooperatives, farm size, livestock ownership, and access to credit. Rate of adoption' of fertilizer in Yelmana Densa and Farta Districts increased from less than 1% in 1976 to 77% in 1998 because of the national extension package programme. Prior to the programme, fertilizer use was at about 5% level.

A study conducted by Hailu, et. al., (1998) showed that 70% of the sample farmers in Wolmera Goro and 75% in Robe Gebeya grew improved wheat variety. About 16% in Wolmera Goro and 11% in Robe Gebeya grew improved barley. Variety adoption was negatively influenced by distance from home to extension centres whereas visit by extension agents had a positive impact. Radio ownership was found to be important in disseminating information about improved wheat varieties. In Wolmera Goro and Robe Gebeya farmer to farmer seed exchange was more important than the formal seed sector in seed distribution than the formal seed sector. About 55% of the farmers in both (Intermediate and highlands) zones of Enebisse area have ever grown an improved wheat variety and 40% mentioned that the improved varieties are superior in yield (Alemu, et al., 1998). Extension and credit were the most important factors influencing farmers' awareness and adoption of improved wheat varieties.

In 1997, about 42% of farmers planted improved wheat varieties in Adaba and Dodolla Woredas of the Bale Highlands, while 58% planted only local varieties (Bekele, et al., 2000). About 95% of adopters and 75% of nonadopters applied chemical fertilizer in 1996 and 1997. A Tobit analysis revealed that access to credit is a determining factor in farmer's decision to adopt improved wheat seeds and fertilizer. Livestock ownership had a positive influence on adoption of fertilizer. In Chilalo Awraja, except for growing a few local cultivars such as Israel and Tikur Sinde, which have stayed in production because of their valued food qualities and the market demand for their large, white grain and superior flavour, farmers have resorted almost completely to growing introduced/improved varieties (Regassa, et al., 1998). Farmer-to-farmer information exchange was the most important mechanism for learning about new technologies.

In Arsi Zone, in 1990/91 all farmers were using released bread wheat varieties, Enkoy, Dashen, and K6290-Bulk. Survey at Asasa in 1995 shows that, the majority o f the farmers (84%) were using improved varieties such as Pavon-76 and Dashen. In 1990/91, 87% of the farmers in Arsi zone were using fertilizer although at a sub-optimal level (Aberra Deressa and Beyene, 1997).

The survey done in 1989 in the Holetta red soil zone showed that more than 90% of the host farmers and 55% of non-host farmers planted improved bread wheat varieties; in



1988 and 1989 and more than 80% of both groups applied fertilizer although at a sub- optimal rate. In general a significant proportion of the farmers adopted bread wheat technologies (Hailu Beyene, 1993).

With regard to sorghum, in the major sorghum growing areas, Miesso and Assebot, improved varieties such as 76 T l#23 , Seredo, Meko, or at least two of these varieties were grown by 34%, 16%, 33% and 37% respectively (Adam and Dawit, 2002).

In Arsi zone, the use of fertilizer is more affected by access to credit, herbicide use and timely availability of fertilizer (Mulugeta, 1995). A study conducted on adoption of inorganic fertilizer in northwestern Ethiopia has shown that rate of adoption has reached 70% during the late 1990's. The factors that affected adoption of inorganic fertilizer were found to be access to credit, attendance o f formal agricultural training and use o f improved seed. All these three factors had positive and significant influence on fertilizer adoption (Tesfaye, et al. 2001). In southern Ethiopia in woredas where the adoption study was undertaken (Awassa Zuria, Shebedino, Damot Gale, Gofa and Alaba Timbaro) adoption of fertilizer increased from less than 1% in 1959 to 18% in 1998 whereas adoption of improved maize has increased from 1% in 1976 to 47% in 1998 (Tesfaye and Shiferaw, 1998).

In 1992 about 74% of the farmers in Wolmera and Addis Alem areas had adopted fertilizer and herbicide (2-4 D) and 49% had adopted improved wheat variety and fertilizer. The factors that positively affected the adoption of these technologies were availability of fertilizer and herbicide, perceived relative profitability o f the technology over the traditional practice, extension contact, and literacy and wealth status of farmers (Chilot , et al., 1996). Access to credit by dairy farmers plays a positive and substantial role in uptake of dairy technology. Borrowing farmers had significantly larger cattle herds than non-borrowing farmers because credit was mainly used for investment capital (Freeman, et al. 1996).

A study conducted by Beyene, 2001, has shown that differential adoption of technologies within a certain period of time can be regarded as a natural phenomenon because the outcomes of previous and current extension system has benefited relatively resource rich farmers. He also argued that efforts to enable both the poor and the rich to equally adopt agricultural technology would rather imply substituting equity for growth at a very low level of the economic status that has immeasurable social cost. Therefore, he suggested that for countries like Ethiopia, which is at very low economic status, focusing on growth through increasing the farm productivity of the potential adopters in the short-run, and designing special programs for the poor to follow their footsteps.

Basically, impact assessment can be conceptualised as an economic problem that requires formal analysis to determine the benefits accruing from investing in research (Omiti, et al. 1999). Evidences from past research efforts in the country and elsewhere in other parts of Africa strongly suggests that benefits o f research results are so large compared to costs. An inventory o f researches conducted on rates o f returns o f investments on

94 7,h AESE Annual Conference Proceedings. 2003


agricultural research in eastern Africa signifies that a return of up to 91 % has been realised (Ewell, 1992, cited by Omiti, et al. 1999). Several commodity based impact assessment studies in Africa have also shown that it pays to invest in agricultural research. Though systematic analysis on return to investment in agriculture was not done in Ethiopia, many success stories of enhanced productive efficiencies through the utilizations of technologies generated by the national research system have been noted. For instance, the estimated rate of return for the maize technology development and transfer investment in Ethiopia was 29%. This means that, after recovering costs, for every birr invested in maize research and extension during the period 1986 to 2000 generated 29 cents in return. Given the interest rate of 10 % (the opportunity cost of capital) that prevailed at the time of the study, this result appears to be a very attractive investment. The net present value (NPV) of maize research and extension investment at the 10 % discount rate was 193,502,831 million birr (Tesfaye, 2001).

In order to compare the economic advantages of vertisol technology (a package of BBM technology) and the local practice of the farmers, Gezahegn, 1999, applied Domestic Resource Cost (DRC) in the framework of cost-benefit analysis using Policy Analysis Matrix (PAM). The results of the study have shown that the economic returns of the technology were markedly higher (with as much as 200% Marginal Rate of Return) than the traditional practices of the farmers.

The malt barley generated by Kulumsa and Holetta Research Centres, has been one of the most important crop having a sustainable market for farmers in Arsi and Bale regions. Presently, the factory’s yearly malt barley purchase from the surrounding farmers is about 22, 000 tons amounting to about 33 million birr; this made the country to save up to 54 million per year in foreign currency (Tadesse, 2003).

Among the 18 improved cotton varieties developed by Werer Research Centre, 4 of them are currently on production all over the cotton producing areas of Ethiopia. The release o f these varieties for general production enable the country to produce sufficient amount of cotton for domestic use and export purposes. The 8 textile mills are using raw cotton produced within the country using these varieties. The middle and Lower Awash State Farms are the main exporters of quality cotton by growing these cotton varieties.

Durum Wheat Research at Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Centre has made a substantial progress to create a strong research linkage with different local pasta making industries. Among 16 wheat varieties, 6 of them have been identified with desirable industrial quality and attributes meeting the standards set by local processing industries. The research system plays catalyst role to link farmers with the pasta factories and to induce farmers organizations and also make these organizations stronger and more effective. Farmers are organized and ready to provide seeds for these industries, and the industries provided premium price of 40-70 birr/ quintal over the existing wheat market prices. The capacity o f the farmers is bolstered through trainings and assistances in order to create self-management capacities that can support self-reliant development. It was noted that the importance of having standards link to incentives that support for



increased quantity and quality o f the wheat being produced; and which research system is taking as one of the challenge areas of working with the farmers. Equally, 6 grape wine varieties identified by the centre are now the basis for future wine making in the country.

Holetta Research Centre initiated pilot study in the use o f biotechnology coupled with farmer based seed production to improve potato seed system. Currently, the pilot sites (West and North Shewa Zones) are sole suppliers of clean seed at a national level. Farmers participated in the pilot program were able to get income of about 12,000 birr per annum from sales o f potato seed, The pilot sites annually supply about 2,000 qt o f potato seed and more than 70 diffused light stores have been constructed to keep their needs. The development o f technologies of producing onion seeds by Melkassa Research Centre, play great role for import substitution and encourage farmers and private investors to engage in onion production. The centre produces considerable amount o f seed annually to be used for development work which otherwise would have been imported.

Another success story o f agricultural research in Ethiopia is the release o f a lentil variety called Alemaya. A lentil grower in Chefa Donsa says " Alemaya is a blessing to me and I will continue to cultivate it as it puts more cash in my pocket". She expects to harvest 25 - 30 qt/ha compared to 5 - 6 qt/ha with the local cultivars (1CARDA, 2002).

ChallengesThe question often asked is as to why the successes in agricultural research have not been translated into rapid agricultural progress. Different answers could be given to this question. Most of the benefits or impacts o f agricultural research is absorbed by the rapidly expanding population. The growth of the population is at an alarming rate, which requires great contributions to bring differences as access to benefit from technologies need to cover the majority of the people. The benefits usually spread so thinly; which often result in its being overlooked or being given low recognition of the impacts made by agricultural research. Other factors that undermine the agricultural development through technologies are civil unrest, periodic changes o f policies, lack o f appropriate support; lack of infrastructure for farmers’ access to reliable and reasonable priced input supplies and markets. These factors constrained the adoption of technologies by the farmers and, hence affected agricultural development. Moreover, the country faces recurrent climate calamities, which contributed to the low impacts.

According to Wolday Amaha, (1999), the use of improved seed in the country is very low, about 7% of the seed requirement. A number o f studies (Table 2) have indicated the major obstacles to adoption of technologies in Ethiopia to be unavailability and high price of seeds, unfavourable credit arrangement, low economic status of the farm households (land and livestock ownership), low development agent to farmer ratio, low capacity o f the exetnsion service, lack of awaareness and poor infrastructural



development. Another constraint of fertilizer use was late delivery. An efficient marketing system for inputs and outputs would benefit farmers by facilitating higher price for marketed wheat reducing the cost of fertilizer. Problems associated with the technology itself include low storage quality of improved varieties (Beyene, et al., 1991). Around Enebisse, the low rate o f varietal turnover is an indicator of a poorly developed seed industry, poor extension services, and low impact of wheat breeding research. The low turnover rate is also influenced by the seed release mechanism (Alemu, et al., 1998).

According to a study conducted in Wolmera Woreda (Hailu, et al., 1998) farmers generally agreed that seed should be provided every two to four years before it becomes vulnerable to disease, which implies that breeders must maintain seed quality and distribute new seed stock every four years to seed suppliers. However, the weighted average age of varities in farmers' fields was 13 years, indicating slow varietal turnover, a poorly developed seed industry, and ineffective extension.

The small and fragmented agricultural land is another impediment to adoption of improved technologies. Small farmers cannot afford modern farm implements since they have a very small land size (MAMJAD Engineering PLC., oral communication).



Table 2: Major constraints o f technology adoption

Constraints of ImprovedAdoption Seed Fertilizer Source of InformationUnavailability (Supply X X Tesfaye, et al., 2001, Beyene, et al., 1991,shortage) Tesfaye and Girma, et al., 2001, Adam and

Dawit. 2002Late delivery X Beyene Seboka, et al. 1991,High price X X Beyene, et al., 1991, Wolday, 1999,

Getahun, et al., 2000, Tesfaye, et al., 2001,Cash shortage X X Tesfaye, et al., 2001, Beyene, et al., 1991,

Alemu, et al., 1998,Unfavourable credit X X Tesfaye, et al., 2001, Getahun, et al., 2000,arrangement Alemu, et al., 1998,Low economic status X Wolday Amaha, 1999of the farm familiesPoor infrastructural X X Tesfaye, et al., 2001developmentLow capacity of X X Beyene, et al., 1991, Getahun, et al., 2000,extension service Tesfaye, et al,. 2001, Hailu, et. al., 1998,

Alemu, et al., 1998,Inefficient marketing X X Tesfaye, et al., 2001foT inputs and outputsSlow rate of varietal X Hailu, et al., 1998, Alemu, et al., 1998,turnover Regassa, et al., 1998.Low storage quality X Beyene, et al., 1991Unfavourable input- X X Beyene, et al., 1991output price ratioLack of Awareness X Adam and Dawit, 2002

Conclusions and RecommendationsThough not easily conspicuous, because of various reasons, the role played by agricultural research in Ethiopia in improving and sustaining the lives of the rural poor cannot be ruled out. Remarkable achievements have been registered through agricultural research. Nevertheless there is still a long way to go to ensure sustainable improvement of livelihood of the poor. There are opportunities that could help to bring breakthrough in agricultural research. Many research results obtained through the strenuous efforts made by the different research centres have many folds improved productivity as compared with the productivity achieved through traditional methods. In addition, there are also great opportunities to take advantage of successful technologies produced elsewhere. Lessons can be drawn from success stories of agricultural research results within the country and abroad. Opportunities also exist to use new tools such as biotechnology (e.g. multiplication of germplasms, vaccine production, and disease diagnosis) to enhance the outputs o f technologies to the beneficiaries.

98 7ttl AESE Annual Conference Proceedings. 2003

Tesfaye Zegeye.and Senait Regassa

Further strengthening of the extension package program (PADETS) (by reducing the ratio of farmers to DAs, enhancing transport facilities for extension agents to increase their capacity to travel within their mandate areas, organizing frequent training for DAs, etc) is of paramount importance to narrowing agricultural productivity gap between experimental plots and farmers’ plots. Promoting agricultural technologies by using mass media such as the radio would also work to that end. The recent achievements of Sasakawa Global 2000 is a simple example where technologies produced by the research system can make a difference if the technology transfer is supported with appropriate institutions and policies.

To make the research efforts more successful, seeds of the newly developed varieties must be produced in sufficient quantities and qualities to producers. To achieve this goal the government should provide the necessary incentives and support to public and private seed companies.

Several studies that have been done so far have clearly indicated the positive and significant impact o f credit on technology adoption. The formal credit system needs to be strengthened and made available to small farmers. Currently formal credit is not easily accessible, high interest rate charged, and the loan repayment term is unfavourable. Improvements on the terms of formal credit would greatly reduce the financial risk facing farmers. Moreover, research on commodities with high price elasticity has to be strengthened so as to lessen the effect o f market or price risk on’ the rural poor.

Livestock ownership positively influenced the adoption of improved varieties and fertilizer because of additional income. Therefore, promotion of improved animal breeds and husbandry would enhance adoption of technologies and improvement of standard of living of farm families.

Limited infrastructure development is another factor limiting the impact of released technologies. Without improvements in market access, impacts from improved technologies, improved availability of inputs; credit and price liberalization may be trivial for farmers ir. remote areas, because of high transportation and marketing costs.

Moreover, the Ethiopian GDP in general and agricultural production in particular is positively correlated with amount of annual rainfall. Too much dependence on rainfed agriculture has made the country vulnerable to drought and famine. Even the agricultural technologies released so far are promising only under conditions of favourable rainfall. Experiences of others countries shows that famine is not unavoidable consequence of drought. Ways to lower the dependence of Ethiopian agriculture on rainfall that utilizes viable technologies of water resource management is indispensable.

To date a number of technologies such as drought tolerant and early maturing varieties and varieties that tolerate pests and diseases and agronomic practices that minimize the loss due to drought, disease and pest incidence have been developed. However, there is a technical limit to this approach. For instance in the case of climate change, the absolute



quantity of rainfall the country receives more than enough for crop production. Along with development o f crop and animal technologies, appropriate water and soil resource management practices have to be developed. In this regard, EARO has been conducting research on soil and water conservation and forestry. Some outputs have already been obtained. But the rate of adoption and the effect o f these technologies on the livelihood of the farming population have to be assessed by researchers.

ReferencesA dam Bekele and Dawit Alemu. 2002. Adoption of Improved Sorghum Varieties in the M iesso

and Shoa-Robit weredas of Ethiopia. Paper presented at the~ First National SorgKum Workshop, Melkassa, Ethiopia. (Unpublished)

Abalu, G. I. 1997. “Meeting Future Food and Agriculture Needs of Sub-Saharan Africa. Policy Issues and Needed Orientations.” Ethiopian Journal of Agricultural Economics. Vol. 1. No. 2. pp 28-51, Addis Ababa.

Aberra Deressa and Beyene Seboka (eds). 1997. Research Achievements and Technology transfer Attempts in Southern Ethiopua. Proceedings of the second Technology Generation, Transfer and Gap Analysis Workshop. 9-11 July 1996, Nazret, Ethiopia.

Alemu Hailye, H. Verkuijl, W. Mwangi, and Asmare Yallew. 1998. Farmers' wheat seed sources and seed management in the Enebisse Area, Ethiopia. Mexico, D.F.: EARO and CIMMYT.

Asfaw Negassa, Beyene Sseboka, W. Mwangi, and Abubeker Mussa. 1994. Farmers' maize production practicves and Adoption of technologies in the Bakoa rea. Supplement to Research Report No. 16. Institute of Agricultural Research. Ethiopia.

Bekele Hunde Kotu, H. Verkuijl, W. Mwangi, and D. Tanner. 2000. Adoption of Improved wheat Technologies in Adaba and Dodolla Woredas of the Bale Highlands, Ethiopia. Mexico, C/MMYT and EARO.

Beyene Seboka, Asfaw Negassa, W. Mwangi, and Abubakar Mussa. 1991. Adoption of Maize production Technologies in the Bako area, Western Shoa and Welega Regions of Ethiopia. Research Report No. 16. IAR.

Beyene Tadesse. 2001. Differential Adoption of Techonologies and its Implications for Policy Choice between Equity and Growth. In the Proceedings of EAF International Conference on Contemporary Development Issues in Ethiopia, August 16-18, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, Michigan, USA.

Chilot Yirga, B. I. Shaoiro and Mulat Demeke. 1996. “Factors Influencing Adoption of New Wheat Technologies in wolmera and Addis Alem areas of Ethiopia.” Ethiopian Journal of Agricultural Economics. Vol. 1. No. I, pp 63-87. Addis Ababa.

Demese Chanyalew, 2000. Over View of the Ethiopian Agricultural Research System. Proceeding of the National Workshop on Institutionalizing Gender Planning in Agricultural Technology Generation and Transfer Processes, 25-27 October 1999., EARO, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

EPA and MED AC. 1997. The Conservation Strategy of Ethiopia. Vol. I. The Resource Base, Its Utilization and Planning for Sustainability. Environmental Protection Authority (EPA)



in collaboration with Ministry of Economic Development and Cooperation (MEDAC). Addis Ababa.

EFAP, 1994. Ethiopian Forestry Action Plan Program. Volume /-IV. FAP.ERS, 2001. http://www.ers.usda.gov/briefing/RiskManagement/risk%20in%20agriculture.htmNegarit Gazeta, 1997. Ethiopian Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Third Year, No 42,

Addis Ababa, 5th June 1997.FAO, 1995. FAO Production year book, 1995. FAO Rome.Freeman, H. A., J M. A abbar,., S. K. Ehui, and Gebreselassie, X. 1996. The Role of credit in the

Uptake of Improved Dairy Technologies in Ethiopia. Ethiopian Journal of Agricultural Economics. Vol. 1. No. 1. pp ~ Addis Ababa.

Getahun Degu, W. Mwangi, H. Verkuijl, Abdishekur Wondimu. 2000. An assessment of adoption of seed and fertilizer packages and the Role of Credit in Smallholder Maize production in Sidama and North Omo Zones. Ethiopia. Mexico. EARO and CIMMYT.

Gezahegn Ayele, 1999. Economic Analysis of Innovation and Adoption of Vertisol Technology: A study of smallholder Mixed Farming in the Highlands of Ethiopia. VERLAG ULRICH E. GRAUER, STUTTGART.

Hailu Beyene, H. Verkuijl and W. Mawangi. 1998. Farmers' seed sources and management of Bread wheat in the Wolmera Woreda, Ethiopia. Mexico, D. F. CIMMYT and IAR

Hailu Beyene. 1993. The Input Supply System and Technology Adoption Constraints for Wheat Production in the Holetta Red Soil Zone of Ethiopia. In: Cereal grain policy analysis in the national agricultural research systems of eastern and southern Africa. Wilfred Mwangi, David Rohrbach and Paul Heisey, eds. Addis Ababa: C1MMYT/SADC/1CRISAT.

Hailu Gebre Mariam. 1991. “Wheat Production and Research in Ethiopia.” In Hailu Gebre- Mariam, Tanner,D.G., and Mengestu Huluka, (eds.) 1991. Wheat Research in Ethiopia: A historical perspective. Addis Ababa: IAR/CIMMYT.

1CARDA. 2002. ICARDA Annual Report 2001. International Centre for Agriculture in the Dry Areas, Aleppo, Syria.

NASA. 2002. Press Release on Climate Change and Agricultural Vulnerability. International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Luxemburg, Austria, 29 August, 2002. http://www.iiasa.ac.at/Admin/lNF/PR/pdffiles/joburg_luc.pdf

Legesse Dadi. 2004. Agricultural Research and Technology Development in Ethiopia. In: Agricultural Technology Evaluation, Adoption and Marketing (Tesfaye Zegeye, Legesse Dadi and Dawit Alemu (eds.). Proceedings of socio-economic research results of 1998- 2002, Part II. August 6-8, 2002, Addis Ababa. EARO.

MEDaC, 1999. Poverty Sitation in Ethiopia, Welfare Monitoring Unit, Ministry of Economic Development and cooperation, Addis Ababa.

Mengistu Woube. 1996. Loss of Ethiopia's Natural Resources. Ethiopian Review.http://www.ethiopianreview.homestead.com/FeatureMengistuWoubdun96.htmlMulugeta Mekuria. 1995. Technology Development and Transfer in Ethiopian Agriculture:

empirical evidence. In: Mulat Demeke, Wolday Amha, Simeon Ehui and Tesfaye Zegeye. Food security, nutrition and poverty alleviation in Ethiopia. Proceedings of the inaugural

7lh AESE Annuaf Conference Proceedings, 2003 101

http://www.ers.usda.gov/briefing/RiskManagement/risk%20in%20agriculture.htm

http://www.iiasa.ac.at/Admin/lNF/PR/pdffiles/joburg_luc.pdf

http://www.ethiopianreview.homestead.com/FeatureMengistuWoubdun96.html


and first annual conference of the agricultural economics society of Ethiopia. 8-9 June 1995, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Omiti, J.,M. Waithaka, and W. Mwangi, 1999. Situation of Impact Assessment of Agricultural Research in the ASARECA Region. A review paper prepared for the Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa (ASARECA), 14-19 November, 1999. Entebe, Uganda.

Regassa Ensermu, W. Mwangi, H. Verkuijl, and. Alemayehu, Z. 1998. Farmers' wheat seed sources and seed management in Chilalo Awraja of Etiopia. Mexico, D.F.: IAR and CIMMYT.

Seme Debela, 1986. Briefing Note On the Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR). October, 1986. IAR, Addis Ababa

Tadesse Kassahun, 2003. Mhit Processing at Asela Malt Factory: Its Challenges and Problems. In the Proceedings of the Workshop On constraints and prospects of Malt Barley Production ,Supply and Marketing. March 15,2003, Nazyeth

The World fact book. 2001. http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact2001/index.htmlTesfaye Zegeye. 2001. Agricultural Research System of Ethiopia: Past History and Future Vision.

In the Proceedings of EAF International Conference on Contemporary Development Issues in Ethiopia, August 16-18, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, Michigan, USA.

Tesfaye Zegeye, Bedassa Tadesse, and Shiferaw Tesfaye. 2001. Adoption of High Yielding Maize Technologies in Major Maize Growing Regions of Ethiopia. Research Report No. 41. Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organisation (EARO), Addis Ababa.

Tesfaye Zegeye, Alemu Haileye. 2001. Adoption of Improved Maize Technologies and Inorganic Fertilizer In Northwestern Ethiopia. Research Report No. 40. Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO), Addis Ababa.

Tesfaye Zegeye, Girma Taye, D. Tanner, H Verkijl, Aklilu Agidie, W. Mwargi. 2001. Adoption of improved bread wheat varieties and inorganic fertilizer by small-scale farmers in Yelmana Densa and Farta Districts of North Western Ethiopia. Mexico, D.F. EARO and & CIMMYT)

Tesfaye Zegeye and Shiferaw Tesfaye. 1998. Determinants of Adoption of Maize Technologies and Inorganic Fertiliser in Southern Ethiopia. Research report No. 39. Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO), Addis Ababa.

Wolday Amaha. 1999. “Improved Seed Marketing and Adoption in Ethiopia". Ethiopian Journal of Agricultural Economics. Vol. 3. No. 1., PP 41-87 . Addis Ababa.

World Bank. 2001. World Development Report.http://www.worldbank.org/data/countrydata/aag/eth_aag.pdf

102 7*1 AESE Annual Conference Proceedings. 2003

http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact2001/index.html

http://www.worldbank.org/data/countrydata/aag/eth_aag.pdf

_ X _T eff Production Vis-A-vis Food Self-sufficiency ” Food for Thought”

’Astatke Bayu

IntroductionAccording to Neun (2000) per capita food output of Ethiopia has been declining for the last 30 years and the ability o f the country to feed its population is deteriorating. The output per capita in 1980/81 was 180 kg, after 10 years, in 1989/90 it was 150kg and after 5 years in 1990/94 it came down to 97kg. The amount of food aid flowing into the country for the last 15 years on the average was 700,000 metric tones. Food aid per capita per year in Ethiopia is 12kg while it is 9 kg for the nine-sahelian countries Neun (2000). The paper attempts to find out whether the Land use pattern of teff explains' this issue.

The purpose of this paper is to generate debate and raise awareness among agricultural scholars and practitioners to consider the importance accorded to teff vis-a-vis food self- sufficiency. The methodology used in preparing this paper are secondary sources and personal observations.

Teff occupies a lion's share o f the land area used for the production of cereals. Percentage wise, 33% to 40% of the land area is used for the production of cereals. The land use pattern for cereal crops is highly skewed towards teff. Given its low yield level, the chronic food crisis, and massive food aid to the country, the area under teff is hardly justifiable; this is the core issue of the paper.

Significant emphasis has been given to teff research to improve its productivity but no major yield results are recoded. The average yield per ha improved seeds, fertilizers and improved cultural practice for the last 15 years remained at 8.9 quintals, while the other cereals increased by double and quadruple.

The protein and fat contents o f teff per 100-gram Weight is lower when compared to the other cereal crops. There are no vitamin "C" and "A" in teff, while both vitamins are present in maize and sorghum (TUB, 1980).

Teff is not foreign exchange earning cereal but it uses the largest quantity of imported fertilizers. Teff can hardly be produced by minimum tillage and does not allow mixed cropping. Land preparation for teff production interims of plowing and disking is so intensive, it exposes the soil for erosion and reduces soil fertility. Teffs flour yield is high due to the small size of the grain but due to its low productivity per hectare, it is less than all the other cereals in volume of flour production per hectare. In its multiplicity of

1 MEDaC

Astatke Bayu

use, teff is limited to "Ingera" Porage and "Kitta". Teff cannot be consumed without being changed intq flour, whereas the other cereals can be eaten as "Eshete", "Nefiro" and "Kollo", in addition to the above three as in teff.

Furthermore, the other cereal crops are used as raw material for the production of Alcohol products such as Talla, Arakai and Beer. So teff is hardly an industrial cereal crop while the others cereals are agro-industrial materials.

Thus, teff is the least priority cereal crop almost on all counts. The importance given to teff need to be reconsidered in face of hunger, malnutrition, poverty and destitution. Thus it is recommended that a gradual decrease of the land occupied by teff should be converted to the production o f the other cereal crops to promote food self-sufficiency and reduce poverty along with price policies and market regulations-such as floor price.

Resource BaseEthiopia's Soil and Climatic variations have created great opportunity for diversity of plants, animal and birds. The country is recognized as the Eleventh vavilov centres of crop plant genetic diversity in the world. It is the sole center o f teff, Coffee Arabica1, Enset, Anchote N oug and Sorghum2. Subsistence raidfed crop production by peasant farmers is the most significant segment in the country's agricultural production and economic development

Agriculture is the mainstay o f the economy, accounting for about 50% of the GDP, 90 % of the industrial raw materials, provides 85% of the export revenue and employs over 80% of the population. Thus a small improvement in the peasant-farming sector will have a huge impact on macro-economic performance3 of the country.

Physical Relations of ProductionThe total area of land cultivated with cereals, pulses and oilseeds account for 6.5 million hectares. This land area accounts for 83.2% of the cultivated area with grain crops. Pulses and oilseeds account for 14.5% and 2.3% of the area cultivated with grain crops respectively; which shows that 66.4% of the land area is used for cereal crops production. Details are provided in the table below (EEA, 1999/2000).

The optimum altitude range for teff and Barley is narrower when compared to wheat, maize and sorghum, which indicates the wider adoption of the latter three.

As we can see from the Table above, Teff has a lion's share of the land area under it, followed by Maize, Sorghum barley and wheat. In physical terms, teff yield per hectare is the lows when compared to other cereals like wheat, barley, maize and sorghum (Table 2).


Astatke Bayu

Table 1. Optimum altitude ranges and area in Hectare under each cereal crop.

Type of Cereal Optimum Altitude Average TotalCrops Range Area in Ha % RankTeff 1800-2200 1,467,497 33.0 1Barley 1900-3000 717,156 16.0 4Wheat 1500-2500 615,280 14.0 5Maize 1500-2500 878,229 20.0 2Sorghum 1500-2500 793,265 17.0 3Total 4,471,427 100

Source: EEA (1999/2000)

Table 2. Flour yield of teff and other cereals.

Flour Yield Flour yield/haCereals Yield/ha per 100kg In quintalTeff 9 95 8WB MS Average 14 88 12

Source: (Author's observation)

WBMS = Wheat, Barley, Maize & Sorghum

Scarce Resource and Land useIn economics, there is a theory which states that resources are scarce and scarce resources must be employed in their best alternatives uses. In our case land is taken to be scarce resource. If that is so, we must allocate it in its best alternative use. To do this we need to introduce the concept of yield to find out the physical production relations of land and the five major cereal crops. Table 3 below shows the relationships that prevail between land under each cereal crop and the production levels by taking into account the yield of each cereal crop (EEA, 1999/2000).

Table: 3 Total average physical area, production and yield of each cereal crop

Types of Cereals

Average Total area in Ha. %

Average Total Production

in Qts. %

Average Yield/ Ha.

in Qts. %Teff 1,467,497 33 12,913,973 24 8.8 14Barley 717,156 16 8,390,725 16 11.7 19Wheat 615,280 14 7,506,416 14 12.2 20Maize 878,229 20 14,754,247 27 16.8 28Sorghum 793,265 17 10,471,098 19 13.2 21Total 4,471,427 100 54,036,459 100 12.54

Source: (Annual report on Ethiopian Economy, 1999/2000).

From Table 3 above, the hectarage used for teff production is more than Wheat, Barley, Sorghum and Maize by a huge margin both in absolute and percentage terms. The yield per hectare of teff is less than all the above-mentioned four cereal crops. Maize production, which is 16.8 qt/ha, is double to that of teff as can be seen from the table.


Astatke Bayu

The total average production of teff obtained from 1,467,497 hectares o f land is 12,913,973 quintals. while the total average production of maize obtained from 878.229 hectares of land is 14,754,247 quintals. The total production of maize is greater than that of teff eventhough the land area used for teff is almost double of the land used for maize.

This is a difference close to 2 million quintals in favor o f Maize. When we examine the allocation of land used to produce teff and Maize, the hectarage is clearly in favour of teff by 589,268 hectares. This situation negates the theory o f scarcity in the economic text books which state that "scarce resources should be allocated to their best alterative used' at least in its physical sense. Thus the area of land allocated for the production of teff is not justifiable when put to the test of the concept of economics o f production. The opportunity cost of land used for teff production to that o f maize or other crops is quite alarming yet. the population is suffering from shortage of food self-sufficiency and hunger. This begs for food for through in the crop mix and land use pattern.

Cost of Production and Revenue Relationships of cereal cropsThe economic theory of "allocating scarce resources to their best alternative used' does not end up on the physical relationship of allocating scarce resources to their best alternate uses. There is another side to it to be examined. It is the cost o f production and revenue relationship. This relationship is essentially the comparative analysis of price of inputs and the market prices o f the outputs.

According to Mulat (1998) country wide research conducted on 2319 ministry of agricultore's demonstration trials, profit in Ethiopian birr per hectar were 700 birr for maize, 678 birr for barley, 608 birr for wheat, 527 birr for teff and 284 birr for sorghum. The value cost ratio (VCR) were 4.2 for both barley and maize, 3.7 for both wheat and teff and 3.1 for sorghum. Details are shown in table 4 below. So in terms of value cost rations barley and teff are on the lower side6. As natural selection in Darwin favors the selfish gene, production economics favors products with greater V.C.R, which are barley and maize not teff, contrary to the expectation of money.

According to the Authors field observations, the Ministry of Agriculture's demonstration trial numbers allocated for the five major cereal crops is highly skewed towards teff followed by wheat. The demonstration trial numbers allocated to maize, barley and sorghum are very limited. This shows that the importance accorded to teff on demonstration trials is huge in number. The author argues that the scarce resources used for teff demonstration trials are not allocated to their best alternatives uses or on the basis o f their productivity. The detailed version o f this situation by crop and region is presented in Table 5a and 5b.


Astatke Bayu

Table: 4. Nutrient rates at the points of economic optimum rates of the five cereal crops

Average Estimated Estimated Profit in ValueNo. of Control Yield Yield Increase ETB Cost Ratio

Type of Cereals Trials kg/ha kg/ha. per/ha VCRTeff 876 715 475 527 3.7Barley 198 943 1,129 678 4.2Wheat 539 1,287 940 607 3.7Maize 262 2,475 1,410 700 4.2Sorghum 44 1,514 636 284 3.1Total 2,319

Source: Mulat (1998)

Table 5a. Nutrient rates at the points of economic optimum rate (EOR) according to zone/region

Est. yieldEst. control increase Profit Value Cost

Zone/region_____ No. of trials yield (kg/ha)_____(kg/ha)_____ (ETB/ha) Ratio (VCR)TeffShewa 537 702 641 570 3.17Gojam 227 613 592 526 3.7Arsi, Bale 55 976 473 417 3.6Others 57 583 195 147 2.6ATC 876 684 527 3.7WheatShewa 212 1189 1091 722 4Gojam 42 988 997 685 4.6Arsi, Bale 252 1403 826 487 3Others 33 1460 716 457 3.6ATC 539 1287 940 607 3.7BarleyShewa 48 705 963 559 3.8Arsi, Bale 129 1094 1199 730 4.4Others 21 774 1061 647 4.4ATC 198 943 1129 678 4.2MaizeShewa 129 2667 1325 666 4.4Gojam 62 2473 1932 959 4.2Welega, Kefa 24 2641 1855 892 3.8Gamugofa 27 2179 1212 507 4.1Others 20 1981 594 254 2.9ATC 262 2475 1410 700 4.2SorghumShewa 14 2113 759 414 4.1Hararghe 12 1661 248 98 2.2Others 18 1159 809 396 3.1ATC 44 1514 636 284 2.6

Source: ADD/NFIU (1992); ATC: across the country; VCR-value cost ratio


Astatke Bayu

Table 5b. Financial analysis of Fertilizer use in Ethiopia

Budget With Fertilizer Without FertilizerItem Teff Wheat Maize Teff Wheat Maize BarleyNo. of plots 1063 412 513 371 208 260 24Yield/inkg/ha 723 1670 1805 371 708 771 618Price/kg/in Ebirr 1.74 0.94 0.75 1.74 0.94 0.75 0.69Yield Value in Birr/ha 1258 1570 1354 1018 666 578 426Input costs* Except land 2111 1496 1292 1678 1386 1213 1035Gross Return (Yield valueLess imput cost

-853 +74 +62 -660 -720 -635 -609

Source: Mulat(1998).

•Input cost includes seed, fertilizer, labour, animal traction power, insecticides, herbicide, and guarding.

Research and Development on TeffFor the last 50 years the Ministry of Agricultures demonstration trials are highly skewed towards teff: The then college of agriculture and Institute o f Agriculture Research, now the Ethiopia Agricultural Research organization (EARO) has also given significant focus to teff in the area o f scientific research to improve teff"s productivity. Even- though some brake-throw has been recorded in the area o f breeding, the effort to improve teffs productivity or reduce its costs o f production has remained insignificant. Yield per hectare of teff under traditional farming system, using production inputs and improved cultural practice remained 8.9 quintals per hectare for half o f century. The generous budget allocation for teff both by the MOA and EARO may have to be reduced accordingly in favor of the other cereal crops, such as sorghum, pulses and oilseeds, maize, barely etc.

Amount of Fertilizer used on Cereal CropsThe provision of chemical fertilizer to increase cereal crop production has long been adopted to counter diminishing food stock and food aid dependency. However, vulnerability is on the increase. On the average the country has received 600,000 to 800,000 metric ton of food aid annually for the last 15 years. This situation has produced a sort o f Courier (1999) dependency syndrome on the farmers and fatigue on the donors side7. Whenever there is moisture stress in the country the notion o f “Let it rain in Canada” indicates the extent o f the depehdency.

As can be seen from Table 6 below, the total area fertilized is 1,725,620 hectares. The total area fertilized for teff, wheat, maize, barley and sorghum are 792, 548 ha (54%); 356,862 ha (58%), *279,601 ha (34%); 215,147 ha (30%) and 63,462 ha (8%) respectively. The highest fertilizer application rate per hectare in Kilograms are 74 kg for wheat, 54 kg for teff, 25 kg for barley, 24 kg for maize and 5 kg for sorghum (EEA, 1999/2000) In terms of quaptity o f fertilizer used for each cereal crops, teff takes the lions share followed by wheat, maize, barley and sorghum (See Table 6).

108 71” AESE Annual Conference Proceedings, 2003

Astatke Bayu

Table: 6 Total area of land fertilized, Fertilizer application rates and amount of fertilizer used in quintal on each crop (1980-1996)

Type of CerealTotal area

in Ha.

Total area Fertilized

in Ha.% O fArea

Application rate/ha in kg

Total ertilizer used in qt. Percent

Teff 1,467,497 792,548 54 54 427,976 52Wheat 615,280 356,862 74 74 264,068 32Barley 717,156 215,147 25 25 53,783 7Maize 878,229 297,601 24 24 71,424 9Sorghum 793,265 63,462 8 5 3,173 04Total 5,399,481 1,725,620 36 824,424 100

Source: Mulat (1998)

The amount of fertilizer used for teff is by far the largest quantity over the other cereal crops. Teff yield obtained per hectare is very small when compared to the yield o f maize, sorghum wheat and barley as shown in table 3 . Here again the scarce resource fertilizer is not applied to its best alternative use. The opportunity of increasing the production of higher quantity of maize, sorghum, barley and wheat are missed because the fertilizer is used for the production of teff in a large quantity. Yet teff is not foreign exchange earning commodity but uses huge quantity of fertilizer.

Multiple use of Cereal Crops in EthiopiaWhen one examines the different uses of cereal crops in Ethiopia, teff is consumed in three different forms. It is consumed as Injera, Porrage and K itta , whereas barley is consumed in twelve forms out of the total thirteen forms of uses of cereals. Barley is consumed as Injera, Porrage, Nefro, Kitta, Kollo, Enquto, Beso, Kinche and Bread. Barley is also consumed as Alcohol drink in the form of Telia, Arakai and Beer. The same sort o f products can be made from wheat. Maize and Sorghum have similar uses except for beso making. Maize and sorghum seeds are consumed at their milky stage of maturity as Eshet all over the country. Certain variety of sorghum stacks is consumed as sorghum cane9. Thus at worldwide and national level the four cereal crops are industrial crops.

So far, Teff is relatively not used as an industrial commodity in Ethiopa. The other cereal crops are easily made into different products such as Macoroni, Pasta, Beer and Baby Food etc. by manufacturing plants. The manufacturing of Flour and animal feeds is other agro-industrial products made from wheat, barley, maize and sorghum. Teff has very limited role to be used as raw material for the manufacturing sector, where as the other four cereals have great agro-industrial value, employment generation and added value. Thus their sectoral linkages are also very high.

Furthermore, teff cannot be used before it is turned into flour but some of the products made from the other cereals can be consumed as Kollo , Nefro and Eshete that need not be turned into flour. The quantitative consumption of these products by any or all


Astatke Bayu

members o f a given family will reduce the burden o f women as they are consumed without being turned into flour. In Ethiopia cereal grinding is an exclusive job of thewomen.

Table 7. Multiple use of Cereal Crops in Ethiopia

No. Raw Material for Teff Barley Wheat Maize Sorghum1 Injera rV V V V V2 Porage V V V V V3 Kitta V V V V V4 Kollo V V V V5 Nefrro V V V V6 Eshete V V V V7 Besso V V . .8 Kinche V V V V9 Bread V V V V10 Pasta - V . .11 Tella V V V V12 Arakai V V V V13 Beer V V V -

Total 3 12 12 10 9

Nutritional Composition of Cereals Per 100 gram weightWhen one examines the Nutritional status of cereal crops per 100-gram weight, the protein and fat contents of teff is on the lower side when compared to the four other cereal crops. The energy kcal/100 gram is more or less the same. The calcium content in teff is very sm all10.while that o f Iron is high.

W hen one considers the vitamin content per 100 gram o f cereals and am ino acid content, there are no vitamin "C" and "A" in teff, while both vitamins are present in maize and sorghum. The presence o f thiamin and riboflavin are alm ost the same while niacin is found in sorghum, wheat and barley double than it's presence in teff. The following two tables show the facts stated above (TU B, 1980)

Table 8. Nutritional composition of cereals per 100 gram

CerealCrops

Protein Per 100 gram

Energy Kcal 100 gram

Fat 100 gram

Calcium Mg/ 100

% of Wates

Teff 9.1 353 2.2 1.1 11.2Maize 9.5 356 4.3 7.0 12.0Sorghum 10.1 343 3.3 39.0 11.0Wheat 12.1 334 2.3 36.0 12.0Barley 11.0 332 1.8 33.0 12.0

Source: Technical University of Berlin. TUB (1980).


Astatke Bayu

Table 9. Vitamin and Amino acid contents per 100 gram of cereals

CerealCrops

Vitamin "C" (Mg)

Vitamin "A" (U)

Thiamin(Mg)

Riboflavin(Mg)

Niacin(Mg)

Teff 0 0 0.47 0.11 2.1Maize 0 450 0.45 0.11 2.0Sorghum 0 200 0.41 0.15 4.0Wheat 0 0 0.41 0.10 4.6Barley 0 0 0.46 0.12 5.5

10. What is to be done?To achieve the goal of food self-sufficiency and reduce the number of hungry people, the area of land occupied by teff should be reduced by half and be used for the production of maize, sorghum and wheat in an economically sensible proportion. Using this scenario and adopting best extension experience, the production of cereals will increase from 54.036.459 quintals to 82. 022.777 quintals per year assuming equal proportion. The scenario is presented in table 10 below. The best experience of yield for maize, sorghum wheat and barley is assumed to be 25 quintals, 20 quintals and 16 quintals respectively for the four cereal crops.

Table 10. Assumed areas, Yield and Production of the Five Cereal Crops

Type of CerealTotal area

in HaYield Per/ha

ip quintalTotal production in

quintalTeff 733,747 9 6,603,723Barley 717,156 16 11,474,496Wheat 882,153 16 14,114,448Maize 1,145,102 25 28,627,550Sorghum 1,060,138 20 21,202,760Total 4,471,427 17 82,022,777

Source: TUB (1980)

Assuming the population of Ethiopia will be 68 million by year 2005, the amount of cereal crops produced will be a little more than 82,000,000 quintals. If we divide 82 million quintal by the population, which is 68 million, each head count will get 1.25 quintals o f cereal crops per capita. This figure will take the population a long way to food self-sufficiency only by changing the cropping pattern as strategy of cereal crop production. This is without increasing the area cultivated with cereal crops. Along with the introduction of agricultural price policy, it is possible to solve the problem of food shortage in the country. The strategy will also save huge animal traction power and human labor. You have to plow three to four times for land preparation to plant teff whereas you need not go more than two times for planting the rest of the cereal crops.

Using this strategy the Economy will be enhanced efficiency obtained food self- sufficiency attained poverty redicud and rural development achieved. This strategy will


Astatke Bayu

release a lot of animal traction power and man-days that could be used for other productive activities.

Conclusions and RecommendationThe importance given to teff in terms of the land area it occupies, its productivity, multiplicity o f use and nutritional value needs to be reconsidered in face of hunger, increasing food aid, decreasing soil fertility and increasing poverty and population growth. Thus it is recommended that gradual decrease of land occupied by teff should be a strategy to be adapted to bring Food self-sufficiency and economic growth in the agricultural sector hence food security along with enabling policies pore cages of land tenure, land use, price policy and agricultural marketing regulations which will radically change the gloomy pictures o f macro and micro economic conditions of the country.

ReferencesNeun, Hansjorg.2000. Food Aid missed opportunity latent potential for poverty reduction and

alleviation in Ethiopia. Ethiopian International Institute for peace and development,Page 6.

MEDaC(Ministry of Economic Development and Cooperation). 1992. National report on Environment and Development. A report prepared by Ethiopia For LJNCED. 'National Report on Environment and Development” RiD de Jeneirs, January 1992, Page 52.

MEDaC. 1992. National report on Environment and Development. A report prepared by Ethiopia For UNCED. National Report on Environment and Development. Rio de Jeneirs, January 1992, Page 1. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

EEA (Ethiopian Economic Association). 1999/2000. Annual Report on the Ethiopian Economy, Vol.l. Page 163. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

EEA (Ethiopian Economic Association). Annual Report on tke Ethiopian Economy,1999/2000, Vol. 1 page 163. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

MoPED (Ministry of Planning and Economic Development). 1988. Department of National Food and Nutrition Strategy 1988. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

The courier, APC-ELJ (African-Caribbean and Pacific -European Union) 1999. Country Report on Ethiopia, No. 197, Page 61. Brussels, Belgium.

EEA (Ethiopian Economic Association). Annual Report on the Ethiopian Economy, 1999/2000, Pp 161-168.

TUB (Technical University of Berlin) 1980. Production, Marketing andConsumption of Potatoes in the Ethiopian Highlands. Center for advanced training in

Agricultural Development Production, Marketing and Consumption of Potatoes in the Ethiopian Highlands. 1980 Pp.34-35.

Mulat Demeke. 1998. Grain Marketing in Ethiopia. MEDac. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia


The National Extension Intervention Program (N EIP) and Sustainable Agricultural Development: An Exploratory Study to Steer the Debate on ADLI

1Dereje Alemu

2Demese Chanyaleiv

IntroductionThe Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) government and the World Bank organized a Rural Development Workshop on November 13-15, 2002. In this workshop, the performance of Ethiopia’s agriculture during the last ten years was discussed. Some experts working in different organizations including the World Bank stated that Ethiopia’s agriculture performance has been poor and this indicates the failure of the government’s Agricultural Development Led Industrialization (ADLI) strategy. Specifically, the National Extension Intervention Program (NEIP) was criticized in view of the national cereal crops yield per hectare. Some experts argued that, on the average, the national crop yield level has been low, and by implication, that NEIP has failed. The debate on this line was at high-strung during the televised panel discussion organized by the Inter African Public Policy Forum at Sheraton Addis on December, 2002. The government, specifically the Prime Minister challenged such presumptions and defended ADLI. He challenged those who used national level statistics to criticize NEIP and ADLI by arguing that areas covered by NEIP have registered remarkably high crop yield per hectare, particularly in NEIP covered maize and wheat production areas. Furthermore he reaffirmed that ADLI will remain to be the lead strategy of Ethiopia’s economic development effort for years to come.

This study was designed to make an exploratory research that could render information to the debaters on both sides: those for and against ADLI/NEIP. Besides, it is designed to provide results that indicate the direction and depth of studies to be conducted in view of NEIP’s performance assessment and it’s relation to ADLI. Below a background about the emergence of NEIP, the researchable question and the objective of this study are stated. The remaining sections present conceptual framework and methodology, results and discussions, and conclusion and recommendations.

1 MoA, Addis Abeba2 Lead-WeDeB, Addis Abeba


BackgroundThe farming subsector o f Ethiopia is characterized by traditional rain fed and low productive techniques o f production and thus, is prone to the recurrent natural calamity of drought, which leaves famine and death in its wake. Today farmers in Ethiopia have difficulties in feeding their households on their increasingly fragmenting land, using traditional and backward techniques of production. Hence the drastic need to improve agricultural productivity and production through the adoption and adaptation of improved agricultural technologies and techniques is apparent. This places a lot of responsibility on agricultural support services like agricultural research and extension.

Since the 1950s E.C., extension programs and projects were undertaken aiming to increase crop and livestock production and thus income of farmers, raw material for industries and products for exports as well as conserving soil, water and forest resources (AERTF, 1986 E.C.). For instance, the comprehensive projects like Wollayta Agricultural Development Unit (WADU), Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit (CADU), Arsi Agricultural Development Unit (ARDU), the Minimum Package Programs I and II (MPP I & II), and Peasant Agriculture Development Program (PADEP), during the different regimes, aimed at increasing crop and livestock production by enhancing the dissemination of improved inputs and techniques, credit and market facilities. However, studies indicated that such projects and extension programs did not fully achieve their objectives due to various social, economic, political and institutional obstacles (AERTF, 1986 EC).

In 1993, Sasakawa Global 2000 (SG2000), a non governmental organization, introduced a new system of extension intervention aimed at increasing productivity and production of small holder farmers through an aggressive technology (mainly improved seeds and fertilizers) transfer program, and strengthening the linkage between research and extension in order to streamline the process of technology generation and dissemination (SG2000, 2002). In order to implement the program, the project used Participatory Demonstrative and Training Extension System (PADETES), which involves the establishment of Extension Management Training Plots (EMTPs)- usually half hectare on-farm and farmer managed demonstration plots established to train farmers as well as extension workers on proper farm management practices. The EMTPs used improved seed varieties with their proper agronomic practices, utilized the credit made available for the purchase of agricultural inputs (mostly fertilizer), trained grass-root level development agents and farmers. The program provided facilities and incentives for outstanding farmers who used the package.

In 1995, the then Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE), pleased with SG 2000’s performance, launched a similar extension intervention program called the National Extension Intervention Program (NEIP) and adopted PADETES/EM TPs as it’s implementation instrument. NEIP took over and expanded SG 2000’s operations. NEIP, in rum is considered as an instrument of the Agricultural Development led

114 T* AESE Annual Conference Proceedings, 2003


Industrialization strategy (ADLI). Though ADLI is a strategy for Ethiopia’s overall economic development, with regards to agriculture, it has aimed at improving agriculture production and productivity and thus living standards of the rural populationf by demonstrating to and training participating, farmers and development agents on improved cultivation practices and enhancing'increased, use of improved technologies (MeDaC, 1999).

The FDRE government launched NEIP with a confidence to overcome agricultural production problems in the midst of land fragmentation and tenure insecurity, as well as with associated issues like land degradation and lack o f support systems. Private researchers have asserted that NEIP is a futile intervention exercise in the presence of such problems. They also question the success of NEIP based on the low national average yield of food crops. On the other hand government officials have argued that national level production and productivity statistics have not substantially increased due to the fact that NEIP’s coverage is limited, but in areas where there has been an intensive NEIP implementation, they argue, production and productivity are significantly high. O f course, in the years of good agricultural performance after 1995, NEIP took the credit while poor agricultural performance was attributed to drought and related climatic factors.

The objective of this study, therefore, is to assess, via an exploratory study, whether the facts used by the two parties: those for and against ADLI/NEIP, were adequate enough to reach at their respective conclusions as well as to identify and relate the factors that might have influenced the effects of the extension program, particularly in terms of maize production and productivity.

Conceptual Framework* and MethodologyA brief comparative assessment of the performance o f national level cereal production and productivity of 5 major cereal crops, namely teff, wheat, maize, barley, and sorghum in Ethiopia under three regimes is made to dissect the arguments put forth by some experts regarding the low levels of national cereal production and productivity despite the current regime claim of success of NEIP cum ADLI.

A sample o f 62 Woredas’ (26 in Amhara, 26 in Oromia and 10 in SNNPR) 2001/02 Meher season maize production data was descriptively and econometrically analyzed. In each region, the study Woredas were classified as Woredas where the implementation of NEIP has been aggressive and those in which NEIP’s implementation is relatively less aggressive, i.e., Woredas intensively covered by NEIP and those that are not. The Woredas in Amhara, Oromia and SNNPR where NEIP has been aggressively implemented, particularly with regards to maize, were identified with the help o f the staff of SG 2000 and the extension department of MoA3. An equal number of adjacent

3 We appreciate and thank Ato. Adugna Kefena, SG2000, and Ato. Dejene Habesha, Agricultural Extension Department, MoA in this regard.



Woredas that lie in the same respective Zones as the former ones where NEIP’s implementation is less aggressive were then identified based on the latest agricultural census. The justification for selecting adjacent Woredas is to capture NEIP’s contribution, while at the same time minimizing the effect o f infrastructural and agro- ecological variations in maize production and productivity for the Woredas intensively covered by NEIP and those that are not.

In addition to the intensity of extension coverage, to capture the effect of the incidence of drought in the areas where the Woredas are located on maize production and productivity, the Woredas were further classified as drought prone Woredas and non- drought prone ones. This classification is based on the general consensus of previous studies (Befekadu, Berhanu and Getahun, 2000/01, Pg. 73) on the specific areas where the incidence of drought is frequent and those where rainfall is relatively surplus. Incidentally, the entire drought prone Woredas in the sample (16 Woredas) are located in Amhara region. These Woredas are adjacent to each other, and classified equally as Woredas intensively covered by NEIP and those that are not. This would help in comparatively analyzing NEIP’s performance on maize production and productivity in Woredas that are prone to drought.

To show that pocket-effort results of NEIP implementations may not be captured by national statistics, a descriptive and econometric assessment o f the impact of NEIP on maize production and productivity in NEIP covered areas is made. It is hoped that this will help in logically assessing the government's argument that in areas where there has been an intensive extension intervention, production and productivity are significantly higher due to NEIP. For the descriptive analysis, conventional maize production and productivity was compared with the production and productivity o f NEIP covered areas, both at national level and for the selected sample Woredas. It is hypothesized that the NEIP covered areas are more productive as participating farmers in such areas (EMTPs) are expected to use more productive technological packages. For the econometric analysis, cross sectional secondary data of the selected 62 Woredas (categorized in terms of the intensity o f operation of NEIP, i.e., intensively covered by NEIP and less intensively covered) in three major maize growing regions (26 in Amhara, 26 in Oromia, and 10 in SNNPR) was analyzed by ANCOVA (Analysis o f Covariance) function. ANCOVA is a regression technique, which contains an admixture of quantitative and qualitative variables. Maize production and productivity for 2001/02 Meher season is taken as the dependent variable, and area under maize production, a dummy variable of the incidence of drought (the Woredas are categorized as non-drought prone = 1 or otherwise = 0), dummy variable of intensity of extension services (where a value of 1 is given to Woredas in which there has been an aggressive extension intervention and 0 to Woredas where the implementation of NEIP is relatively less intensive), and an interaction variable o f extension intensity and area under production as explanatory ones. The Woredas are selected on the criteria of intensity of NEIP in adjacent Woredas (same number o f Woredns in one Zone where NEIP operations are intensive and

116 T*1 AESE Annual Conference Proceedings, 2003


relatively less intensive) in major maize growing Zones of Amhara, Oromia and SNNPR regions.

Equation 1: M - p0 +PiXi+p 2 2+p3X 3+p4X IX 3 + 6

Equation 2: Y = a 0 +a iX 2+a 2X3 + 8

Where: M is maize production of 52 Woredas for 2001/02 Meher season (in qt)Y is yield ot maize in qt/ha in the Woredas for the same periodp;s and otjS are parameters to be estimated, i = 1 ,2 ,3 , 4 j = 1 , 2

Xi is area under maize productionX 2 is incidence o f drought in the respective areas o f the Woredas (if non-drought

prone=l, and 0 if otherwise)X 3 is the intensity o f NEIP operations (1 if the respective Woredas are intensively

covered by NEIP and 0 if they are relatively less intensively covered) and s is the error term.

It was hypothesized that maize production is positively correlated with all the variables. T-statistics are used to test the significance of each of the variables in explaining maize production and productivity in the Woredas. The interaction variable (X]X3) is intended to show the importance of area under cultivation in influencing maize production in Woredas intensively covered by NEIP as opposed to its importance in less intensively covered Woredas. If the estimated parameter is insignificant, then production change is due to area expansion, rather than from NEIP’s efforts. Production elasticity of maize to area under cultivation in both intensively and less intensively covered Woredas is calculated to ascertain the implication of the interaction variable’s parameter. Production elasticity is calculated using the formula dM /dArea*Ave. Area/Ave. Mi? i = 1 for Intensively covered Woredas and 2 for less intensively covered Woredas, where dM /dAreaj is derivative of maize production with respect to area under cultivation in Woredas intensely covered by NEIP (i = 1) and in Woredas less intensively covered by NEIP (i = 0). If production elasticity of maize to area is higher in Woredas intensively covered by NEIP than the production elasticity in less intensively covered Woredas, then maize production is highly responsive to changes in area under cultivation in Woredas intensively covered by NEIP than it is in Woredas less intensively covered. This would suggest that productivity and technology dissemination have been enhanced by NEIP’s intensive implementation.

Results and Discussions

Inter-Regime Cereal Crop Production Performance Trend Analysis

As indicated in the introduction part of this paper, one of the issues of the debate on NEIP/ADLI revolves around the national versus NEIP covered areas average cereal yield per hectare. One pertinent question is that whether the low national yield is unique to the EPRDF regime or not. To give an inter-regime comparison to this issue a trend analysis that revolves around average cereal yield is reported below. Part of the reported



statistics is based on the recent work of one of the authors of this paper (Demese, 2002). The last decade o f the H.I.M. Haile Selassie’s regime, the Derge regime and the first 11 years of EPRDF regime are considered. The trends of production and productivity o f 5 major cereal crops (teff, wheat, maize, barley and sorghum) are comparatively analyzed.

Table 1: Average production, cultivated area and productivity of 5 major cereal crops during three regimes in Ethiopia

Cereal Average 1963-73 1974-90 1991-01 Overall Ave.Teff Prod(‘000qt) 14623 11843.68 15784.28 14083.65

Area(‘000ha) 2420.17 1392.99 1868.46 1893.87Yield(qt/ha) 6.15 8.54 8.53 7.74

Wheat Prod 6331.82 6212.4 10544.61 7696.28Area 835 557.18 822.63 738.27Yield 7.53 11.19 13.07 10.59

Maize Prod 8472.18 12369.73 20932.57 13924.83Area 834.91 799 1191.98 941.96Yield 10.13 15.56 17.54 14.41

Barley Prod 11613.55 8476.93 7955.16 9348.55Area 1375.65 704.48 733.55 937.89Yield 8.38 11.60 11.07 10.35

Sorghum Prod 10237.18 9776.94 12481.04 10831.72Area 1212.49 802.68 963.61 992.93Yield 8.46 12.07 13.16 11.23

Source: authors' computation o f data obtained from CSA Statistical Abstracts of different years.

Table 1 shows the average yield of all five-cereal crops during the Derge regime (1974- 1990) is higher than the average yields during the last decade of the Imperial era (1963- 1973). This is probably due to the substantial rise in fertilizer consumption that was witnessed starting from the mid 1970’s (See Table 2). For instance, in Table 1, average teff yield increased by about 40% from 6.15 q/ha during the last decade o f the Imperial era to 8.54 q/ha during the Derge regime. The average yields of wheat, maize, barley and sorghum also increased by about 48.6%, 53.7%, 38.4% and 42.6% respectively. The differences in the average yield levels o f the crops during the Derge regime and during the first 11 years o f EPRDF rule (1991-2001), however, is less marked, and in some cases, negative. The average yield levels of wheat, maize and sorghum increased by about 17%, 12.8% and 9%, respectively. The average yields of teff and barley during EPRDF’s rule, on the other hand, are slightly less than their respective average yields during the Derge’s regime. Considering the fact that agriculture has been officially declared as the top priority sector by EPRDF since 1995, with considerable expenditures on yield- enhancing support services like research and extension and the more than two-fold increase in average fertilizer consumption per cultivated area (See Table 2 and Figure), the positive average yield differences between EPRDF and Derge are surprisingly insignificant, and the negative differences are foreboding. The fact that the average yield levels o f the 5 major



cereal crops are about the same during the two regimes indicates that the substantialinvestments made by EPRDF on agricultural support services like research and extensionand the pledges of commitment to this sector have not yet changed the productivity ofcereal farmers at national level. The average yields o f ajl crops (except the endemic teff)

)Table 2:National fertilizer consumption and per capita cereal 'production in Ethiopia (1971-2000)

Total fertilizer cons./ha Per Capita cerealof cereal cultivated area Growth production Growth

Year (kg/ha) (%) (qt/person/year) %1971 0.131125 2.049 -1972 0.388425 196.22 1.491 -27.221973 1.569715 304.12 1.448 -2.85Average 0.696422 250.17 1.663 -15.041974 2.852134 81.70 1.442 -0.421975 3.048855 6.90 1.763 22.251976 8.363962 174.33 1.296 -26.501977 7.655405 -8.47 1.197 -7.641978 7.752799 1.27 1.153 -3.681979 10.75666 38.75 1.777 54.101980 10.45717 -2.78 1.427 -19.651981 7.609134 -27.24 1.322 -7.391983 10.04243 42.71 1.367 -16.021984 10.96555 9.19 0.939 -31.341985 5.447995 -50.32 1.0276 9.481986 19.1528 251.56 1.206 17.381987 29.25357 ‘ 52.74 1.1606 -3.781988 32.58856 11.40 1.102 -5.071989 32.76091 0.53 1.135 2.961990 26.56473 -18.91 1.0802 -4.79Average 13.66529 32.70 1.295 0.181991 29.75193 12.00 0.923 -14.591992 42.54177 43,00 1.020 10.591993 29.91411 -29.70 0.972 -4.771994 37.2356 24.48 1.163 19.731995 38.92687 4.54 1.457 25.251996 39.84254 2.35 1.470 0.871997 41.81006 4.94 1.067 -27.431998 44.84594 7.26 1.212 13.621999 45.74256 2.00 1.195 -1.402000 39.97732 -12.60 1.332 11.43Average 39.05887 5.83 1.181 3.33Source: Authors' computation based on data obtained from SG2000, 2002 and CSA, Statistical abstracts of different years.

are still at rudimentary levels, even when compared with yields obtained by Sub-Saharan African countries let alone World average figures. For instance, in 2001, average wheat



yield of Africa was about 19.64 qt/ha (FAO, 2001) while it was 12.95 qt/ha in Ethiopia during that year. The World average yield for maize was 44.27 qt/ha (FAO, 2001) in 2001 while it was 17.09 qt/ha in Ethiopia in the same year.

Table 3: Trend (average % change/year) of production, cultivated area, and productivity of 5 major cereal crops under three regimes in Ethiopia.

Cereal Trend o f ; 1963-1973 1974-1990 1991-2001 Overall Ave.Prod(Ave%ch/yr) 4.55 0.12 3.78 0.238

Teff Area( Ave%ch/ yr) -6.78 -1.46 4.82 -0.93Yield(“) 2.23 1.57 -1.04 1.168Prod 10.13 1.434 5 2.26

Wheat Area 8.86 0.44 7.01 0.488Yield 1.267 0.99 -2.01 1.773Prod 2.82 2.23 7.4 3.134

Maize Area 1.392 1.08 7.24 1.293Yield 1.428 1.147 0.161 1.84

Barley Prod 1.716 -0.68 -1.29 -1.07Area 1.447 -1.249 2.05 -1.89Yield 0.268 0.57 -3.34 0.8Prod -1.866 -0.53 9.57 0.51

Sorghum Area -2.8 -2.02 11.437 -0.94Yield 0.93 1.486 -1.868 1.463

Source: Authors’ computation based on data obtained from CSA. statistical abstracts for different years

An analysis o f the rate of growth (or lack thereoO of cereal productivity under the three regimes (results on Table 3) also portrays the same bleak picture. On average for the years 1963-2001, teff, wheat, maize, barley and sorghum grew by 1.168%, 1.773%, 1.84%, 0.8% and 1.463% per annum respectively. When these overall average figures are disaggregated based on the years of reign of the three regimes, the performance of the cereal sub-sector under the different regimes becomes more clear. With the exception of barley and sorghum, the average annual growth rate o f productivity o f the cereals is higher during the Imperial regime than that during the Derge regime. On average, yield o f barley and sorghum grew by 0.268% and 0.93% per annum respectively during the last decade o f the Imperial era, while their yields grew by 0.57% and 1.486% annually on average respectively during the Derge regime. Productivity o f teff, wheat and maize during the Imperial era grew on average by 2.23%, 1.267% and 1.428% per annum, respectively. Productivity of theses 3 cereals was growing at a lower rate during the Derge regime, standing at 1.57%, 0.99% and 1.147% annually on average, respectively.

The average annual growth rates o f productivity of the cereal crops (with the exception o f maize) were negative during the first 11 years of EPRDF administration. Yields o f teff, wheat, barley and sorghum declined on average by 1.04%, 2.01%, 3.34% and 1.868% per annum respectively for the years 1991-2001. This presents a frightening prospective for the nation as it entails that the rising population and associated decreasing

120 781 AESE Annual Conference Proceedings, 2003


availability of productive farm land coupled with stagnant backward techniques of production are decreasing the already rudimentary ;levels of cereal productivity. Perhaps it is for this reason that researchers question the role played by agricultural support services like research and extension that have been undertaken by EPRDF. However, the thrust of this study is to show that pocket-efforts to improve agricultural productivity may not be captured by national level statistics. Nevertheless, it would be logical to anticipate that with all the pledges of commitment to develop agriculture and the substantial investments made on its support services by EPRDF, growth rate of cereal productivity would be moderately positive, or at>the very least, would not be negative at a national level.

Yet, the fact remains that national level cereal productivity (yield) has either been declining annually on average during the past 12 years (in the case of teff, wheat, barley and sorghum) or is stagnant (in the case o f maize). This fact places doubt not only on the propagated salvation of agricultural support services, but also on the governments pledges of commitment to the farm sub-sector. It also indicates that the positive results that may have been obtained by agricultural support services are by far overshadowed by the negative constraints to cereal production such as land fragmentation, increasingly frequent incidence of drought, tenure insecurity and associated land degradation, resource inadequacy, institutional bottleneck, etc. The prospective o f achieving food security through improved cereal production in Ethiopia appears to be dim when the declining rate of cereal productivity is observed, and is altogether dark if the situation is not drastically changed. This calls for a well designed agricultural development program including research, multiplication and extension that commensurate to optimal use of available resources for selected regions and crops.

N E IP ’s impact on Maize Production and Productivity: Descriptive analysis

Maize EMTPs have come to constitute a significant proportion of the total area under maize cultivation and an even more substantial proportion of total maize production in Ethiopia. Table 4 shows the maize cultivated area and production for the years 1995- 2001 of NEIP covered areas (EMTPs) and total national level figures. NEIP maize covered areas (maize EMTPs), as a proportion of total national area under maize cultivation, have grown from 0.22% in 1995 to more than 30% in 2001. More surprising, this seemingly minor share of the total area under maize cultivation produced almost 50% of the total maize production for 2001, and EMTPs have produced as high as 65% of the total maize production in 1999 (EMTPs constituted about 20.25% of the total area under maize cultivation during that year).

This implies that the areas under maize production that are not covered by NEIP (conventional plots) have low productivity (yield) levels as they produce only about half o f the country’s total maize production, even though they constitute the majority of the land under maize cultivation (more than 85% on average).

7th AESE Annual Conference Proceedings, 2003 1 2 1


Table 4. 1995-2001 Proportion of NEIP in total maize cultivated area and production in Ethiopia

1995-2000 Maize cultivated area and production (NEIP and Total)

Year NEIP Total (national)

NEIP’s % age proportion of total

Area (Ha) Prodn.(Qt) Area (Ha) Prodn.(Qt)maize

Area Prodn1995 3783 139214 1688700 29277100 0.22 0.481996 38761.2 2073740 1448900 23443000 2.68 8.851997 59402.5 2197893 1100610 19288510 5.40 11.401998 215718.5 11174218 1303100 24166240 16.55 46.241999 285025 16417440 1407270 25254710 20.25 65.012000 418381.5 17069965 1719130 31384530 24.34 54.392001 341122 13815441 1132040 28002090 30.13 49.34Source: - MoA, 2001CSA, Statistical abstracts of years (1998-2Q00\01)

The descriptive analysis result mentioned above is further asserted by looking at the differences in productivity between maize EMTPs and conventional (traditional) maize plots (See Table 5). There is a large difference in the yield levels obtained on maize EMTPs (both SG2000 sponsored and government sponsored or NEIP demonstration plots) and yield levels obtained on traditional

Table 5. Productivity (yield in qt/ha) of EMTPs and traditional plots (1993-2000)

Productivity Increment in(Qt/ha)*____________ productivity

Year EMTP(a)

Traditional(b)

in (qt/ha) In % (a-b) (a-b)/b%

1993SG2000 sponsored demonstration plots

51.1 16 35.1 219.3751994 55.5 16 39.5 246.8751995 57 17 40 235.294

Government (NEIP) sponsored demonstration plots1995 36.8 17.2 19.6 113.951996 51.7 17.6 34.1 193.751997 42 16.5 25.5 154.5451998 51.8 15.5 36.3 234.1941999 57.6 17.6 40 227.2732000 40.5 16.5 24 145.455SG Ave. 54.5 16.3 38.2 234.356Gov. Ave. 46.7 15.9 30.8 193.711OverallAve. 50.1 16.1 34 211.1801

Source: * SG2000, 2002 & MoA, 2001

Note: NEIP took over SG2000's EMTPs and started establishing new plots by mid 1995.



maize plots. The overall average figure indicates that on average, maize EMTPs give slightly more than 210% more yield than traditional maize plots for the years under consideration. Government sponsored (NEIP) maize EMTPs (starting from 1995) provide less yield levels than those sponsored by SG2000 in the preceding years. SG2000 sponsored maize EMTPs were able to yield 54.5 qt/ha on average (between 1993-95), while NEIP demonstration plots (which the government sponsored based upon SG 2000’s agricultural extension intervention program) yielded 46.7 qt/ha on average for the years 1995-2000. The decline in the yield levels of government’s NEIP demonstration plots relative to SG2000 demonstration plots is mainly because of the government’s extensive operation as opposed to SG 2000’s intensive extension intervention program. The NEIP started working with millions of farmers, including those who were under the SG2000 program, in contrast to the relatively few number of EMTPs established by SG2000, which resulted in an inevitable decline in the quality o f advice rendered by extension to participating farmers.

A comparative analysis of the average yield levels of 31 Woredas in Oromia, Amhara and SNNPR intensively covered by NEIP and 31 adjacent Woredas less intensively covered by NEIP reveals a clearer picture about the impact of NEIP on yield level of maize growing areas where it has been aggressively implemented. Table 6 shows the average yield levels of 62 sample Woredas in Amhara, Oromia and SNNPR intensively and less intensively covered by NEIP.

Table 6: Average yield levels and Coefficients of Variations of yield of 62 sample Woredas in Amhara, Oromia and SNNPR for 2001/02 Meher season, intensively and less intensively covered by NEIP

Oromia. Amhara SNNPRExtensionintensity

Ave. yield (q/ha)

C.V . (in %)

Ave. yield (q/ha)

C.V. (in %)

Ave. yield (q/ha)

C.V. (in %)

Intensively covered by NEIP 26.98 18.926 17.86 49.731 20 1.13921

Less intensively covered by NEIP

20 13.118. 16.12 41.849 13.92 21.1026

Source: Authors’ computation based on data obtained from Central Agricultural Census Commission, 2001/02.

The average yield level for 2001/02 Meher season of 13 Woredas in Oromia region that are intensively covered by NEIP was about 35% higher than the average yield of 13 adjacent Woredas that are less intensively covered by NEIP. The average yield was about 26.98 and 20 qt/ha, respectively. In SNNPR, the average yield of 5 Woredas where the implementation of NEIP was aggressive as found to be greater by about 44% than the counterpart adjacent Woredas’ average yield. The above analysis for Amhara region

paints a startling picture. This region contains all the Woredas classified as being located in drought prone areas, i.e., Woredas in N. Showa, Wollo and Gondar. As such, deeper analysis is needed for this region and it’s Woredas are further classified as drought prone (16 Woredas out of which 8 are intensively covered by NEIP and 8 are not) and non

7U' AESE Annual Conference Proceedings, 2003 123


drought prone ones (10 Woredas out o f which 5 are intensively covered by NEIP and 5 are not) in Table 7. The average yield of the 13-sample Woredas intensively covered by NEIP was only about 11% higher than the average yield o f 13 adjacent Woredas that are less intensively covered by NEIP. Table 7 shows the average yields and dispersion of yield relative to the mean (CVs) o f 26 sample Woredas o f Amhara region classified as drought prone and non-drought prone ones, and intensively covered by NEIP and less intensively covered ones. The 8 sample Woredas located in drought prone areas o f Amhara region, intensively covered by NEIP, obtained an average yield that is about 12% higher than the 8 adjacent sample Woredas less intensively covered by NEIP.

Table 7. Average yield and Coefficient of variation of yield of the 26 sample Woredas in drought prone and non-drought prone areas of Amhara region intensively and less intensively covered by NEIP.

Drought prone Non drought proneAve. yield (in q/ha)

C.V (in %)

Ave. yield (in q/ha)

C.V (in %)

Intensively covered by NEIP Less intensively covered by NEIP

13.16

11.72

42.87

32.79

25.38

23.16

32.00

13.66

Source: Authors' computation based on data obtained from Central Agricultural Census Commission, 2001/02.

This implies that the incidence of drought, i.e., the fact that Woredas lie in areas prone to drought, is highly determinant o f the average yield levels, and suggests that the intensive implementation of NEIP in Woredas located in such areas has not resulted in a significant increase in their average maize yield levels. In fact, in this region, the average yield of 5 sample non-drought prone Woredas intensively covered by NEIP is even less significantly (only about 10%) higher than the average yield of 5 adjacent nondrought prone Woredas less intensively covered by NEIP. Hence, yield increases may not be necessarily due to intensive NEIP implementation, but also due to favorable environmental factors in the areas of implementation, and the 11% difference seen for Amhara region as a whole may only reflect the variation of these environmental variables.

The assertion that yield increases are not necessarily due to intensive NEIP implementation is more clearly inferred by observing the dispersion or spread of the 62 Woredas’ yield data for each classification relative to the respective average yield in the above tables (Table 6 and 7). Coefficients of Variation (CVs), which are computed by dividing the standard deviation of the yield levels of the Woredas in each classification by the average (mean) yield of the respective category, are used to measure dispersion or spread. CVs show the relative dispersion (in %) of the distribution of the individual Woredas yield observation from the classification’s average yield level. With the exception of SNNPR, probably due to the small number o f sample Woredas taken in that region, the dispersion in the distribution of the yield levels of Woredas intensively covered by NEIP relative to their mean (average yield) is higher than the dispersion in



the distribution of the yield levels of Woredas less intensively covered by NEIP relative to their mean. The intensive implementation of NEIP has, hence, not resulted in consistent (or at least closely clustered) levels of yield for the sample Woredas in Oromia and Amhara regions. This indicates the presence o f other important factors besides intensive extension intervention, like environmental (e.g., climatic and agronomic conditions, etc) and infrastructural (e.g., proximity o f Woredas to agricultural research centers and rural credit and input institutions, etc) factors, that account for such widely dispersed levels of yields for the Woredas intensively covered by NEIP.

The above indications are more firmly asserted by looking at Tables 8 and 9. Table 8 shows the average yield levels and distribution of the yields from the average of the 62 sample Woredas classified as drought prone Woredas and non-drought prone ones, irrespective of the intensity of NEIP implementation.

Table 8: Average yield levels and Coefficients o f Variations o f yield o f drought prone Woredas and non- drought prone ones.

Ave. yield C.V.Measure (q/ha) (in %)Drought prone Woredas 12.44 37.96

Non-drought prone Woredas 22.24 26.19Source: Authors' computation based on data obtained from Central Agricultural Census Commission, 2001/02.

Table 8 indicates that, out of the 62 sample Woredas, 46 that lie in non-drought prone areas obtain an average yield level that is about 79% greater than the average yield level of the 16 sample Woredas that lie in drought prone areas, regardless of the intensity of NEIP’s implementation. The Coefficients of Variation indicate that there is more dispersion relative to the average yields in the distribution of the yields of drought prone Woredas compared with the distribution of yields o f non drought prone Woredas. This is probably due to the erratic rainfall conditions in drought prone areas and infrastructural variations. To further observe the impact of NEIP in drought prone areas, see Table 9.

Table 9 shows the average yield levels and dispersion in distribution of yields of the 62 sample Woredas classified as Woredas in drought prone areas where NEIP has been intensively implemented or not, and non-drought prone Woredas where NEIP has been intensively implemented or not.

Table 9: Average yield levels and Coefficients of Variations o f yield o f Woredas in drought prone and nondrought prone areas, aggressively covered by NEIP and relatively less aggressively covered.

Drought Prone Non drought proneAve. yield C.V Ave. yield C.V(in q/ha) (in %) (in q/ha) . (in %)

Aggressively covered by NEIP 13.16 42.871 24.42 24.1210Less aggressively covered by NEIP 11.72 32.787 19.36 21.5440

Source: Authors' computation based on data obtained from Central Agricultural Census Commission, 2001/02.



Table 9 indicates that the aggressive implementation o f NEIP in drought prone Woredas has not brought about a substantial improvement in their average yield levels. Even the average vield levels in non-drought prone Woredas where NEIP has been aggressively implemented is not as high as it is made out to be than the Woredas in such areas where the implementation of NEIP is less aggressive. For the drought prone areas, out of the 16 sample Woredas, 8 were intensively covered by NEIP and obtained an average yield level that was only 12% higher than the counterpart in adjacent Woredas. The 26 sample Woredas in non-drought prone areas that were intensively covered by NEIP obtained an average yield level that is about 26% higher than the average yield obtained by the 26 sample Woredas where the implementation of NEIP is less intensive. The intensive implementation of NblP, even in Woredas that are not prone to drought, has not brought about the big yield improvement that would be anticipated by looking at the yield figures o f EMTPs and traditional plots. The Woredas in which NEIP has been aggressively implemented are those with a substantially large number o f EMTPs, yet, on average, these Woredas hardly obtain 50% of the significantly higher yields o f EMTPs. This implies that, in such Woredas, non-participating farmers have not been able to improve their yield levels, even after observing and learning from the performance of the demonstration plots (EMTPs). This may be due to a variety o f interrelated factors like the unavailability and unaffordability of inputs and credit, lack o f sufficient land size to engage in EMTP type production, pessimistic view towards the extension program or the maize market. The Coefficients o f Variation indicate that there is more dispersion relative ro the mean in the distribution of the yields of Woredas intensively covered by NEIP in both drought prone and non drought prone Woredas (but substantially higher in drought prone ones) than the dispersion relative to the mean in the distribution of yields of less intensively covered Woredas.

An analysis of the growth of the number o f maize EMTPs (thus, participating farmer households) reveals that, on average, the number o f EMTPs grew by 406.2% between 1993 and 2001. This shows that a substantial portion of maize growing farmer households are participating in NEIP and produce maize on EMTPs. Nearly 700,000 maize growing farmer households or 30% of the total area under maize in 2001 produced maize on EMTPs. The bulk o f this growth is, however, between 1994-96, at the time of the initiation of NEIP, reflecting the fact that a major proportion of the funds allotted to NEIP was used at the initial stage to establish a large number of EMTPs, and as time progressed, the funds allotted for the establishment o f EMTPs diminished.

Econometric analysis results

A list o f 13 Woredas in the Amhara, 13 in Oromia and 5 in SNNPR regions where NEIP has been aggressively implemented, particularly for maize was identified with the help j f the staff o f SG2000 and the extension department of the MoA. From the latest agricultural census, a list of 31 (13 in Amhara, 13 in Oromia and 5 in SNNPR) adjacent Woredas with same proportion from each of the three regions was identified AdjacentV---------------------------------------------------- -------—------------------------------ -----------------126 7*1 AESE Annual Conference Proceedings. 2003


Woredas were preferred so as to minimize the effect of agro-ecological and infrastructural variations in maize production and productivity for the Woredas intensively covered by NEIP and those that are not. The relevant data was then regressed through the GIVEW IN/PCGIVE software by Ordinary Least Squares method for both equations.

The results obtained indicated that maize production and productivity are positively affected by the intensity of extension implementation (i.e., the aggressiveness of NEIP operations). Area under production significantly affects maize production positively. Maize productivity was also found to be positively and significantly affected by the low incidence o f drought and intensity of extension intervention.

Equation 1: M = -13159 + 20.369X, + 14385X2 + 4946.9X3 + 5.22X,X3 +e T-values (-1.060) (10.65) (1.105) (0.334) (2.536)T-probability (0.2941) (0.0000) (0.274) (0.7395) (0.014)RA2=0.944885 F(3,54)=308.59[0.0000J sigma=41315.9

Equation 2: Y = 10.040 + 9.728X2 + 4.7923X, + 8 T-values (6.828) (6.337) (3.499)T-probability (0.000) (0.000) (0.0009)RA2=0.497262 F(2,55)=27.2 [0.0000] sigma^5.20363

Where: M is maize production of 62 Woredas for 2001/02 Meher season (in qt)Y is yield of maize in qt/ha in the Woredas for the same periodX| is area under maize production, X 2 is incidence o f drought in the respective areas of

the Woredas (if non-drought prone=l, and 0 if otherwise) and X 3 is the intensity of NEIP operations (1 if the respective Woredas are intensively covered by NEIP and 0 if they are relatively less intensively covered) and 8 is the error term.

The results of equations 1 and 2 can be partially interpreted by assessing the impact of each of the explanatory variables on the dependent ones. For instance, in equation 1, area under maize production is the most significant variable, whose variations positively affect maize production (on average for the 62 Woredas, a 1 hectare increase in area under maize cultivation brought about a 20.4 quintals increase in maize production). The parameter o f the interaction variable, when compared with the parameter o f area under cultivation, indicates that area under cultivation is more important in Woredas less intensively covered by NEIP than in intensively covered Woredas. This suggests that the increased production in intensely covered Woredas is not necessarily due to increased productivity through technology dissemination enhanced by NEIP. This suggestion is confirmed by calculating the production elasticity of maize to area under cultivation in Woredas intensively covered by NEIP and those that are not. In intensively covered Woredas, a 1% change in area under production would lead to a 1.003% increase in maize production, while in less intensively covered Woredas, a 1%



change in area under cultivation would result in a 1.068% increase in maize production. Low incidence of drought also positively affects maize production. Woredas in areas that are not prone to drought produce, on average (i.e., the expected value o f maize production if the Woredas are not in areas prone to drought or E(M /X2=1)) about 14385 quintals more maize than Woredas that are in areas prone to drought. The intensity of extension intervention is, however, found to be an insignificant variable that positively affects maize production. Woredas that are intensively covered by NEIP, on average, produce about 4950 more quintals of maize than Woredas that are relatively less intensively covered by NEIP. Similarly, partial analysis of equation 2 shows that Woredas that are in areas not prone to drought yield, on average, about 9.7 q /ha more than Woredas in areas that are prone to drought and the aggressive implementation of NEIP has increased yield by about 4.8 q/ha, on average, for the 31 Woredas intensely covered by NEIP

The equations, viewed-as a whole, have interesting implications. They show that maize production and productivity for the Woredas is indeed improved by the aggressive implementation of NEIP, i.e., where there are relatively larger number o f EMTPs and DAs. However, it is not NEIP alone that improved maize production and productivity, but rather, there are other important variables like area under maize cultivation and climatic factors such as low incidence o f drought. NEIP in drought prone areas hasn’t brought much improvement in maize production and productivity, implying that the advice and training rendered by extension on small-scale water management and irrigation is not adequate. Moreover, it should be noted that for farmers with average land size below 0.5 ha., managing EMTPs specifically for one crop, is difficult and risky, and extension services and advice would only teach them indirectly through their observation o f larger demonstration plots in their vicinity.

Conclusions and RecommendationsIn conclusion, the study indicated that the performance (in terms of yield) of the cereal sub-sector during the first 11 years of EPDRF rule is generally lower than it’s performance during the Derge regime. This poor performance, objectified by the lower national average and growth rate of productivity of the major cereal crops, comes amidst substantial investments in agricultural support services, a more than two-fold increase in average fertilizer consumption, and pledges of commitment to developing agriculture made be EPRDF. Perhaps it is for this reason that private researchers question the role played by agricultural support services like research and extension that have been undertaken by the EPRDF government.

Arriving at the thrust of the studies enquiry, i.e., showing that pocket-effort implementations of agricultural programs (particularly NEIP) may not be captured by national statistics, the results obtained in the study indicated that it is indeed possible to significantly increase maize production and productivity in areas that are not prone to drought by an aggressive implementation of NEIP. EMTPs produced a major share of

128 701 AESE Annual Conference Proceedings. 2003


the total maize production in Ethiopia (almost 55% in 2000) even though they constituted a minor share of the total area under maize cultivation (only about 25% in the same year). The productivity (yield levels) of the EMTPs (both SG2000 and government sponsored) was found to be significantly higher than that o f traditional plots, with an overall average 211.18% increment for the years 1993-2000. There was a slight difference in the yield level of SG2000 sponsored EMTPs (which yielded 54.5 q /ha on average between 1993-95) and in that o f government (NEIP) sponsored EMTPs (which yielded 46.7 q /ha on average for the years 1995-2000). This is due to the decline in the quality of advice rendered by extension to participating farmers that came about when NEIP took over and expanded SG2000's extension intervention program and started working with millions of farmers (as opposed to the relatively few number of EMTPs established and monitored by SG2000).

The results in the study indicated that non-participating farmers, even in Woredas where there are large number of demonstration plots, are still producing at such low levels, suggesting that they negatively influence the surrounding areas’ average yield levels. They have not been able to improve their yield levels after observing and learning from the performance of EMTPs. This again is probablydue to a variety of interrelated factors like the unavailability and unaffordability of inputs and credit, lack of sufficient land size to engage in EMTP type production, pessimistic view towards the extension program or the maize market.

Thus, this study reflects that the extension intervention program, by itself, cannot solve the production and productivity problems of maize farmers producing on fragmented plots. It needs to be accompanied by solutions to such complimentary institutional, policy and development issues like infrastructure development, land fragmentation, tenure security, private sector participation in research and extension, improved linkage between research and extension, improved rural credit and marketing services, etc. If so, NEIP can contribute a lot to improving maize production and productivity in Ethiopia, provided that the trend of extent o f coverage is maintained and the majority o f maize farmers producing on traditional plot (of at least 0.5 ha average land size) are able to participate in NEIP without a considerable decline in the quality of advice rendered to them.

Researchers who are against ADLI/NE1P also need to take such factors like intensity of extension intervention, agronomic, climatic and infrastructural influences on NEIP’s effects while assessing it’s efficacy in helping achieve sustainable agricultural development in Ethiopia. The data used to evaluate the performance of NEIP by both groups of researchers, those for and against ADLI/NEIP, seems to be inadequate and not well tuned in terms of conceptual and methodological aspects. This exploratory research indicated that more detailed and extensive study has to be made to relate ADLI to the extension program and vice-versa. Simply put, we are still in short o f data and information to conclude about the success or failure of ADLI.



ReferencesAgricultural extension system research task force, Assessment of agricultural extension systems

implemented in Ethiopia. Ministry of agriculture, 1986 E.C., Addis Ababa (Text in Amharic).

Agricultural extension system research task force, Transitional Government of Ethiopia's national extension system: PADETES. Ministry of Agriculture, 1987 E.C., Addis Ababa (Text in Amharic).

Befekadu Degefe, Berhanu. Nega and Getahun Tafesse, Second Annual Report on the Ethiopian Economy, Ethiopian Economics Association/ Ethiopian Economic Policy Research Institute, Vol. II, 2000/01, Xddis Ababa.

Bruce Bowerman and Richard O ’Connell, Applied Statistics: improving business processes. Irwin Book Team, 1997, USA.

Burton E, Swanson, Robert P. Bentz and Andrew J. Sofranko, Improving Agricultural extension: A reference manual. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1998, Rome.

Central Statistics Authority, Statistical abstracts (for different years). CSA, 1987-2001, Addis Ababa.

Demese Chanyalew, “Improved Crop Varieties, Food Deficit, Seed and Land Use in Ethiopia: Trend and Gap A n a ly s isCrop Science Society Of Ethiopia (CSSE), 2004. Sebil. Vol. 10. Proceedings of the Tenth Conference, 19-21 June 2001, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

D. N. Gujarati, Basic Econometrics. 3rd edition, Irwin McGraw Hill, 1995, USA.Dennis L. Purcell and Jock R. Anderson, Agricultural extension and research: Achievements and

problems in National Systems, The World Bank, 1997, USA.Dina L. Umali and Lisa Schwartz, Public and Private Agricultural extension: Beyond traditional

frontiers, The World Bank, 1994, USA.Ethiopia Economics Association/Ethiopian Economic Policy Research Institute, Land tenure and

agricultural development in Ethiopia: the need for new thinking and a pragmatic approach in dealing with the problem, EEA/EEPRI, 2002, Addis Ababa.

Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Central Agricultural Census Commission, Ethiopian Agricultural Sample Enumeration: Report on the preliminary results of area, production and yield of temporary crops (Meher Season, private peasant holdings), Part II, CSA, 2001/02, Addis Ababa.

Food and Agricultural Organization, Bulletin of Statistics. Vol. 2, 2001, FAO, RomeGershon Feder, Anthony Willett, and Willem Zijp, Agricultural extension: Generic challenges and

some ingredients for solutions, The World Bank, 1999, USA.Hailu G/Mariam, D. Tanner and Mengistu Hulluk, eds., Wheat research in Ethiopia: A

historical perspective. IAR/CIMMYT, 1991, Addis Ababa.Mandefro Nigussie, D. Tanner, S. Twains and T. Afriyie, eds., Enhancing the contribution of

Maize to Food security in Ethiopia. CIMMYT and EARO, 2001, Addis Ababa.Ministry of Development and Cooperation, Annual Report on the Ethiopian Economy. 1999,

MeDaC, Addis Ababa.

130 7W' AESE Annual Conference Proceedings, 2003


Proceedings o f the sixth Eastern and Southern Africa regional maize conference (Held in A.A., Ethiopia, 21-25 September, 1998), ed., M aize Production Technology for the future: Challenges and Opportunities. C IM M YT/EA RO , 1998, Addis A baba.

Robert D. Mason, Douglas A. Lind and W illiam G. Marchal, Statistical Techniques in Business and Economics. 10th edition, Irwin M cGraw Hill, 1996, USA.

Roberts Nigel, ed., Agricultural extension in Africa: A W oild Bank Symposium, The World Bank, 1989, USA.

Samuel Gebre-Selassie, The Development o f integrated Management Information Systems for agricultural extension institutions in developing countries: The case o f Oromia Agricultural Development Bureau o f Ethiopia, University o f Bonn, 2000, Bonn.

Sasakawa G lobal 2000, S G 2000/E th iop ia project: Activities and Outputs:- An assessment- 1993-2001, SG 2000, 2002, Addis Ababa.

Teklu Tesfaye, Research-Extension-Farmer linkage strategies, EARO, 2000 , Addis A baba.Tesfaye Zegeye, Bedessa Tadesse, and Shiferaw Tesfaye, Adoption o f high yielding maize

technologies in major maize growing region o f Ethiopia, EARO, 2001 , Addis A baba


Traditional Honey Production and Marketing Systems in M anasibu District; West Wallaga, Ethiopia

;Mathems Belissa, 1Alganesh Tola and !Gi\aw Kebede

IntroductionEthiopia is endowed with various climatic conditions, topography and wide range of altitude favouring the presence of different natural vegetation that includes dense forests, bushes, herbs, weeds and under growths. The different natural vegetation has made the country best home for honeybees. In the areas where there are various kinds of honey plants, better honey yield is certain than the area with poor natural vegetation (Amsualu, 1998). Moreover, today 6000-7000 plant species have been identified to exist in the country out of which some are endemic. The plant species are able to support large number of honeybee population. Some of these plant species are found predominantly in south and southwestern parts o f the country. In these areas beekeepers can obtain better yield of honey, bees wax and other hive products (Adimasu, 1996). Manasibu district is among the potential areas found in the southwestern part of the country. On the other hand, the traditional honey production system is being threatened with different constraints. Hence, the country in general and the study area in particular did not benefit from the existing potentials for honey production. The intention of this survey was to investigate the honey production systems and management practices, which are believed to direct the research activities towards the improvement of the local knowledge, based production systems for its better contribution to the micro economy of the nation. The specific objectives of the study are to investigate the traditional honey production, honeybee resources, constraints and the farmers’ indigenous knowledge in beekeeping.

Research methodology

Description of the study area

The study was conducted in Manasibu district located in west Wallaga zone at a distance of 150 kms from Gimbi town. It is bordered by Beneshangul-Gumuz Regional state in the east, west and north, Begi, Jarso and Nedjo districts in the southwest, west and southeast, respectively. It generally lies with in the altitudinal range of 500-1740 meters above sea level manifesting the characteristics of both low and mid altitude climates. The major types of natural vegetation found in the area are shrub and bush land, riverine, woodland and high forest. This was estimated to cover about 9251 hectares of land.

1 Bako Agricultural Research Centre, P. O. Box 03, Bako, Ethiopia

Mathewos Belissa et.al.

There is also about eleven hectares o f dense man-made forest in the district (Planning Office, 19981

Data collection

Relevant secondary data were collected from various offices o f the zone. Based on the secondary information gathered, three Peasant Associations (PAs) were found to be potential for honey production and hence selected f<pr further study. For primary data collection, reconnaissance survey was conducted tcy have the notion of understanding about the study area and select representative sites before-embarking on PRA. With the keen cooperation o f experts from the district office o f agriculture, three PAs such as Qilxu-kaana, Harawwee Dambi and Xanqi were selected for the study. Opinion leaders of the community have played great role in mobilizing farmers o f their respective villages for discussion through Participatory Rural Appraisal.

Different PRA tools were utilized to systematically collect data of qualitative nature. This was done through keen participation o f farmers formed in group. Problem ranking, feed calendars, field observations, and marketing calendars were among the PRA tools used in the analysis. Semi-structured interviews were also used to explore more information that cannot be sketched easily.

The participatory data gathering was commenced by asking the willingness of farmers to list honey production and other natural resources related constraints. Group interviews were also made to better understand the system and eririch the findings obtained using PRA tools. Gender analysis tools such as activity profiles, access to and control over resources were used by farmer groups and in the form o f case study to summarize data on gender differences. At the final stage, focussed individual interview was done to rectify the information gathered through different PRA tools.

Data analysis

Most o f the information were analysed on the spot after rectification. An on the spot analysis includes pair wise ranking o f problems. The ranking of problems and constraints was based on their importance as perceived by the informants. Further more, descriptive statistic tools such as percentages were used in cases of quantified data.

Result and discussion

Honeybee resources

Forest beekeeping is the major beekeeping practice in the area. This involves putting hives on trees and tree trunks. Besides the bee hives put by beekeepers, honeybees also use subterranean holes as a place o f honey production. Even though the beekeeping practice remained to be traditional, there observed potentional resources for honey production. The diversified species of plants and the potential bee colonies are most notable.



H oneybee feed and honey production

As informants explained, there were various types of honey bee plants about two decades before. But very recently, the enlargement of farmland and deforestation has resulted in the desolation of most important plant and forest species, and bees started to depend for feeding on the nectars of some plants. The potential plant species from which bees currently collect nectars for making honey include; coffee, Guizota absinica, Mangifera indica, Croton macrostachyns, Vemonia amygdalina, Syzgium guineense, Var. carossa abyssinica, A cacia spps. Guizotia scabra, Hypericum lanceolatum, AIbezia gummifra, Flacourtia indica, Fecus sycamorus and Aningeria adolfifredebchi. Similar plant materials were identified as a major pollen sources for honeybees around Holleta research centre (Amsalu, 2000). These plants are periodically available. Crops, weeds and shrubs are available during September to December. Coffee and tree flowers around February to March. Periods from April to August is a dearth period for collecting nectars.

Based on the periodicity of the nectars three honey harvesting periods were identified in a year. Two of the major harvesting periods are in November and February to April. Not as much of, however is harvested during the months of Ju n e/ July. According to Amsalu (2000) around Holleta, more than 42% of pollen of the whole year is collected during March to May; December to February and June to August were said to be seasons of scarcity for pollen trapping; only 12.5% and 5%, respectively can be collected during these periods . Similarly, in this particular study, the periods from April to August show deficiency of the nectars.

The traditional practices of collecting honey involve smoking of the beehives with cow dung to hound the honeybees out of the hive, after which a man smears his hand with honey to harvest the honey from the hive. The informants pointed out that one can collect on average 3-4 kg and 2 kg per harvest per colony during the major and minor periods respectively. This makes an average total yield of 8-10 kg honey per colony per year. Honeybees of the area were characterised by the informants as black honeybees. Even though brown type of honeybees also exists, the black bees were found dominating the bee colony. The behavioural description of this type of bees is that they are very gentle and never try to attack other animals. But in cases when there is honey in the hives they express defensive behaviour as a mechanism to protect their honey from external interference. Absconding of honeybees is a rare phenomenon in the area, but swarming is much common because of feed shortage, especially during the dearth period (April-August). During these periods the colony swarms to the Dabbus area, the valley covered with dens forests. The number of bee colonies is in a state of decreasing mainly due to deforestation, wild fire and wild animal attacks.

H oneybee products m arketing

Among the bee products, only honey has commercial value in the area. This shows that there is no traditional or improved honeybee product processing for commercial purpose. Honey demand in the local market and price depends on its quality and the



season ot harvest. Quality of honey, according to the informants, depends cJn the type of plants from which the bees collect nectars. Accordingly, two typeS of honey were identified. These are:

Black honey: This is the type of honey made from nectars o f plants like Syzygium guinense, goosuu,, Vemonia amygdalina, and Gizoita spp. The honey is characterized to be thicker and relatively expensive and highly demanded.

White honey (Fereree): This is a type of honey made from nectars collected from trees like Croton macrostachyus, Deinbollo kilimandshorjcat coffee and cereal crops. It is very thin and poor in quality, according to the evaluat/oft of the. beekeepers. This type of honey has relatively less market demand. Storage mechanism has also impact on the quality of honey, which in turn determines its Drice. According to Nuru (1993), poor storage reduces the honey quality.

Honey has relatively good price during November and February/April. But during June/ July, the prices are quite low (4.00 - 5.00 Birr per kg), because o f the quality of the honey. But that o f November and February/April is priced to 6.00 - 8.00 Birr per kg. The prices of the two types diffeT based on their qualities as described by informants, yet the price base is determined by Occasional holidays and coffee markets. This does mean that good day for coffee gives rise to good honey price. Sales o f honey are usually to neighbours/ relatives, retailers or urban dwellers. In the household, the house heads have full control over the commodity and its sales. Basically, honey is used for three main purposes ranked by the informants as beverage, diet and medication. It is used mainly for making ‘Tej’ the local liquor; as diet and medicaments for cough and Asthma. Bee wax is the by-product sold around towns where ‘Tej’ is brewed.

Gender control and decision on honey product utilization

Due to its cash source, the family does not usually consume honey. Even then, pregnant and nursing mothers have priority to get honey for consumption. As far as utilization is concerned, some cultural taboo is also attached to the use o f honey at household level. For the same reason, farmers are not accustomed to give honey to children who did not start wording. This is because o f the belief that children will delay speaking if they fed on honey at infant stage. The decision on sales of the commodity and control o f women over the resource is quite nil. The house wives do not generally have the right to sale honey; on one hand, buyers may suspect that she had taken to market with out the knowledge of her husband; on the other hand economic valued products are traditionally marketed by the male house head. Nevertheless, the wives share an idea for the decision to sale it or not, the final decision is reached by the agreement of both, with some sort of domination by the male.



Honey Production Constraints

The major constraints in honey production, according to farmers, are wild life, chemicals and poisonous plants, fire hazard, deforestation, ants and spiders. Chemical sprays on crops like tef which flowers during October and sorghum in June, were reported to be serious reasons for mortality of honeybees and reduction of the bee population. Moreover, absence of extension intervention for improved technological transfer enhanced the constraints in honey production. Among these, lack of extension intervention was found to be the most limiting factor for potential honey production. The constraints were ranked by farmers (table 1) and other stakeholders (table 2) according to their importance as perceived by the groups. Despite the availability o f different trees, shrubs, and food crops, there is no intervention in the system that attempts to improve the traditional honey production practices. As a result, the yield from traditional practice is remained very squat. Due to the expansion for crop production and use of timber for different purposes, forest cover is shrinking over years. Thus, there is increased risk of frequent absconding and swarming of bee colonies. This resulted in the loss of bee colonies in the area and subsequently lower honey yield. Wild life such as honey badger and ox packer (ciirrii) are also reported to cause serious damage on bees and destruction of hives.

Local strategies in beekeeping

For protecting wildlife, thorns/sheet metals are used around the trees holding the hive, and against the attack of ants, ashes are sprinkled around the trees. For spiders, the surrounding area should be cleaned. Against food oats, which is reported to be a poison plant, beekeepers banned the production of the crop as honey gives relative economic advantage over the economic return of oats. This study, thus gives a flash for future attempt to effective control and prevention of bee disease and its wild attack to help increase the potential contribution of bee colonies through targeted extension intervention.

Conclusions and recommendationsIt was found that the area, Manasibu district, could give its most potential for honey production if not limited by the various factors. These factors, which were both Biotic and Abiotic hindrance the best contribution of honeybee production sector to the national economy. To take advantage of the contribution of honey to the household economy and increase the income generating power of the commodity, improving the honey beekeeping and management is found to be the wayout. To this end, extension intervention should take the greatest share of responsibility. Introducing modern beehives and improved bee colonies can be a means to the end. Further recommendation from this study expels the importance of research for characterization of the bee colonies and honeybee flora ever identified during the survey. The invasion of termite has disturbing the system in the area, and hence, introduction of termite tolerant



honeybee flora would yield a triple advantages; soil conservation, nectar preparation for honey production and ability to generate income in areas where termite is a serious problem. To effect as per the suggestions given above, an extension intervention through modern beekeeping practices and training of beekeepers is sensibly recommended.

Table 1. Beekeeping constraints as ranked by beekeepers of Manasibu.

Constraints Criteria considered RankWild animals Frequency of appearance and attack 1Poisonous plants Killing effects 2Fire hazards Severity 3Ants and spiders Severity 4Chemicals Severity 5Lack of extension Lack of improved hives, frequency of absconding 6

and swarms to valleys due to feed shortage

Table 2. Beekeeping constraints as ranked by development stakeholders in Manasibu.

Constraints Criteria considered RankNo extension intervention Lack of awareness, feed shortage (improved

honey bee forages)1

Wild animals damage Colony damage resulting to total or partial yield loss and swarming of colonies

2

Deforestation Lack of honey bee flora, frequent absconding and swarming

3

Fire hazards Colony damage and absconding/ killingeffects

4

Spiders and ants Partial damage and absconding 5Some chemicals and poisonous plants

Killing effects 6

ReferencesAdmasu Adi. 1996. Preliminary investigation on taxonomy of Ethiopian honeybee flora. In:

ESAP (1996). Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Conference of Ethiopian Society of Animal Production. 18-19 April 1996. Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. Pp. 181-186.

Amsalu Bazabeh. 1998. Preliminary study on honey plants around Holleta. In: ESAP (1998). Proceedings of the Fifth Annual Conference of Ethiopian Society of Animal Production. 15-17 May 1997. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Pp. 186-193.

Amsalu Bazabeh. 2000. Identification of major pollen sources of honey plants around Holleta bee research centre. In: ESAP (2000). Livestock Production and The Environment- Implications for sustainable Livelihoods. Proceedings of the seventh annual Confemce of the Ethiopia Society of Animal Production (ESAP) held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 26-27 May 1999. PP. 169-178.



Nuru Adgaba. 1993. Effect o f storing honey in h ea l containers. Proceedings o f the fourth N ational Livestock Improvement Conference. . IAR. 13-15 November 1991, Addis A baba, Ethiopia. Pp. 109-112.

Planning office. 1998. Annual Report. Gimbi, West W allaga zone.


The Situation of Women in the Informal Sector in Addis Ababa

1Kassaitu Dessie

IntroductionIt is well documented that women have a disadvantaged position and weak bargaining power in the labour market. Labour segmentation widely follows gender lines. Women tend to have a more limited access to wage employment worldwide, to be clustered in relatively low-income occupations.

Cultural factors and negative attitudes tend to reinforce discrimination against women. The social perception that their reproductive and domestic roles are their primary function restricts their entry into wage employment. Preconceptions of which jobs are suitable for women and women’s lower educational and skill levels limit the range of jobs made available to them. Women’s domestic responsibilities interfere with their mobility and career progression in regular wage work.

W omen’s issues have almost always been treated by different organizations (e.g trade unions and cooperative as supplementary to the general problems of workers of the poor). Because women have lower educational level, less experience in public affairs and fewer communication skills than men. Women traditionally leave decision-making roles to men, similarly, men also hesitate giving such responsibilities to women. As adequate disaggregated statistical data is missing, women’s contributions as planners and development practitioners remain invisible.

The Situation of Women in the Informal SectorThe “informal sector” as a concept was introduced in 1973. Since then, it has been gaining momentum among development economists and other academics. The sector has been assumed to be using entrepreneurial skill and capital which could otherwise be idle, albeit arguable questioned. It is presumed to be efficient user o f resources and serve as the sources of income, employment etc for larger urban population of developing countries. In Ethiopia, these urban citizens whose share of the national cake is at the bottom of the income pyramid are believed to have been beneficiaries of activities related to the sector. This is largely due to the inherent characteristics of the sector which is expressed in its labour-intensive technologies and simple production (Tegegne <5t Daniel, 1997).

It is estimated that the informal sector accounts for 60-70 percent o f the urban labour force in most African countries, the remaining divided equally between those employed

' Ministry o f Finance &Economic Development (MOFED) Women’s Affairs Department

Kassaitu Dessie

in the formal sector (including entrepreneurs) and those unemployed. Ethiopia cannot be an exception to this as its size o f urban population is growing fast due to rural-urban migration and natural increase. Moreover, Addis Ababa share 1/3 of the urban population in the country. (Tegegne &. Daniel, 1997).

The Informal Sector refers to home based or individual establishment /activity operated by the owner with few or no employees. According to the sample survey(1997) of CSA &. MOLSA, member o f the informal sector can be identified by:

1. At least one member of the household must be engaged in productive activity2. Employment status of the owner of the activity must be either an employer or a self

operated activity.3. The establishment/activity shall not be a corporate type of enterprise4. The establishment/activity should not keep a complete book of accounts5. Number of persons engaged (if any) including the operator must be less than 106. The establishment/activity should not be registered by any legal authority which

givers licenses.

Most women in Addis Ababa are engaged in the informal sec tO T not only because most women have neither proper education nor skills needed for earning a better income, these women have no other chances except joining the informal sector. They drive their income from works like domestic services, street vending by selling items like grain, spices, vegetables or domestic-alcoholic beverages, fuel-wood or join a daily labourers, working as made servants, selling injera, kollo and tella, prostitution and so on. Most of these women have skills they acquired in their home villages which is actually related to the house-work(designed by the society/culture- women’s work, such as cooking, baking injera, spinning-cotton Brewing Talla, Tej, Araki etc.) These are types o f activities that women are engaged in are low income activities and often do not enable them to fulfil their basic needs. The following paragraphs elaborate few of these activities:

Tella seller

In Addis Ababa, there are many women who support themselves and their families by selling tella. The skill o f making tella was acquired by these women from their mothers who again, transmitted to them from generation to generation which used tella for own consumption rather than commercial one.

At the present time, women who sell tella, selling enjera, etc. have no other means of survival. They are one of the section of the women that are in short of both capital and skills to do a better job. They live in a deteriorated conditions, they do not have sufficient food and do not get easily medical care.

Prostitution

Is one who directly involves herself in sexual activity with the objective of generating income. Nowadays prostitution exposed women and men to H IV/AIDS. Possible


Kassaitu Dessie

causes o f prostitution can be gender inequality, displacement due to recurrent drought, harmful traditional practices, expansion of uncultured video houses, lack of reproductive health, expansion of brokers, lack of law enforcement, divorce natural disaster.

Fuelwood Carriers

In Ethiopia small number of women are involved in the formal sector, and the majority are involved in the informal sector related to reproduction and gathering of fuelwood and water collection, cooking and child bearing, baby care and laundry, among other things.

In 1995 when I was doing my senior essay in Addis Ababa University, I interviewed 20 women fuelwood carriers living in Shiro Meda, Addis Ababa.. Accordingly, women fuel wood carriers can hardly get a proper diet and they live in poor housing conditions. The houses they live in are made of wood, mud and corrugated iron sheets. Most of the houses they dwell in need repair and maintenance, and many of the roofs leak. Many of the household units have no latrine, and their occupation the call of nature everywhere. The remaining housing components have common pit-latrines most of which are old, often flooded and require cleaning and maintenance. Most of them are buying water from public or private taps, and share electricity services. They live in overcrowded conditions i.e. 3 to 10 people in one room.

Health is one o f the major problems of the households of women fuelwood carriers whom I interviewed such as head-ache stomach-ache, cancer, chest problem, problem of spinal cord, and leg problem which is probably resulted from continuous long distance travel on foot during fetching wood. Whenever they feel sick, these women rely on traditional cures at holy-springs; because no medical facility is affordable for them; some of them are benefiting from the hospital services through certificates provided by the kebele office. It is also common for these women to benefit from services given by local dressers. Since fuel wood carrying is the source of their meager income, these women can not even rest for a couple of days while they are sick and this causes more risks to their health.

According to the research I made, 60 percent are divorced and widowed and are femaleheaded households. As the result of this, their problems are many sided, their education level is in most cased low and almost three quarters of the fire wood carriers are said to be illiterate. Housing condition, access to water, health and education services were said to be rather poor. The monthly expenditure of a household ranges between 24-54 birr and average 37 birr (about 4.4). The money they earn from the sale of the wood they collect is not enough to cover their expenses.

Although at present there are kindergarten facilities and services in different communities in Addis Ababa. Since women fuelwood carriers can not afford to pay kindergarten fees some of them take their children with them to fuel wood collecting


Kassaitu Dessie

area carrying them on their backs. Such women let their children lie on the ground while they go on collecting fuelwood and this would expose their children to harmful insects and even wild animals.

The role of Microfinance In The Reduction of Women’s Poverty

What is microfinance?

Microfinance referred to as a small-scale financial service rendered to the rural and urban poor, provides credit for self employment and small business, and includes savings and technical assistance. .Microfinance means giving quality financial services. It is also known as microcredit and micro-lending. It provides very poor families with very small loans to help them engage in productive activities or grow their small business overtime, microfinance has come to include a broader range of services (credit savings, insurance etc.) as it has come to be realized that the poor and very poor who lack access to traditional formal financial institutions require a variety of financial products. Microfinance could contribute to poverty reduction by offering adequate saving services. Microfinance institutions could play an important role in meeting the financial needs of households and micro-enterprises.(Wolday Amha, 2001 )

The main objectives of the microfinance institutions in Ethiopia is the delivery of financial services (credit, saving, insurance etc.) to the large number of productive but resource poor people in rural and urban areas, including micro small entrepreneurs in a cost-effective and sustainable way. The interventions of the microfinance institutions, at the end of the day should make positive and measurable impact on lives of the poor. The MFIs usually start with target market defined by the institutions, mission, vision, and objectives e.g. focusing on the poor, able poor, active poor, women in rural areas etc.

Who are the clients of Microfinance?

The clients of microfinance are low-income .persons that do not have access to formal financial institutions like (bank, insurance etc.) because of lack of resources for collateral. In particular microfinance target women, to increase their status in the society and empower them. Microfinance gives priority to women mainly to benefit the family.

Does Microfinance Work in Eradicating Poverty?

Poverty reduction has been a concern of the Microfinance Industry in Ehtiopia. They have been attempting to apply new financial methodologies to reach families below the poverty line or target the very poor. The provision of financial services to the poor has a crucial role to play in providing household food security and alleviating poverty.

There are arguments regarding the role of microfinance in poverty eradication. Some argue that microfinance does not eradicate poverty because it doesn’t


Kassaitu Dessie

• Provide clean water, better health care,• Improved roads or education,• Eradicate corruption in the civil service, eliminate domestic violence or child labour

nor cure HIV/AIDs.

On the other hand, proponents of microfinance point out that: microfinance is not panacea for poverty and related development challenges but rather an important tool in the mission of poverty eradication. There is no single ‘solution’ to eradicating poverty, but that doesn’t mean that microfinance should be thrown out as a failure. Poverty is multi-dimensional problem, embedded in a> complex and interconnected political, economy cultural, and ecological system. Owing to poverty’s large scope and multiplicity of factors there is no single guaranteed approach to its eradication.

Poverty eradication is a complex mission and requires commitment, cooperation, and cohesion at all levels of development individual, household, community, national and global-while microfinance alone doesn’t improve roads, housing, water supply, education and health services, it can play an important role in making these and other sustainable contributions to the community. As microfinance become more widely accepted and moves into the mainstream the supply of services to the poor may likewise increase improving efficiency and outreach while lowering-costs this in turn can have a multiplier effect on peoples standards o f living.

Perhaps the greatest contributions of microfinance is that it empowers people, providing them with confidence, self-esteem, and the financial means to play a large role in economic development. Some people say microfinance as first and last solution of the poor women. And others say it may be one of the solutions.

In my opinion, MF is one of the solutions in eradicating poverty, because poverty has multidimensional causes. MF* in Addis Ababa is trying to reduce women’s poverty, it tried to make changes among poor women, to illustrate some of the changes:

• It enable poor women to pay house rent• It helped for household food security• It enabled them to cover health and education expenditures• It enabled them to reconcile family conflict due to economy.

However, these problems remaining the efficient utilization of credit, mainly because, most clients couldn’t differentiate credit from their house expenditure when they are in short o f money. Sometimes, recipients directly use the credit for consumption purpose. There are cases when mothers buy something for their children from the credit this is due to lack of awareness. Consequently, women’s enterprise is not expanding.

Microfinance enterprises run by women started as the result of:

Unsatisfied household subsistence needs (such as food, clothes and education of children)

7°' AESE Annual Conference Proceedings, 2003 145

Kassaitu Dessie

• Girls dropping out of school and being unable to find wage employment• Family pressures on girls to earn their own living• Peer influence

The Ethiopian Government issued a microfinance law, proclamation no.4 0 / 1996 which clearly indicates the requirements for licensing microfinance institutions by empowering the National Bank o f Ethiopia (NBE) to license and supervise them. Minimum paid up capital to start MFI is birr 200,000. Items like building essential vehicles and others that are acceptable to NBE may be considered as capital contribution. The ownership structure o f the MFIs is a mixture o f local NGOs, public organizations, associations and individuals. As a result, currently there are 22 microfinance institutions (MFIs) registered under NBE who are operating in Tural and urban areas of the country. In rural areas to promote food production and food security and in urban areas to diversify household income. The major target clients of most of the MFIs operating in urban areas are women while in rural areas the lion’s share of the clients are men. ItNs said that MFIs who delivered financial services in Addis Ababa have about 450,000 clients. They meet only less than nine percent o f the demand for financial services of the active poor. This indicates that there, is significant unmet potential demand in Addis Ababa.

Major Constraints to clients of MFIs Development in Addis Ababa:-

a. financial problem(lack of working capital):- factors like short repayment period, existence of several collateral requirements, procedures and lack of knowledge about bank regulations and services are the major factors that discourage potential and existing micro-entrepreneurs from coming institutional forms of credit.

b. Marketing (lack of working place):- there is often a concentration of similar enterprises in the small localities that makes competition very high and reduces the marketing opportunities of each enterprise. The women traders usually sell the same things, mainly vegetables and other food items, which entails severe market competition. This may be because o f lack o f entrepreneurial skill. One way of overcoming this problem would be providing training to introduce new areas of business or adapt efficient marketing strategies.

c. Lack of demand (lack of customers)d. Government (police harassment) the women involved in selling vegetables and fruits

and other food and non-food items are being harassed and confiscated their property by the police which is constraint to their activity.

e. Lack of adequate business skills (managerial incapability ).- because the majority are below the primary school level education and moreover, non of them has received any further training related to their business activity.

f. Lack of Institutional Support:- Potential investors who plan to start micro/small business have generally limited access to market information and technical advice.

146 7®' AESE Annual Conference Proceedings. 2003

Kassaitu Dessie

Conclusion & Recommendations

Conclusion

Since women in the informal sector are in difficult circumstances, attention should be given by all concerned bodies (stakeholders), so as to help them in self-help programs

In spite of its importance, little attention is given to the informal sector by policy-makers and planners. Hence, a concerted effort has to be exerted by all concerned to create conducive atmosphere for the operators in this sector. Government intervention is necessary to eliminate the constraints of capital and convenient working places and the prevailing negative image of the informal sector activities that entails harassment. Since the informal sector operators are considered as ‘illegal’, this has a negative impact on the risk of uncertainty of earnings, while the operators attempt to operate in a hostile environment.

Although the significant outreach of the microfinance institutions, there are problems of addressing the hard core poor, monitoring the regulatory framework, limited support to micro and small enterprise development limited awareness of the role of microfinance in poverty alleviation lack of loan fund, weak legal system the delivery of supply-driven financial products, low lending interest rates limited capacity of the National Bank of Ethiopia, limited capacity o f microfinance institutions and poor infrastructure, which need to be resolved.

Recommendations• Lack of credit for women in the entrepreneurs informal sector has been identified as

a major constraint. Hence, to open the access to credit to women entrepreneurs the following should be considered:

• The government should work with financial institutions to dismantle the barriers that limit women’s access to credit and evolve appropriate means to channel resources through selected government institutions, NGOs and endogenous credit institutions to facilitate credit to women entrepreneurs.

• Poor women who do not have collateral face problems of access for credit so the financial institutions should revise their policies and establish policies that enable the poor groups, especially women, to benefit from their services,

• Women tend to concentrate in petty trading and could not easily expand their activities. They, therefore, can not build up any meaningful assets with which to negotiate loans from banks. Strategies for intervention that promote change from petty tra'ding to diversified activities can improve women’s socio-economic position. This requires training in business management, marketing, saving and credit, and basic business skills that would lead to better productivity and income generation.

• Provide business supportive services training and access to markets, information and technology particularly to low-income women strengthen women’s economic capacity and commercial networks to assist women in-income generating activities


Kassaitu Dessie

such as weaving, soap making and food processing and devices to help women make the home environment healthier and more compatible Eliminate occupational segregation and all forms of discrimination and promote harmonization of work and family responsibilities for women and men. Promotions of cooperatives of women in the informal sector is necessary.

Generally policy intervention to assist women entrepreneurs is both urgent and critical, nevertheless their implementation will largely depend upon the concerned efforts of the government and NGOs in the community.

ReferencesCentral Statistical Authority (March, 2002) Statistical Abstract, Addis Ababa.Gebrehiowot Ageba(2002) Microfinance Development in Ethiopia: Prospects,Sustainability and Challenges on Poverty Reduction Proceedings of the Conference on

Microfinanqe Development in Ethiopia, Adama(Nazereth) Addis Ababa.Getaneh Gobeze (2001), some challenges of Microfinance as Anti-PovertyStrategy; experience form ACS/. A paper submitted on the international Workshop on Dimensions

of Microfinance Institutions in Sub-Saharan Africa: relevance of International Experiences. Mekele University, Mekele.

Hailu Wondafrash & Eve HallfDec. 1995)Pilot Credit Scheme for Women Fuelwood Carriers, Addis Ababa.Itana Ay ana, Tsehaye Tsegaye & Eshetu Erena, (April 2003) Governance and Ownership Structure of Microfinance Institutions in Ethiopia, Occasional Paper No.8, Addis

Ababa.National Bank of Ethiopia,(May-July 2002 )Birritu No. 81, A bilingual bulletin published every three months.Tegegne G/Egziabher & Daniel Solomon, (Jan. 1997), Urban & Regional Development Planning & Implementation in Ethiopia, Proceedings of the National Conference on

Urban & Regional Development Planning & Implementation in Ethiopia, National Urban Planning Institute, Addis Ababa.

Wolday Amha (2001) Product Development in the Ethiopian Microfinance Industry: Challenges and Prospects. A paper submitted on the International Workshop on Dimensions of Microfinance Institutions in Sub-Saharan Africa: Relevance International Experiences, Mekele University, Mekele:


Trends and Growth Performance of Major Food Crops in Oromiya: An Econometric Analysis

1Girma Aboma, 1 Diriba Geleti,:iDereje Bacba and 1Zelalem Belayneh

Introduction

Cereals occupy an important position in the agrarian economy of Oromiya accounting for 82 percent of each of the regional cropped area and production (CSA, 2001). This has got a remarkable implication on the country’s cereal production as well. According to the 2001 report of Central Statistical Authority, about 46 percent of the country’s area under cereals and 51 percent of production is attributed by the regional state of Oromiya. Teff, maize and wheat are the major cereals accounting for 59 percent of the regional crop area and 60 percent of the production. Other crops such as barley and sorghum are also produced largely in the region. These are also called the major food crops of Oromiya.

A special character of agriculture is that production is dependent more on natural factors over which farmers have little control and even if the prices are not remunerative, the farmers continue to produce because of overhead costs and almost complete absence of alternatives. The productivity of agriculture also depends on the level of technology adoption, but adoption of improved technologies depends on the willingness and ability of the producers, which have a remarkable implication on the growth of agricultural production. The knowledge on the growth performance of agriculture is helpful to adjust the existing structural policy in the sector. Agricultural technologies may induce some change in farming regardless of the magnitude and direction, which could be the basic researchable area for the current study. Technological changes and prices play an important role in enhancing agricultural growth. Appropriate technology coupled with positive price policy stimulates agricultural production through the allocation of desired level of resources. Policy makers are often confronted with the task of formulating suitable agricultural policy so as to achieve the required growth rate in agricultural production. In order to formulate effective agricultural policy for achieving the required growth of production, there is a need to assess the rate at which the current production is growing, which this study aimed to investigate.

Despite these, nil information is available at national or regional levels with regard to the trends and growth performances of cereals, which can be used in enacting effective policies and in directing the foregoing research agendas. Generally, this inquiry was designed to (1) estimate the growth rates in major cereals with respect to area,

1 'Bako Agricultural Research Center, P.O. Box 03

Girma Aboma et. ai.--- - ■ - - ■ — . - ----- --- --------------— _____S_________

production and productivity, (2) examine the behavior o f these growths overtime, and finally (3) to suggest implications for future research, development and policy directions.

Methodology

Zonation and determination of major food crops

Lack of uniformity in generation of data is a common feature o f developing economies. In the country’s CSA report, the way data has been generated was observed to change with the change of regimes due to change in administrative zones. To keep uniformity o f data across years for the purpose o f comparison, zonation was made for the cases in the EPDRF regime. For instance^pooling the data for respective zones such as West Shewa, East Shewa and North Shewa zones made data on area, production and productivity o f major food crops for Shewa. Similar procedures were followed for the other zones to form comparative time series data on area, production and yield of major 'food crops included in the study. The area reduced from the previous Shewa, Wellega, Ilubabor, Keffa, and Hararghe were systematically adjusted for the betterment of the comparisons with its new zonation in the second period using projection method. The data points for the previous period was regressed overtime using OLS method and; the value for the 1991 was projected based on which the proportion was computed to adjust the data for the same period.

Determination of the study periods

In growth studies, it is customary to test the homogeneity o f data points overtime to escape from the likely complexities in interpretation (Mundnamani, 1993; Addisu, 2000; Girma, 2002). The time series data on area and production of major food crops were plotted on a graph. The hypothesis was to test homogeneity of the data over the study period. It was found out that the time series data on area and production of major food crops prevailed high degree o f fluctuation around the average line. Hence, regime differences were considered to divide the whole period into sub-periods for comparison. The underlying reason was that the change in regime has brought reduction in area allocation for various crops, which was reflected on the major cereals. This was assumed to bring change in the growth of production in major food crops o f Oromiya. In this study, therefore, the first period denotes the Derge regime (1981 to 1990) and the second period denotes the EPDRF regime (1991 to 2001).

Sources and Patterns of Data

This study used largely o f time series data on area, production and productivity of major food crops for the period 1981 to 2001. The Central Statistical Authority (CSA), Federal Government o f Ethiopia, was the sole source o f data collected for the current investigation. The data was collected across the study zones for the major food crops grown in the region such as teff, maize, wheat, sorghum and barley.


Girma Aboma et. al.

Method of data analysis

In most growth studies, the use of exponential function was common to estimate jthe parameter of interest using OLS method. Orthogonal polynomial regression analysis is mostly used in trend analysis especially when the ‘a priori’ knowledge about the exact mathematical form o f the function is not known. It has an advantage over other regression models in that it can indicate the behavior of the growth rates overtime. The following paragraphs present their estimation procedures.

Estimation of growth rates

For .this study, exponential function was fitted using OLS method to estimate the

parameters of interest. The function can be specified as Y = a b 'e , where, Y denotes predicted area/production/productivity, a and b are parameters to be estimated. Before estimation, it was transformed into logarithmic function to fulfil the assumption of Ordinary Least Square (OLS) method as follows.

lo g F = to g <3 + [logZ7]/ or Y * = A + B t + e t , where Y* = logY, A = loga, B = logb and e = error term. The compound growth rate was, then, computed as r — \a n ti\o g b — 1] * 100 , where r represents compound growth rate.

Estimation of trends

Orthogonal polynomial regression analysis was employed to examine the trends in area, production and productivity of major food crops in the region for the period 1981 to 2001. The same procedure was followed in the earlier studies made by Mundinamani (1993) and Girma (2002). The specific trend function fitted was:

Y = Y + b,Z,+ b2 Z2 + b3 Z3 Where,

Y = the predicted area/yield/production of major food crops

Y = the general mean of area/yield/production of cropsZ/s = the orthogonal polynomials

Z] = X - X ; Z2 = [X - X 1 - In2 - 11/12; etc expressed explicitly in terms o f equally spaced original X and bi’s are the regression coefficients whose values are to be determined from the sample data. This orthogonal polynomial regression analysis is more helpful when there is no ‘a priori’ knowledge about the exact mathematical form of the trend functions. Procedural computation of this trend function is easy in essence that the step-forward polynomial regression analysis is facilitated until two successive b/s turnout to be non significant.


Results and discussion

Growth performance of area under major cereals

The growth rates in area of major cereals grown in the region were presented in Table 1. It was observed that the growth performance of area under major cereals grown in Oromiya was more pronounced in the second period. This was largely due to significant increase in area of maize and wheat. The increase in area of teff and sorghum also contributed to some extent. Similar growth pattern was also observed in most of the study zones.

Table 1. Compound Growth Rates in Area of major cereals in Oromia by zones and periods (percent)

Girma Aboma et. al._________________________________________________________________________________________

Teff Barley Wheat Maize Sorghum TotalZone Period

IPeriod

IIPeriod

IPeriod

IIPeriod

IPeriod

IIPeriod

IPeriod

11Period

IPeriod

IIPeriod

IPeriod

11Arsi -4.1b 5.4c 8.3a -1.10 5.3a 8.1a 1.7 8.6a 2.4 15.9a 5.0a 5.3bBale 2.5a 23.7b 9.1b 6.1a 21.6a 13.0a 41.2a 21.1a - - (6.2a 12.1a

Hararghe 2.2 -6.2c 16.8b -0.90 11.3a 3.0 8.6c 7.1b -0.10 2.20 3.2 2.9cShewa -1.7 3.20 * .2 a 3.10 -4.2c 7.6c -10. Ic 8.6 -10.9c 2.50 -5.1b 4.6

Wellega -6.8a 5.10 8.7c 4.40c -13.2a 27.1a 3.7c 10.2a -5.80b 12.3a -2.2 9.0a

Ilubabor 35.7a -9.2a 1.1 -19.6a -2.7 -16.8b 29.3a -4.7c 14.9a -8.2a 22.6a -7.6aJimma -18.3b 22.2a -2.7 7.80 0.90 24.1a •6.1c 10.2a -6.60 7.10 •4.2 13.4aOromia 2.70 3.0c -0.70 2.40 1.40 7.8b 5.6c 6.4a ■0.10 3.8c 1.50 4.70a

Note: a. b, c represents the level of significance.

The area of teff witnessed a significant increase in the second period in Arsi, Bale, Shewa, and Jimma, which are believed to contribute more to the increase in the regional area under the crop. Maize area also revealed a considerable increase in the second period in the case of Arsi, Hararghe, Shewa, Wellega and Jimma while the rest zones have negatively attributed to the state increase. Similar growth pattern was evidenced in the area of wheat. Sorghum area experienced a significant expansion only in Arsi, Wellega and Jimma while a declining trend was observed for the remaining zones. In the case of barley, however, the rate of increase in area was comparatively lower in the second period excepting Bale, Shewa and Jimma.

Generally, significant increase in area of major cereals was observed in most of the study zones excepting Ilubabor. In case of Shewa, Wellega and Jimma, the negative growths in area under major cereals during the first period were turned into positive in the second period showing significant expansion. In the regional state of Oromiya, the growth performance of area under major cereals revealed significant increase in the second period. In period one, however, the increase was found to be non-significant.

Growth performance of productivity of major cereals

The growth rates in productivity of major cereals were presented in Table 2. The mild increase in productivity of major cereals in Oromiya was largely attributed by the


Girma Aboma et. al.

significant increase in productivity of maize. This might be due to the significant technological break through with regard to the crop, and at the same time the wider adoption of maize technologies in the region. The findings of Abdisa et al. (1999) revealed that the area under improved maize varieties has shown a sharp increase during 1990s. the productivity o f barley has shown a declining trend in the region most probably due to the poor performance of the varieties under farmers conditions and lack of compatible technologies for the region. Past surveys indicated that lack of disease resistant varieties has been a common phenomenon, which has a remarkable implication on the growth of productivity. Similarly, for other cereals, lack o f regionally compatible technologies on sustainable basis was found to be the cause for the poor growth performance in their productivity.

Table 2. Compound Growth Rates in productivity of major cereals in Oromia by zones and periods.(percent)

Teff____________ Barley____________ Wheat____________ Maiie__________ Sorghum__________ TotalZone Period

IPeriod

11Period

IPeriod

11Period

IPeriod

11Period

IPeriod

11Period

IPeriod

IIPeriod

IPeriod

11Arsi 1.60 -0.90 3.5b -2.30 3.5b -2.20 8.0 2.90 2.30 -2.30 2.99 -1.99

Bale -3.90 -1.70 -2.5c 1.70 3.6b 4.1c -5.60 1.60 - - -1.69 1.97

Hararghe -7.85 2.80 6.46 0.04 -10.16 -2.00 -7.99 7.30a -8.90 -1.30 -8.94 1.34

Shewa 3.94c -0.43 -0.15 -2.80 1.36 7.20 8.3c 6.20 1.11 1.40 2.70 3.92

Wellega 6.63b 0.80 11.22b -3.00 •0.73 1.30 -0.53 2.40 0.41 0.46 2.68 2.00

Ilubabor -17.0a -2.0 11.24b -3.30 15.7a 1.02 -12.3a 10.60 -4.4b -2.00 -7.88a 3.94

Jimma 3.18 -0.30 -3.51 -3.3c -24.41b 1.40 1.71 7.80 1.00 -1.20 -6.02 0.34

Oromia -1.0 -1.20 0.93 -2.0 3.40 0.40 -3.50 4.9a 4.9c -0.31 -1.48 1.11

Note: a, b, c represents the level of significance.

Similar growth pattern was observed across zones, whereby maize productivity witnessed significant increase only in Hararghe during the second period. Wheat productivity revealed a declining trend in case of Arsi and Ilubabor, while it was positively significant during both periods in Bale. The increase or decease in productivity obtained in other cereals were found to be non-significant.

Growth performance of production for major cereals

Table 3 depicted the growth rates in production of major food crops in Oromiya. The table revealed that the regional cereal production registered significant production in the second period mainly attributed by the significant increase in production of teff, maize and wheat. In case of teff and wheat, the significant increase in production were largely contributed by a significant increase in the area under cultivation whereby the increase in maize production was due to the simultaneous expansion in area and improvement in productivity. However, the increase was found to be non-significant for the other crops. This increase in production of cereals in the region (during 1991 to 2001) might also be explained from the zonal contribution points of view. The significant increase in production o f teff in the second period was associated with the increase in cereal


Girma Aboma et. al.

production of the region in the case of Arsi, Bale, Shewa, Wellega and Jimma; while significant increase in maize production was found to be significant in all study zones excepting Ilubabor. This clarifies the wider adoption of maize technologies in almost all zones of Oromiya, which has a remarkable implication on the growth performance of productivity and production. The second period wheat production witnessed a pronounced increase in Bale, Shewa, Wellega and Jimma. The significant increase in sorghum production during the second peeriod was observed in Arsi, Wellega and Jimma. Barley production was found to be significant only in Bale showing the lesser adoption o f improved barley technologies owing to certain constraints like diseases.

Generally, cereal production in Oromiya witnessed significant expansion in the second period attributed largely from the significant increase in area in most o f the zones. Out of the study zones, only Ilubabor experienced significant decline in cereal production. It can be concluded that cereal production in the region was increased in the second period due to the significant increase in area excepting maize signifying inadequacy of research and extension services to improve the productivity o f cereals. It might also be due to the cost ineffectiveness of the released technologies under the existing market conditions.

Table 3. Compound Growth Rates in Production o f major cereals in Oromia.fpercent)

ZoneTeff Ba4ey Wheat Maize SorRhum Total

PeriodI

Perioda

Period1

PeriodII

PeriodI

PeriodII

PeriodI

Period11

PeriodI

PeriodII

PeriodI

Period11

Arsi -2.6 4.5c 12.7 -2.1 9.0a 5.6 9.8c 11.8b 4.8 12.8a 8.12b 3.43cBale 22.9a 21.5b 6.3c 7.9a 26a 17.6a 33.3a 23.0c - - 44.23b 14.31a

Harargbe -5.8 -3.7 9.20 -0.81 -0.05 1.10 -0.11 14.8a ■3.99 0.83 -6.00 4.25cShewa 2.14 2.7a •8.3a 0.2 -2.90 15.4b -2.20 15.3a -9.90 4.0 -2.55 8.72a

Wellega ■0.60 5.9a -3.50 1.2 -13.8a 28.7a 3.20 12.8a -5.40 12.8a 0.46 11.14aIlubabor 12.7a -10.9a 12.5c -22.2b 51.6a -15.0a 13.4b 5.5 9.80a -10.0b 12.96b -3.93Jimma -15.7b 21.8a •6.20 4.2 -23.7a 25.9a -9.7c 18.8a -5.70 5.9a -9.93c 13.76aOromia 1.70 2.8c 0.20 0.40 4.9a 8.2a 1.90 4.9a -5.0 3.4 1.85 6.92a

Note: a, b, c represents the level of significance.

Trends of major cereals

The results of orthogonal polynomial regression analysis were depicted in figures 1, 2, 3 and 4 for area, production and productivity o f the major cereals o f Oromiya. The minimum and maximum degree of the time series data on area, production and productivity were found to vary between two and five based on the degree of instability inherited in each parameter across the period of the study.

Figure 1 presents the trend in area o f major food crops grown in the region. It can be observed from the graph that area o f all crops included in this analysis revealed similar trend pattern across years. The graph also reflects the difference in sizes o f area across the crops, the larger area being under cultivation of teff followed by maize, wheat, sorghum and barley. During 1991, the area under all crops revealed a declining trend


Girma Aboma et. al.

most probably due to the introduction of package technologies, which led to land saving because of increase of land productivity per unit area. It generally reflects the continuous increase in the area of major food crops in the region.

Time in years—♦—teff —B—maize —A—wheat —K—sorghum — —barley

Fig 1. Trend in area of major cerealss in Oromiya (1981 to 2001)

The trends of production in major food crops of Oromiya were depicted in figure 2. The graph witnessed similar trend pattern of major food crops production with the case in their area showing strong relationship between area and production. The increasing trend in area was found to coincide with the increasing trend in production during the study period and vice versa. This trend analysis was supported by the results of growth and instability analysis in that the influence of area on the growth and stability of food crops in the region was found to be important. It also reflected the lower impact of technology in productivity in upgrading level of production in major food crops of Oromiya.


Girma Aboma et. al.

18000 I 16000.S 14000 | 12000 § 10000 \ 8000 | 6000 | 4000£ 2000

0 -!--- 1--- r -- 1 ■ I ----'■--- 1 "T T T i i I I----r-

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

Time in years

— t e f f —B m a i z e — wheat — sorghum —Jlf— barley

Fig 2. Trend in production o f major cereals in Oromiya (1981 to 2001)

Figure 3 also presents the trend in productivity of major food crops grown in the region. The trend in yield of maize, wheat and barley were found to be similar in that they revealed a smooth decline and increase (convex) till 1991 and a smooth increase and decrease (concave) thereafter. On the other hand, sorghum and teff showed similar trend in productivity across the study period.

Time in Years♦ — teff —■ — maize — A— wheat — — sorghum — X — barley

Fig 3. Trend in productivity o f major cereals in Oromiya (1981 to 2001)


Girma Aboma 6t. al.

Though not visible due to difference in scale factor, figure 4 revealed’’the trend of the region’s total area, production and average yield of major cereals. It was evident from the graph that the trend in production of food crops in Oromiya is associated with the trend in area during the study period.

It can be inferred from the trend analysis that there exists ’strong relationship between area and production of major food crops grown in Oromiya. This is because of lack of promising and farmer-oriented technologies or because o f Unsustainable use of improved varieties owing to lack of remunerative prices, which could cover or offset costs o f improved inputs such as chemical fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides.

50000 _ 45000 > 40000 § 35000 J 30000 -I 25000■B 20000

I 15000 10000

£ 5000

Figure 4. Trend in the total area, production and productivity o f major cereals in Oromiya (1981 to 2001)

Conclusion and future strategies

ConclusionThe study on trends and growth performance of major cereals in Oromiya revealed the general increase in production during 1990s, due to significant increase in the area under cultivation indicating the inadequacy of research to divert the scenario. The contribution of yield was observed to be significant only for maize while others revealed mixed rates of growth. This also shows lower impact of research on the one hand and

Time in years

“ Area —■ “ prodn —± — yield


Girma Aboma et. al.

the absence o f cost effective technologies on the other owing to inadequate use of strategic planning in the process o f past research.

It was also evident from the investigation that the growth performances of different cereals were found to vary among the study zones which is indicative of the difference in the comparative advantage of production. Actually, each administrative zone considered in this study constituted conventional agroecologies such as low, mid and highland, which suits specific crop(s). This could have brought differences in the comparative advantages in the production of various cereals in different political zones o f the region.

Future research strategies

A mixed significant rate in productivity of most cereals indicated the inadequate research efforts in the past and/or inadequacy of the strategies formulated in line with the basic problems of the farm community in the region. It might also be due to absence of remunerative prices, which could have covered costs o f improved inputs. Therefore, the future research on food crops o f Oromiya should consider the basic problems of the farm community which may be achieved by identifying and prioritizing the constraints and opportunities of the farming systems in each agroecologies; and thereby launching problem-solving research either by participatory technology development or participatory adaptation trials.

It was also observed that excepting few crops like maize and wheat, the growth performance of productivity were found to be non-significant over the study period indicating inadequate research efforts in diversifying the technologies which has a long term effect on stabilizing the efficiency of market. Therefore, future research should diversify the technologies to create differentiated and market-oriented products to improve the efficiency of market (forces of demand and supply) on the one hand and that of producers on the other.

In the past research undertakings, the high input technologies associated with the non- market orientation of research outputs might have brought failure in the sustainable use of the available technologies. The ongoing research should, therefore, target the typologies of the end users to improve and sustain the productivity o f crops in the region.

The underlying investigation revealed declining trend in productivity of major cereals (food crops) in the region due to declining trends o f soil fertility, inadequate agronomic practices, declining productivity of previous fertilizer recommendations, and lack o f sustainability in the use of modern varieties. Therefore, future research should design natural resources conservation and management practices to improve the fertility of the soil. Further, the agronomic recommendations made so far should be up graded for sustaining the productivity of inorganic fertilizers.


Girma Aboma et. al.

Future Policy Focus

The study suggests formulation of, proper policy (ies) in the area of marketing to strengthen the use of comparative advantages in the production and marketing of specific cereals in specific administrative zones. This could enhance efficient distribution of surplus produce on the one hand, and targeted research on the other, to divert the existing scenario of growth in the production.

In the same line of entry, the authors suggest formulation of relevant policy (ies) in the area of specialization in the production of cereals either through small or large-scale scheme. This could enhance growth in the productivity of major cereals for which technologies are available and target research agenda for the gaps.

ReferencesAddisu Tadesse. 2000. Growth and instability o f oilseeds in Karnataka. M.Sc. Thesis. Uryiversity

o f Agricultural Sciences - Dharwad.Central Statistical Authority. 2001 . Ethiopian agriculture sample enumeration: The preliminary

results o f area, production and yield o f temporary crops (meher season), Addis Ababa. Girma Aboma. 2002. Growth and instability o f cotton production in K arnataka, India. M.Sc.

Thesis, Department o f Agricultural Economics, University o f Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad.

Mundinamani S.M. 1993. Production and marketing performance o f oilseeds in Karnataka: An Econometric Analysis. Ph.D. Thesis. University o f Agricultural Sciences - Dharwad.

7th AESE Annual Conference Proceedings. 2003 159

reversing v uinera’bility oi rurai livelihoods in ethiopia

Documents