return of the buddha

8/8/2019 Return of the Buddha

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RETU RN O F TH E

BUDDHA


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AN IN TROD UCTION TO THE EXHIBITIONWritten by Olivia Callea

for the Education Department

Royal Academy of Arts, 2002

ROYAL ACADEMY OF ARTS

26 April 14 July 2002

Supported by the RA Exhibition Patrons Group

On the cover: Cat. 18 Seated Buddha, Northern Qi dynasty (550577)

Limestone, h. 64 cm. Qingzhou Municipal Museum, Shandong Province

Photo The State Administration of Cultural Heritage, Peoples Republic of China

Designed by Maggi Smith. Printed by Burlington

RETU RN O F TH E

BUDDHATH E Q IN GZH O U D ISCO VERIES


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ICONOGRAPHIC ILLUSTRATIONS 2

INTRODUCTION 4

THEDISCOVERY 4

CHINESE SOCIETY 5

CHINESE PHILOSOPHIES AND RELIGIONS 6

Confucianism 6

Daoism (Taoism) 6

Buddhism 6

The Spread of Buddhism in China 7

BUDDHIST ART AND SCULPTURE 7

Why were the sculptures made and who commissioned them? 8

How would these statues have been used for worship? 8

Why were the sculptures buried? 9

CONCLUSION 9

COMMENTS ON THE PLATES 10

Characteristics of the sculptures in this exhibition 10

GLOSSARY 21

BIBLIOGRAPHY 21

CONTENTS


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Crown or diadem

C. baoguan

Hair knot

C. faji

Necklace

C. xiangquan

Chest cl oth

C. seng qizhi

Pearl chain

C. yingluo

Ornamental side sash

C. kundai

Lower garment

C. shangqun

Lotus blossom- or

capsule-shaped pedestal

C. liantai

Stole

C. tianyi

Fan

Peach-shaped object

C. taoxingqu

Stole

C. tianyi

BODHISATTVA

C. Chinese

S. Sanskrit

Iconographic Illustrations

Museum Rietberg Zrich

ICONOGRAPHIC ILLUSTRATIONS


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Head nimbus

C. touguang

Protuberance

C. rouji, S. ushnisha

Robe

C. shangzhuoyi,

S. uttarasanga

Sash

C. dai, S. katisutra

Mantle

C.jiasha, S. kashaya

Robe

C. shangzhuoyi,

S. uttarasanga

Lower-body undergarment

C. neiyi, S. antarvasa

Chest cloth

C. yanyeyi,

S. samkakshika

BUDDHA


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INTRODUCTION

This exhibition of thirty-five Chinese Buddhist sculptures at the Royal Academy of Arts is the result of

a chance discovery made by a group of construction workers in the city of Qingzhou, in the

northeastern province of Shandong. These extremely rare statues, made in the sixth century CE during a

period of much political and religious turmoil, are now considered to be among the 100 most significant

cultural monuments of China. Although the exceptionally fine statues of this exhibition are from the

grounds of the Longxing (Dragon Rise) Temple, more than a thousand such works have been found in

the surroundings of Qingzhou. There have been a few other discoveries of Buddhist figures in other

parts of China, but neither the number of objects nor the artistic quality of these objects can equal those

of the figures from Qingzhou.

During the first century CE, Buddhism arrived in China from India via Central Asia and brought

with it new intellectual and representational traditions. The Buddhist monks and the pilgrims who

travelled back and forth during this period enriched Chinese society and culture in a number of ways.

Although China was in upheaval, or perhaps because of this unrest, the period from the fourth to the

eighth century represents the golden age of Buddhism and of Buddhist sculpture.

THE DISCOVERY

The statues in the exhibition come from the northeastern province of Shandong, an area of economic

and political significance for several millennia. Shandong lay at the end of the Silk Road. The province

is dominated by the Yellow River which, as well as providing fertile agricultural land, serves as a

navigable link to the sea. To the south and west, the province is bordered by almost barren mountain

ranges, which stretch to the faraway mountain Taishan.

In October 1996, workers levelling the sports field of the Shefan Primary School in Qingzhou

discovered a large pit filled with broken sculptures. This school was adjacent to the Qingzhou

Municipal Museum and, fortunately, once the museum staff were called in, they reacted with great

CE: Common Era

BCE: Before Common Era

CE and BCE correspond to

AD and BC, respectively,

and they may be employed,

as in this case, when it is

more appropriate to use a

non-Christian dating system.

The term Chinese as it is

used in the text refers to the

Han people, the dominant

ethnic constituent of China.

Map of China (according to

official Chinese point of view)

Designed by Elizabeth Hefti

and Thomas Humm

Museum Rietberg Zrich


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speed to save the statues from being pillaged and sold. Within ten days the staff had removed fragments

of around 400 statues. The haste of the excavation may have created some evidentiary problems, but it

certainly saved the statues from being dispersed. However, the main figure of the temple, which was

reputedly 12 metres high, was not found in the hoard.

In the pit, figures and steles (upright stone tablets) had been deposited in several layers, with the

better-preserved ones in the middle, surrounded by fragments and broken pieces. Smaller pieces and

heads of the Buddha (one who has attained enl ightenment) and bodhisattvas (beings who have delayed

enlightenment to assist others in their quest for salvation) were found lining the wall of the pit. There

were 200 intact torsi, 144 Buddha heads and 46 bodhisattva heads. The majori ty of statues were made

from fine-grained limestone, which is still quarried in the area surrounding Qingzhou. At the bottom of

the pit, there were also fragments of marble, granite, cast iron and lacquered wood, as well as low-fired

earthenware and unfired clay. A whi te porcelain bowl dating from the Northern Song dynasty

(9601127), three stone steles with su-tra inscriptions (from the holy Buddhist scriptures) and 119 coins

were found. The dates of the coins and the ceramic bowl suggest that the pit was closed in the first half

of the twelfth century. However, it is thought that the majority of the figures in the pit and in thi s

exhibition were carved much earlier, in the sixth century under the late Northern Wei (386534),

Eastern Wei (534550) and Northern Q i (550577) dynasties.

The statues were found in what i s now bel ieved to be the site of the Longxing Temple, a monastery

which is thought to have been founded before 425. The temple is likely to have been of considerable

size; evidence suggests that a pagoda and various halls once stood there. After 1461 there were no more

references to the Longxing Temple, which may have burned down.

CHINESE SOCIETY

China has a recorded history of over 4000 millennia. From the third century BCE when the first emperor

unified China, it possessed an imperial system of government, which lasted until 1911. From the Han

dynasty period (206 BCE 220 CE) onwards, political power was highly centralised. While successive

emperors were not tied to any organised religion, they asserted that their right to rule was bestowed by

heavens mandate. Dynasties rose and fell through military action but the imperial state structure

endured through all these changes. The country was governed by a meritocratic bureaucracy of highlyliterate administrators selected for their individual learning and ability. The government was separated

into three discrete hierarchies: the general administrative departments responsible for ritual, taxation,

justice and diplomatic relations; the military; and the censorate, which oversaw the other departments.

While China was ethnically, linguistically and economically diverse, it possessed a common script

from 1300 BCE, which served as a means of promoting a certain cultural unity. The character-based

script could be read by all those who had learned it, though different regions pronounced the ideograms

differently.

Although initially agrarian, China became an important, highly organised and efficient commercial

power during the Han dynasty. Salt, gold and fine silks were traded as far west as the Roman empire and

throughout southeast Asia. Because of its wealth, China was an attractive prize for the non-Chinese

nomadic people on its borders who took advantage of the periodic internal unrest. As the Han dynasty

began to wane, China suffered the Period of Disunity, a time marked by war, famine and mass

deportations. Han rule, which held a unified China, was replaced by a series of kingdoms led by non-

Chinese, which blended the governmental and military traditions of the nomads with those of the Chinese.

In 316 CE, a small tribe of nomadic herdsmen from southern Manchuria, the Toba, who had settled

in southeastern Mongolia, were given some land in north China as part of an alliance with the now-

settled Eastern Chin dynasty. By launching a series of offensives, the alliance succeeded in unifying

northern China in the first half of the fifth century. It adopted the name of Northern Wei and followed an

aggressive policy of state intervention in the control and distribution of the population. State employees

were practically kept prisoner in their workshops and farmers were controlled by a military-type

organisation. Above all, the Wei made use of deportation to populate the area around their capital,

Datong (west of Shandong).


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As the Northern Weis empire grew, so the need arose for the sophistication of Chinese institutions

and advisors. The capital was moved to Luoyang on the Yellow River in 494 CE. By the end of the fifth

century, as a result of the growing importance of agricultural revenues, the non-Chinese ruling elite

developed an increasing taste for luxury; Chinese culture and its crafts became fashionable, as did its

religion, Buddhism. The Tobas traditional equestrian attire was forbidden and replaced by Chinese

mantles and robes. The use of Chinese family names and intermarriage with the Chinese was also

encouraged.

The ini tial warlike traditions of the Toba people became a thing of the past. A fervour for Buddhism,

characterised by lavish spending on outward display, took hold of high society. Buddhist monasteries

and towers rose everywhere, furnished with bells and statues. The city of Luoyang became the greatest

centre of Buddhism in east Asia.

In 523, the nomad armies, guarding the empire against incursions from the steppes, rebelled and,

after ten years of civil war, formed the Eastern Wei kingdom. This kingdom was hostile to Han Chinese

culture and intent on maintaining nomadic traditions. In 550 power was usurped again and the

Northern Qi dynasty (55077) which followed was formed along the same anti-Chinese lines.

CHINESE PHILOSOPHIES AND RELIGIONS

When Buddhism first arrived in China there was no organised religion with scriptures, monasteries and

clerics. Rather, there were sophisticated philosophies which evolved into more formal religions as a

result of its influence.

At this time, Chinas primary belief systems defined mans relationship to his society through

ancestor worship. Through the ancestors intercessions, appeasement of the gods and spirits was sought.

The great philosophies of Confucianism and Daoism existed alongside these beliefs.

Confucianism

Confucius (551479 BCE) was a contemporary of Siddha-rta Gautama (he was the historical Buddha

see under Buddhism) in India (c. 563 BCE 480 BCE) and a predecessor of the Greeks Plato (429347

BCE) and Aristotle (384321 BCE). Confucius sought a rationale for a structured society

and his teachings emphasised the need for cosmic order. He posited a hierarchy of superior/inferiorrelationships: parents were superior to children, men to women, and rulers to subjects. If everyone

performed the rol e assigned, then the social order would be sustained. He also emphasised the natural

equality of men at birth, bel ieving that man was by nature good, possessed an innate moral sense,

and was perfectible through education.

Daoism (Taoism)

Dao means the path and the main philosophical text is the Dao De Jing (also often seen spelt as Tao Te

Ching), which i s attributed to Lao Tzu. Daoism is a philosophy of passivi ty, or action by inaction which

teaches following ones unadulterated inner nature and accepting without struggle the experiences of

life. It was seen as a reservoir of popular lore and an escape from Confuci anism, and was characteri sed

by a belief in unseen spirits of nature, cosmology, animism, alchemy, early medicine, mysticism and

ancient magic, the search for the elixir of immortality, and for the Isles of the Blessed (paradise).

Buddhism

Buddhism originated in India in the fifth century BCE. Its founder was Siddha-rta (his given name)

Gautama (the clan name) (c. 563 BCE 480 BCE). He was the son of the chief of the Sha-kya tribe,

whose territory straddled the modern IndiaNepal border (hence he was also known as Sha-kyamuni

the sage of the Sha-kyas). He renounced his life of privilege after being moved by the suffering of all life

forms trapped in the cycle of life, death and rebirth. After years of asceticism and meditation, he

achieved nirvana, the release from the cycle of existence, or, put another way, the blowing out of the

fires of longing and attachment. He was given the name Buddha (the awakened one) upon attaining

this spiritual enlightenment. The historical Buddha Sha-kyamuni is regarded as one of a series of


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countless Buddhas of infinite worlds of the past and future. Buddhas are as numerous as there are grains

of sand on the banks of the river Ganges.

Three main movements developed within Buddhism: Hinaya-na (the Lesser Path), Maha-ya-na

(the Great Path) and Esoteric Buddhism. These movements have a variety of doctrines, practices and

philosophic paths. Most share as their ultimate goal the attainment of nirvana. The majority of believers

adhere to the middle way, the path between extreme asceticism and sumptuous living advocated,

according to tradition, by the Buddha himself. (Maha-ya-na was the version of the middle way that was

popular in China during this period because it was more inclusive than Hinaya-na, allowing one to attain

nirvana without renouncing worldly pleasures. It emphasises the Buddha-nature in all things; everything

already is the Buddha-nature, and has only to realise what it is to attain nirvana.) The flexible nature of

Buddhism and absence of a single doctrinal authority enabled the religion to flourish in varied cultures,

and its adaptation to indigenous cultures contributed to its diversity.

The Spread of Buddhism in China

Buddhism was known in China in the second century BCE but was not established until the first century

CE. It probably came to China along the caravan routes of the Silk Road. As a result of this, central Asian

painting and sculpture influenced the Buddhist art that would be produced in China.

There are many legends surrounding Buddhisms arrival in China. Historical texts state that the

Emperor Ming of the Eastern Han dynasty (5775 CE) had a dream in which he saw a divine figure.

The body of the figure gleamed like gold and behind its head there was a halo resembling the shining

sun. The emperors advisors suggested that this might be a deity known in the west as the Buddha.

The Emperor sent his emissaries to India in search of this god. The emissaries had the Holy Scriptures

copied and a statue of Buddha Sha-kyamuni made, which was displayed in the capital, Luoyang.

Two Indian missionaries came to Luoyang with the returning Chinese delegation in 67 CE.

They are said to have brought, on the back of a white horse, copies of the first translated Buddhist

texts: the Scripture in Forty-Two Sections. Legend has it that to honour the two monks, the Emperor

had the Monastery of the White Horse built in the capital. This was the first Buddhist monastery

on Chinese soil .

The first Buddhist communities in China were probably established in the commercial quarters oflarger cities, thanks to foreign merchants. By the fourth century, Buddhism, with its promises of salvation

and bliss in the afterlife, had become a significant influence on Chinese life, penetrating all layers of

society. There were however, tensions between Buddhism, Daoism and Confucianism which were to

have major repercussions for the acceptance or rejection of Buddhism by different parts of China.

Buddhism often appropriated Daoist concepts and images (see the moon and sun in cat. 1) for its

teachings and iconography.

Buddhisms popularity peaked in the fifth and sixth centuries, an unsettled time in Chinese history,

when people were suffering endless wars, deportations, famine, floods and droughts. Contrary to

Confucianism, whose emphasis on accepting ones assigned role within the family and society was in

harmony with the feudal order, Buddhism was periodically in dispute with the authorities. This was

because Buddhist adherents left their families to take vows as monks and nuns and to pursue the service

of religion (or to take refuge from taxation, forced labour or conscription). The monasteries became

increasingly powerful as they attracted gifts of land and goods from the faithful. The emperors,

threatened by this challenge to their divine authority, alternated between harnessing the religion and

its powerful following to their own ends, and embarking on prolonged persecutions, during which

monasteries were razed to the ground and lands were seized. For instance, between 444 and 451 there

were imperial decrees posted which threatened death to any who dared to serve the barbarian gods or

make images, statues or figures in clay or in bronze.

BUDDHIST ART AND SCULPTURE

Sculpture never enjoyed the high status accorded to it in the West because it was not originally used

to represent religious images and, unlike painting or calligraphy, it was made by artisans rather than

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scholar-officials. It was, however, a popular art form, although before the arrival of Buddhism, deities

were never depicted in human form. Archeological finds tell us that pre-Buddhist sculptures were

styli sed figures or animals in bronze, stone and ceramics. In later periods, sculpture became

progressively more realistic, such as in the life-size tomb figures of soldiers or the depictions in clay

of farms and farm animals in tombs of the Han and Tang dynasties.

In early Buddhist art there are no images of the Buddha. Rather, a small number of symbols are

used, such as footprints to represent the Buddha; the wheel of doctrine, which represents the first

sermon given by Siddha-rta; and stu-pas (originally ceremonial burial mounds; later they were smaller,

tower-like structures, or pagodas).

The most extensive surviving early Chinese Buddhist art is to be found in large cave-temple sites

such as Dunhuang. Caves were hollowed out of the cliff faces and painted or sculpted with figures.

Dated inscriptions are often found in these caves, enabling historians to trace styles and to date the

Qingzhou statues.

The sources of early Buddhist images were the kingdoms of central Asia, which in turn were in

contact with the Buddhist kingdoms in Gandha-ra (present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan). In this area

Alexander the Great had established his easternmost kingdoms and introduced provincial forms of

classical Greek architecture and sculpture.

By the beginning of the second century CE, changes in doctrine and religious consciousness had

led to the making of the first images of the Buddha, which demonstrated this classical Greek influence

in their idealisation of form. His figure became the central symbol of Buddhism, serving as a focus for

meditation, devotion or ritual and as an expression of the peace, harmony and power of enlightenment.

Easily-transported objects, such as sketches, descriptions, statuettes, reliquaries and coins, were the

inspiration for early Chinese Buddhas. Buddhas in human form appeared as ornaments in tombs, on

mirrors, on gold jewellery and on ceramic objects such as money trees or funerary urns. Under the rules

of the Northern and Eastern Wei and the Northern Qi, Buddhism enjoyed substantial patronage; the

making of images and the building of monasteries were encouraged.

On the sculptures, clear distinctions of size and style were made between each personage. Buddhas

were clothed simply, with idealised features, deeply carved in relief or in the round, in majestic, solemn,

seated or standing poses. The bodhisattvas were smaller, richly clothed and adorned (cat. 5) and showedslight movement. The Buddha disciples were smaller still and the donors were the smallest of all.

On the triads (cat. 1) the intricate background designs were lightly etched into the stone.

Why were the sculptures made and who commissioned them?

A variety of hol y scriptures encouraged the commissioning and making of Buddhist images. They

suggested formulas to the sculptors, which were based on ideal proporti ons rather than human ones.

There were probably manuals as well, but Chinese artists would have relied more on the descriptions

or sketches of pilgrims and monks returning from the Silk Road and India, and on small votive statues,

which had been made for personal use and had been brought back by the faithful.

The commissioning and the making of Buddhist images were acts of worship. Monks, nuns and

laity would commission such sculptures and insert inscriptions which professed their devotion.

Numerous artists, painters, metal workers, sculptors and architects li ved on the commissions given to

them by monasteries, the lay communities or rich individual believers. The families of craftsmen passed

on the principles of and instructions for their carving from one generation to the next.

How would these statues have been used for worship?

The statue was not considered complete or sacred until the eyes had been painted on, but once this

eye-opening ceremony had taken place, these statues were shown the reverence afforded to religious

imagery all over the world. As the foci of respect in temples and temple grounds, they would have been

circumambulated (walked around) and flowers would have been strewn around them. During

ceremonies, as coloured sil k banners flew and incense burned, believers woul d prostrate themselves

in front of the sculptures, which inspired meditation and contemplation.


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Why were the sculptures buried?

There were no inscriptions or dedications found with the hoard explaining the reasons for their

interment and so the true reasons for their burial are not known. However, we do know that Buddhism

suffered periodic persecutions in China, during which time images and monasteries were damaged or

destroyed, and monks and nuns were dispersed or kil led. These persecutions took place in 446

(Northern Wei), 574 (Northern Zhou), between 842 and 845 (Tang), and then in 955 (late Zhou).

The Japanese monk Enmin (793864) kept a detailed di ary of hi s sojourn in China and recorded

the violent, forced return to secular life of more than a quarter of a million monks and nuns. The

Emperor confiscated monastic properties; bronze bells and metal icons were melted down by the state.

In the entire empire no images of bronze, iron, gold or silver were permitted for public or private

worship. Only sculptures made of wood, stone, clay or other non-metallic materials are said to have

been exempt from devastation. One theory advanced for the burial i s that these statues might have

been pillaged and vandalised during this time some show signs of damage from fire then recovered

and buried in an orderly fashion by monks.

Another theory posits that the figures were buried two centuries later due to an edict against

Buddhism by Emperor Huizong of the Song dynasty (r. 11011125). This decreed that Buddhist temples

had to assume Daoist names and that Buddhist monks had to wear Daoist robes and resume use of their

former Chinese names. However, as this edict was rescinded the following year and the faces of the

statues are not defaced, it seems likely that the statues were interred in less dramatic circumstances.

The discovery of a stele, and a hoard of statues and coins, in the foundations of a pagoda a few

miles from Qingzhou, at Mingdao temple, points to another theory. There, the stele inscription records

the work of two monks who interred already-destroyed sculpture as a pious deed. Although there was

no inscribed stele in the pit along with the find at Longxing temple, the care with which the pieces in

this exhibition had been buried would appear to indicate that they may also have been interred by

monks as a meritorious act.

A final theory speculates that not all of these statues are from Longxing Temple; that they may have

been brought there to be buried ceremoniously when beyond repair or use or when their style had

become outmoded.

CONCLUSION

These treasures from Shandong province help us to understand how the great impulse of Buddhist

religious fervour, which had its peak in the sixth century, influenced every aspect of Chinese life.

The sculptures also show how the spread of Buddhism gave rise to an entirely new sensibi li ty,

introducing foreign representational traditions that were to revolutionise Chinese art. It introduced

figural religious iconography to China, as well as a taste for sumptuous ornamentation (statues covered

in gold and precious stones or silks), and for the repetition of motifs. All these tendencies were in

opposition to the classical Chinese tradition, and their immeasurable influence upon Chinese art

endures today.

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COMMENTS ON THE PLATES

Characteristics of the sculptures in this exhibition

These limestone sculptures were made within the fifty-year period between 529 and 577. Stylistically,

they can be divided into two groups: the Wei, comprising the Northern Wei (386534) and the Eastern

Wei (534550), and the Northern Qi (550577), with the turning point occurring in 550. The sculptures

fall into three formats: figures of the Buddha, figures of bodhisattvas and figural triads (a central Buddha

flanked by two bodhisattvas). They vary in size and quality, as well as in style, illustrating differences in

the means of the donors and the artists skil ls.

The dynastic changes were often reflected in the philosophy and the artistic styles that were

adopted. The Sinocisation (Chinesification) of the Northern Wei, for example, is reflected in the

clothing of the statues; by the end of the fifth century, Buddha figures were no longer shown in Indian

clothes but in more traditional Chinese robes. The most important stylistic elements of the Northern Wei

dynasty are combined in cat. 13: a high protuberance on the top of the head (ushnisha); large, open

eyes; a gentle smile; and tiered, decorative lower hems on the garments, which flare out sideways. The

drapery conceals the shape of the body. Linear forms dominate, emphasising the stylised folds.

In the case of the Northern Qi, however, these Chinese qualities were rejected. The Qi aristocracy

was led by military troops of nomadic origin who were hostile to Chinese influence and favoured the

foreign and the exotic in art. This led to a new style which was influenced by Indian Gupta art: the

bodies are now shown in slight motion, clad in thin robes which cli ng to their body in a naturalistic

way. This style was inspired by Greek sculpture and what is known as the Gandha-ran style (cat. 29)

Cat. 1 STELE OF HAN XIAOHUA, Northern Wei

The steles design is that of an altar platform with a surmounted triad. There is a donor inscription on

the right side of the stele which states the year and the object of the donation and makes pious vows:

On the fourth day of the second month of the second year Yongan (529) the laywoman Han

Xiaohua humbly had a Maitreya statue made for her deceased husband Le Chouer and her deceased

descendants Youxing and Huinu, as well as for her surviving child Ahu; she also vowed to serve andworship the Buddha rebirth after rebirth and generation after generation after traversing this lower

existence.

The base of the stele is engraved with a figure on a lotus blossom (symbolising purity), which

carries on its head a bowl with an incense burner. The figure is flanked by two lions beside each of

which there is the figure of a kneeling donor. Short inscriptions on the left and right edges of the base

say, respectively, Le Chouer, in reverence and Han Xiaohua, in reverence.

The preoccupation of the followers of the Buddha was to gain merit in this world in order to avoid

being reborn or being reborn of lower status. One way to obtain merit was by the commissioning of

religious figures. In his preface to the Record of Buddhist Temples in Luoyang (547), the mil itary leader

Yang Xuanzhi noted:

The people and wealthy families parted with their treasures as easily as with forgotten rubbish.

As a result, Buddhist temples were built side by side, and stu-pas rose up in row after row. People

competed among themselves in making or copying the Buddhas portrait. Golden stu-pas matched the

imperial observatory in height, and Buddhist lecture halls were as magnificent as Efang (ostentatiously

decorated palaces of 221207 BCE). Indeed (Buddhist activity was so intense) that it was not merely a

matter of clothing wooden (figures) in silk or painting earthen (idols) in rich colours.

The Buddha is smiling and has an ushnisha, which symbolises omniscience. He raises his right

hand in the position i ndicating Fear Not and gestures Your Wish is Granted wi th his left hand. These

would have been powerful gestures to the kneeling supplicant during times of uncertainty. The

reassuring figure is identified by the inscription as Maitreya, the Buddha of the future. The two gestures

occur frequently in representations of Buddha Sha-kyamuni and Maitreya during the sixth century. They

were probably the most popular deities of the time.

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The two bodhisattvas are almost identical. Each holds a lotus bud in his right hand and a small

fan in his left hand.

Characteristics of the Northern Wei style are the flaring tips of the garment and the scalloped hems

forming lozenges on the bottom. The statues stand on pedestals with inverted lotus petals and behind

their heads are halos in the shape of double lotus blossoms. Three Buddha figures, seated in the cross-

legged lotus position, are etched into the background. Above these figures, two deities are sculpted

holding the sun and the moon.

Of all the statues found at Longxing Temple, this is the only one with a depiction of both the sun

and moon. These were powerful ancient Chinese symbols, representations of Daoist deities. During

this period, such iconography was incorporated into the Buddhist pantheon.

Cat. 1

Stele of Han Xiaohua

Northern Wei dynasty, dated 529

Limestone

H. 55 cm

Qingzhou Municipal Museum,

Shandong Province

Photo The StateAdministration of Cultural

Heritage, Peoples Republic

of China


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Cat. 3 TRIAD WITH MANDORLA, late Northern Wei or Eastern Wei

This representation of the Buddha flanked by two bodhisattvas is amongst the best-preserved in

this exhibition.The Buddha, with his high topknot and tight hair curls, has a round, smiling, ageless face,

suggesting his enlightened state. The head is rather large in comparison with the body. Coloured

pigments bring the Buddhas features vividly to life, and gold is used to communicate his radiance.

The use of gold gave the offering greater value and thereby bestowed greater merit on the donor.

The other colours, although not as precious as gold, served a similar purpose: they made the donations

more spectacular and the act of devotion more effective. Traces of sapphire-blue pigment are usually

found on the curls of the Buddhas (cat. 28) while traces of black on the robes may indicate that the

monks wore black robes in China at that period (cats 10, 21 and 28).

The monastic robes of the Buddha are painted in a patchwork design with white stripes.

Black pupils would have been painted on the eyes during the eye-opening ceremony to consecrate

the statue. This custom can also be found in Brahmin India. References to giving li fe to statues

were first found in Mesopotamia back in 3000 BCE.

The bodhisattvas stand on lotus-flower pedestals, whose stems and leaves are growing out of

the mouths of two dragons. The dragon represents imperial power, and affords protection and fertility.

A dragon was a mythical Chinese animal, which decorated all types of Chinese art, and would have

been a powerful symbol to associate with Buddhism. Representation of dragons on these statues

was particularly popular in the area of Qingzhou during the Eastern Wei.

This triad is one of the few from the hoard to carry an inscription. Inscriptions provide information

about the donors who commissioned the sculpture to attain merit and ensure good karma. In this

example, the vertical rows of engraved text are not complete (to the side of the Buddha and to the right

side of the right bodhisattva), but they list the names of eleven lady donors who were nuns awaiting

the time of the Buddha. Beside the inscriptions, faded pictures of the eleven nuns can be seen.

Cat. 3

Triad with mandorla

Late Northern Wei (386-534) or

Eastern Wei dynasty (534-550)

LimestoneH. 125 cm


Shandong Province

Photo The State

Administration of Cultural


of China


15/24

Cat. 5 TRIAD WITH MANDORLA, Eastern Wei or Northern Qi

The largest image from the hoard weighs one ton, but its maximum thickness is only 35 centimetres.

In Buddhist temples in China, many statues would line the walls and some of the grounds, but there

would be a principal statue, usually of greater size than the others, to which the temple would be

dedicated. Despite its size, it is not thought that this triad with mandorla was the main Longxing

Templepiece. The principal Luoyang statue is described in the chronicle written by Yang Xuanzhi:

North of the stu-pa was a Buddhist hall, which was shaped like the palace of the Great Ultimate.

In the hall was a golden statue of the Buddha 18 feet high, along with ten medium-sized images

three of sewn pearls, five of woven golden threads and two of jade. The superb artistry was matchless,

unparalleled in its dayHere were kept all the su- tras and Buddhist images presented by foreign countries.

This Buddha wears a red and green patchwork mantle draped over his body, his robe fastened

with a sash. Though his is made of stone, real mantles of silk made to adorn statues have been

found. They were often made from robes given by donors during their lifetimes or as bequests.

The donation of silk was also considered good karma by the scriptures.

This Buddha is carved in higher relief

than the bodhisattvas. A mandorla (an

almond-shaped feature which frames figures

or groups, and signifies their holiness),

decorated with painted flames, surrounds

the concentric halos of the Buddha. At the

top of the mandorla, there is a flying stu-pa

carved in high relief. Four apsaras

(heavenly flying beings) are offering gifts,

dancing and playing music on either side.

Their scarves, which convey movement, are

flying out towards the edge of the sculpture.

Apsaras are low-ranking deities in the

Buddhist pantheon. They are the protectorsof the Buddha and the doctrine. They

derive from Indian mythology and occur

in Chinese art from an early date.

The architecture of the stu-pa is

unusual because there are no similar

Indian or Central Asian stu-pa. The acanthus

leaves on the roof corners are reminiscent

of those on Corinthian columns in ancient

Greek architecture. This might indicate

Gandharan influence.

The images of flying stu-pas can

represent different stories. One is that a

particular Buddha called Prabhu- tratna, who

had attained nirvana, vowed to appear every

time the Lotus Su- tra was being preached.

When another Buddha was preaching the

Lotus Su- tra (which was very popular in

sixth-century China) Prabhu-taratna appeared

in his stu-pa, in the air, and the Buddha rose

to sit beside him. Representations of two

Buddhas side by side are popular during

the fifth and sixth centuries.

13

Cat. 5

Triad with mandorla

Eastern Wei (534550) or

Northern Qi dynasty (550577)

Limestone

H. 310 cm

Qingzhou Municipal Museum

Shandong Province

Photo The State



of China


16/24

14

Cat. 6 TRIAD WITH MANDORLA, late Northern Wei or Eastern Wei

This Buddha with two attendants is surmounted by eight apsaras. The uppermost two carry a stu-pa

while the others worship the Buddha by making music (as is described in many su-tras).

A variety of instruments can be seen, some Chinese and others foreign (Indian and Central Asian).

The stu-pa (or pagoda) is one of the most distinctive kinds of Buddhist building in China. It is the

only tall building to be found in traditional Chinese architecture and takes the form of a storied tower,or an upturned bowl. Stu-pas were built first of wood then later of brick and masonry. They had a

general tetragonal (three-sided) shape until the Tang dynasty (618920). In Luoyang in the sixth century

there is written reference to a 400-foot-high pagoda. Perspective is attempted in this sculpture to make

the stu-pa appear a distant building.

Legend has it that in the third century BCE, two centuries after the Buddha Siddha-rtas death, the

Indian king Ashoka had 84,000 stu-pas, each containing some of the Buddhas ashes, erected all over the

worl d. Each sculpted stu-pa represents one of these reliquaries. Relics were very important in Chinese

culture, and most statues contained sacred texts (the copying and reciting of which was good karma) or

the mortal remains of the Buddha. This added to the mystique of the icons but also drew heavy

criticism from the authorities.

The founder of the Eastern Wei dynasty, Gao Huan (496547), wrote that after the nine-story

pagoda in the Northern Wei capital had burnt down, people living on the coast of Shandong province

started seeing an apparition of the pagoda, which would disappear into the Eastern Sea. This was

interpreted as predicting the fall of the Northern Wei and legitimising the new rulers authority.

Cat. 6

Triad with mandorla

Late Northern Wei (386534) or

Eastern Wei dynasty (534550)

Limestone

H. 76 cm


Shandong Province

Photo The State



of China


17/24


18/24

16

Cat. 18 SEATED BUDDHA, Northern Qi

Only a few sculptures from Qingzhou show the Buddha cross-legged, although the posture is quite

common on sculptures in Chinese cave temples. The Buddha is seated on a round lotus base with

double petals. The aquatic lotus has remained one of the primary symbols of Buddhism and is used

in all sorts of artistic devices. The half-closed eyes of this statue show the Buddha in meditation.

This figure shows a remarkable similarity with figures found in Hebei province (to the north of

Shandong), particularly in the rendering of the feet and the hands, and in the stylised representation

of overlapping drapery folds. It is likely that, during the Period of Disunity, a number of artisan families

from Hebei province were forcibly moved to Qingzhou.

Cat. 18

Seated Buddha


Limestone

H. 64 cm


Shandong Province

Photo The State Administration

of Cultural Heritage, Peoples

Republic of China


19/24

Cat. 22 STANDING

BUDDHA WITH HEAD

NIMBUS, Northern Qi

This free-standing Buddha has a

nimbus(a halo) decorated with

seven small Buddhas. Most of

the free-standing Buddhas have

halos which are carved

separately and attached by an

iron hook, but this Buddha and

halo have been carved from the

same block of stone. When

unearthed, the halo was found

to be broken in three pieces.

The small Buddhas which canbe seen on this halo have been

identified as manifestation

Buddhas, illustrating that the

Buddha can manifest itself in

different visual forms in order

to reach every l iving being with

his message.

The oversized ears end in

elongated perforated earlobes,

a sign of the renunciation of

worl dly pleasures. The ushnisha

(protuberance) is much smaller

than those on the earlier

sculptures we have seen.

In contrast to the

bodhisattva, the Buddha does

not wear any jewellery;

he is a fully enlightened being,

emancipated from this world

and its trappings, who is always

represented in simple monks

attire.

17

Cat. 22

Standing Buddha with head nimbus


Limestone

H. 116 cm


Shandong Province

Photo The State Administration

of Cultural Heritage, Peoples

Republic of China -


20/24

Cat. 26 STANDING BUDDHA, Northern Qi

The damage this figure has sustained makes it di fficult to decipher the intricate scenes carved on i ts

body. It would seem that the scenes were first painted on the sculpted figure, and then carved into

reliefs. The images cannot easily be identified without the polychromy, but a comparison with other

sculptures from this find suggests that they may depict various Realms of Rebirth (the spheres of the

gods, of human beings, of animals, hungry ghosts and hell). There may, however, be regional and

folkloristic additions and variations (such as dragons).

18

Cat. 26

Standing Buddha


Limestone

H. 115 cm


Shandong Province

Photo The State



of China


21/24

Cat. 31 STANDING

BODHISATTVA, Northern Qi

This bodhisattva is one of the most

outstanding examples of Northern Qi

sculptures. It shows the tendency to

represent forms naturalistical ly, a

characteristic of Northern Qi: full , oval

face, meticulously modelled mouth,

curved, downward-looking eyes, fleshy

hands and a somewhat stiff posture.

The back of this statue is also carved,

exemplifying the sixth-century transition

from background-bound sculpture to

free-standing figures carved in the

round.

Bodhisattva sculptures are less

austere and inward-looking than

Buddhas. A bodhisattva is a person

on the path to enlightenment, who

delays his attainment of nirvana in

order to intercede on behalf of otherbelievers. A bodhisattva displays his

power and compassion through his

graceful gestures and elegant garments.

In addition to a sash and a long

stole, the bodhisattva wears a long,

deeply carved string of pearls, which

can be seen on the back and the front.

Opulent jewellery on the bodhisattva

is meant to symbolise the splendour

of another world. Pearls, gold, agate,

silver, lapis lazuli and beryl were

counted among the Seven Precious

Materials mentioned by the Maha-ya-na

scriptures as favoured donations.

These were major imports to China

in exchange for silk. The necklace is

adorned with an animal mask which is spitting pearls. The mask can be traced back to Hindu models.

On the sash a figure in prayer, an animal mask, flame jewels and a Buddhist treasure flask are carved.

The head-dress shows a small seated figure holding a string of pearls, which is identified as

being Buddha Amita-bha.

The inscription on the back states that it was made on the 25th day of the 9th month, but the

year is missing.

19

Cat. 31

Standing bodhisattva


Limestone

H. 165 cm


Shandong Province

Photo The State



of China


22/24

Cat. 32 SEATED BODHISATTVA, Eastern Wei or Northern Qi

This bodhisattva in pensive posture sits on an hourglass-shaped throne. The left foot stands on a lotus-

capsule pedestal, which grows out of a coiling dragons mouth. The face is still golden, surrounded

by black hair styled with four bows. The diadems green ribbons on a red background are contained

within a pearl roundel, a typical central Asian stylistic device.

The styling of the robes and the body indicate a very early date for this sculpture. The style may be

recognised from inscriptions at the cave temple of Dunhuang. The statue may represent Prince Siddha-rta

waiting in paradise for his rebirth as a Buddha.

20

Cat. 32

Seated bodhisattva

Eastern Wei (534550) or


Limestone

H. 90 cm


Shandong Province

Photo The State



of China


23/24

GLOSSARY

Amitabha: primary Buddha in the northern Maha-ya-na

pantheon, ruler of the western paradise (the imaginary pure

land where Buddhist devotees could hope to be reborn)

Apsaras (feitan): heavenly flying beings

Bodhisattva: one on the path towards becoming a Buddha,

but who delays that final act to help others in their quests

for nirvana

Buddha: the enlightened one

Confucianism: Chinese phi losophical system associated

with the structure of society

Daoism: native religion of China, based upon nature worship

and shamanism

Dharma (Wheel of doctrine): in Buddhist art the wheel ofdoctrine symbolises the first sermon given by the Buddha

Four Noble Truths of Buddhism (the teachings of Buddha)

All life is suffering

This is caused by cravings/desires for material things

Freedom from suffering/absence from craving = nirvana.

This can be reached by follow ing the Eightfold Path to

nirvana: 1. right understanding; 2. right directed thought;

3. right speech; 4. right action; 5. right livelihood;

6. right effort; 7. right mindfulness; 8. right concentration

Gandha-ra: refers to an area in present-day Afghanistan and

Pakistan, which gave its name to a sculptural style inspired

by classical Greece, brought to the area by the Greek

soldiers of Alexander the Great

Gupta: refers to the best-known period of Indian art of the

fourth to seventh centuries, which is characterised by the

transcendental, ethereal images of the Buddha that are

most famil iar today

Karma: the accumulated good and bad actions that one

commits, which help shape the next incarnation

Lakshanas: precious attributes of the Buddha such as the

high protuberance on his head (ushnisha) or his elongated

earlobes

Maha-ya-na: the Buddhist doctrine of the Great Path which is

more inclusive than Hinaya-na (the Lesser Path), the Buddhist

doctrine of the lesser vehicle which requires complete

abnegation and renunciation in order to be saved

Mandorla: almond-shaped sculptural feature which frames

figures or groups and signifies their holiness

Mantra: a mystic chant, which evokes the divinity

Maitreya: the Buddha of the future

Mudra-: hand gestures such as fear not and your wish is

granted

Nirvana: ul timate goal or condition, beyond existence

and without form or definition

Nimbus: the halo or cloud surrounding the Buddha which

indicates his holy state

Stu-pa: originally a pre-Buddhist dome-shaped burial mound.

Under Buddhism, the location of auspicious relics.

Su-tra: sacred scriptures of Buddhism, said to have been

the word of the Buddha

Stele: an upright rectangular stone slab or tablet with

a straight or rounded top known from the Han dynasty

onwards

Swastika: symbol of good fortune

BIBLIOGRAPHY

CLUNAS, Craig, Art in China, Oxford History of Art, 1997

FISHER, Robert E., Buddhism Art and Architecture,

Thames and Hudson, 1993

GERNET, J., A History of Chinese Civi li sation,

Cambridge University Press, 1982

LEE, Sherman (ed.), China 5,000 Years: Innovation and

Transformation in the Arts, Solomon R. Guggenheim

Museum, Guggenheim Museum Publications, New York,

1998

RAWSON, J. (ed.), The British Museum Book of Chinese Art,

British Museum Press, 1992

SICKMAN, L., and SOPER, A., The Art and Architecture of

China, Penguin Books, 1988

TREGEAR, Mary, The Art of China, Thames and Hudson, 1980

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The guide is given out free to teachers.

It is avail able to other visitors for 4.95 from the RA Shop (while stocks last).

return of the buddha

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