RethinkingPianoPerformanceAMind/BodyApproach

CristineMacKie

CopyrightCristineMacKie2015

Thisbookissoldsubjecttotheconditionthatitshallnot,bywayoftradeorotherwise,belent,resold,hiredout,orotherwisecirculatedwithoutthepublisherspriorconsentinanyformofbindingorcoverotherthanthatinwhichitis

publishedandwithoutasimilarconditionincludingthisconditionbeingimposedonthesubsequentpublisher.

ThemoralrightofCristineMacKiehasbeenasserted.

DedicatedtomyhusbandIvanBakerforneverappearingtowearyofthislongventure.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Toomanytothank,IwillsingleouttheBritishLibrary,SenateHouse,LaurinMacKieforhispainstakingediting,AdamMacKiefortechnicaladvice,family,friendsandcolleagueswhogavetheirtimetodiscusswritingstyleamongotherissues;IqbalHussein(amemberoftheOsteopathyCouncil)whogavehistimetodiscussstructuralanatomyandfunction;theDesignStudioatRoyalHollowayforreproducingsomeofmydrawings;andlast,butnotleast,mythankstoJohnRinkwhointroducedmetoanotherwayofthinkingaboutmusic.

JonathonDunsbywrites:Wearestilltooboundtoromanticideology;performingshouldnotbeviewedasastrictlyintuitive,ineffableprocess.Ittakeshardthinking

PerformingMusic:SharedConcerns(1995).

CharlesRosenwrites:Themusicianwhohassurrenderedhiswilltotraditionhasabandonedthepossibilityofkeepingthetraditionalive.

PianoNotes(2002).

RichardDawkinswrites:Itistheessenceofsciencetoknowwhatwedonotknow.

UnweavingtheRainbow(1998)-similarly,theessenceofskilledpianoperformanceistoknowthatwhichwedonotknow.C.MacKie(2014)

Contents

Forenotes

Preface

Introduction

PARTI:AnHistoricalLiteratureSurveyoftheRoleofMovementorFunctionoftheBodyinPianoPerformance1650-1965Chapter1:ABriefHistoricalLiteratureSurveyoftheRoleofMovementorFunctionoftheBodyinPianoPerformance:1650-1965

Chapter2:FourPioneers:Mason,Whiteside,FieldenandLevinskaya

WilliamMason

AbbeyWhiteside

ThomasFielden

MariaLevinskaya

PARTII:TheBodyanditsRoleinPianoPerformanceIntroduction

Chapter3:AnatomicalStructure,FunctionandtheSystemsintheBrainWhichControlMovementsandMemorising

Structure

FunctionorMovement

TheSystemsintheBrainWhichControlMovementandMemorising

PARTIII:TheRoleoftheMindIntroduction

Chapter4:RethinkingtheRoleofMusicalAnalysisinPianoPerformance

1stAnalysis:Tempo:AMeanstoShapingLaCathdraleEngloutie

2ndAnalysis:MotionanditsDemarcationRubato:AMeanstoShapingOndine

3rdAnalysis:ShapingtheMelodicCurvesinBruyres:ARollercoasterSolution?

PARTIV:TheConvergence:FiveTheoreticalStudiesConcernedwithUnifyingPianoPerformanceIntroduction

1stStudy:TheCaressingorCarezzandoTouch

2ndStudy:TheRoleoftheTorsoinShapingtheTemporalFlowoftheMusic

3rdStudy:SynchronisingtheMovementsoftheBodytoShapetheMusic

4thStudy:EnhancingtheMemoryinPianoPerformance:AMind/BodyApproach

5thStudy:WideningtheApproach:ImitationandEmulationinPianoPerformance

Footnotes

Postnotes

SelectedBibliography

PraisefortheAuthorsWork

Forenotes

Withthegreatblackpianoappassionato

-Piano,byD.H.Lawrence(1918)

I was quite unaware of the ambivalence towards the role of the body in pianoperformance, especially movement, which was and still is widely prevalent amongstpianists and piano pedagogues even today, when in late adolescence I fell deeply andwholly in love with the great black piano appassionato during a performance of alltwenty-fourpreludesbyChopin,givenby thepianistMindruKatzat theRoyalFestivalHall.DuringhisrenditionofthefourthpreludeinEminor,Iwasseducedandthoughttomyself:Icandothat.

Whatwasthereasonforthisthunderboltfromtheblue?Thepreludewith,asSamsonwrites in Chopin (1996), its powerfully expressive and affective quality created anabsolutely satisfying synthesisofbodyand soul -but therewereother components too.Theneedtodoitmyselfwasbornatthatmomentfromalongingforphysicalcontactwiththe keys and a desire to sit at the instrument and survey its depths under the raised,gleamingblacklid-tosetthestringsinmotionalongitsgreatlength,andtoproduceformyself thewellinganddyingof thesoundswhichseemed tomatchmyownalternatingsenseofecstasyandsadness.

Iwaswholly ignorant of the difficulties ahead. It didntmatter, Iwould find away.However, I quickly discovered that Iwas not a natural pianist. Thereweremany falsestarts,andaftersomeyearsofstudyingwithavarietyofteachers,eachofwhomenforcedtheir different methods which were steeped in the Western mind/body dualism, I wasbroughttomysensesafteritwasrecommendedthatIshouldpracticetheChopinBalladeinGminor,usingtheweighttransferencemethod.Thisentailedthrowingthefullweightofthearmontoanunsupportedfinger,andmaintainingthepressureonthekeybeduntilthenextnotewassounded in thesameway. Ipractised like thisdiligently forsixhourseverydayforamonth.Inevitably,excruciatingtendonitisdevelopedandIfinallylearned,asRosen(2002)advisesinPianoNotes,tobecontinuallysuspiciousofthoseperformersandpedagogueswhoclaim tohave invented theonlysuccessfulmethod inbringing thebestoutinyoungperformers.

Ithenspentseveralyearsrebuildingmytechniquesothatmyhandcouldfunctioninthewaythatitisdesignedto,i.e.,Idevelopedtheabilitytocaressorgraspthekeys.Vitalas

this development was, I continued to practice this technique without engaging thehinterland,orplacingitwithinamusicalcontext.ThisisbecauseIhadnounderstandingof the structure and functionof the shoulder complexand the torso, let alone that therecould be a synthesis betweenmymusicalmind andmy body. This was not altogethersurprising,sinceatthattimetheideaofforgingalinkbetweentheroleofanalysis-inthetraditionalsense-andtheroleofthebodyinperformancewasalmostunthinkable.

However, changewas afoot, for in 1989WallaceBerrywroteMusical StructureandPerformance,1inwhichhequestionshowastructuralrelationexposedinanalysiscanbeilluminatedintheinflectionsofedifyingperformance(p.1).Sincethen,muchcriticismhasbeenlevelledatBerryforhisseeminglyrigidapplicationofanalysistoperformance.Nevertheless, this work is of immense importance for performers, as is the scholarlywritingaboutmusicalperformance ingeneralwhichhasburgeonedsince then,bringingtogetherideasandresearchfromawiderangeofscientificandmusicalfields.

That said, and in spite ofmy intention tounravelmanyof theunsolvedmysteries ofpiano performance by exploring the interface between science and the art of pianoperformance,thisambitionshouldformonlyapartofthewidercommitmenttoartitself,andIwillneverforgetthefeelingswhichwerearousedwhenIfirstencounteredthegreatblackpianoappassionato,andwhichstillremainsopowerfulandaffecting.

Preface

It seems that so long as we are alive, we shall continue closest to knowledge if weavoidasmuchaswecanallcontactandassociationwiththebody,exceptwhentheyareabsolutelynecessary

-Socratesc.469-399BC

Sincetheideascontrollingpianopedagogyandperformancehavebeenlargelyalliedtothe structure ofWestern thought,which nurtures amind/body dualism, Iwill begin bygiving a brief account of some of the reasons for this, and of some contributions byanthropologists,phenomenologistsandphilosophers,whichmayhelptosupporttheviewthatpianoperformance isamatterofengaging themindaswellas thebody.Theshortreferences to the works of Casy, Descartes, Mauss, Merlieu-Ponty, Shusterman, Yates,ClarkeandDavidson,amongstafewothers,whoseviewssupport,inpartthisstandpoint,areintendedfirst,toprovideageneralbackgroundonly,andsecond,aguideforthereaderwhowishestopursuetheseissuesmoredeeply.

Background

TheMind/BodyDualism

Casy(2000)suggeststhattwodevelopmentsinWesterncultureoccurwhichcontributetowardsthistrajectoryofdisembodiment(p.108).Thefirstisthatonthewhole,Westernculturegrowstovaluethesubjugationofthefleshforreligiousgoals.InChristianity,forexample, celibacy is indicative of spiritual purity - that is to say, a renunciationof theworldand the flesh in favourof the spirit and the lightofGod (p.108).Thismodeofthoughtis,inpart,inkeepingwiththeGreektradition,andinevitablycreatesambivalencetowardsthebody.2AsCasyeloquentlyputsit,thehumanpersonmirroredwithterribleprecision,theconfusionthatlayattherootofthephysicaluniverse(p.108).

However,itisDescartes(1596-1650)whoisheldlargelyresponsibleforthemind/bodydualism, 3 arguing that there are two classes of substance which make up the humanorganism;theyarefirst,thepalpablebody;second,theintangiblemind.HedevelopsthisphilosophywithintheframeworkofChristiantheology,believingthatGodandhumanity

arecentraltotheuniverse.And,sinceGodmademaninhisownlikeness,Godmusthaveabody[whichmeansthat]HemusthavethemeansofkeepingHisessencepurefromanybodilycorruption(p.42).Toresolvethisdichotomy,Descartesfocusesonthesoul/bodyopposition-makingthesouldistinctfromthebodywhilerelatingthesoultoGod.Purity,then, is obtainable through celibacy, and the erotic desire of the body is seen as anaberration.

AccordingtoCasy, theseconddevelopmentwhichcontributes to thehardeningof the

mind/body dualism in Western culture is the Enlightenment.4 During this period it isthought that themind is completely enclosed and isolated from the body,5 and that theonly certain knowledge is the collection of ideaswhich belong to it. This view,whichassumesthatthebodyisasolidobject,whilethemindisanetherealsubjectmysteriouslyinfused into the body object (p. 4) remains central to European thought until recently.Today,inpianoperformance,Clarkeobservesthatthebodycontinuestobeviewedasanimpediment to the all-powerful and self-sufficientmind (p. 67) despite overwhelmingevidenceprovidedbyneuroscientistsDamasio(2000)andEdelman(2007)thatthemindisthesiteofmentalphenomenaandisfullyembodied.

By the mid-nineteenth century however, a transition may be perceived in which themind/bodydualismbegins tosoften, i.e. thephenomenathatbiological ideasareneitherwholly mental nor wholly mechanical begins to take root. And, by the late nineteenth

century,with theemergenceof thescienceofergonomics6 theworkerscapabilitiesandlimitations are beginning to be taken into account to ensure that tasks, equipment,informationandtheenvironmentsuiteachworker.Despitethisdevelopment,theworkersarestill treatedasextensionsoftheir toolsandmachinesor, inotherwords, thebodyofthe worker continues to be perceived as a machine-like extension of the tools andmachineswhichhe/sheissupposedtooperate.AsGritten(2009)pointsout,thefocusofergonomicsisonsystemsratherthanhumans,andthereforeitcanplayonlyapartialroleintheapproachtotheperformanceofmusic.

By themid-twentiethcenturyhowever,writers in fieldsother thanpianoperformancebegintorecognizeinageneralway,theimportanceoftheroleofthebody.Forexample,the work of the anthropologist Marcel Mauss (1950), phenomenologist Merleau-Ponty(1962),andphilosopherRichardShusterman(2008),amongstothers,allhelptopointoutsome of the views which have influenced, in part, the development of this book. Forexample,inTechniquesoftheBody,aworkwhichisparticularlyresonantforperformers,Mausswritesthatforseveralyearshemadeafundamentalmistakeinbelievingthatthere

istechniqueonlywhenthereisaninstrument.7Itisonlybyreferringbacktotheworkof Plato, who spoke on a technique of music, that Mauss begins to understand thattechniquecouldbeanactionofaphysicalnature.Asaresult,hesaysthatitisessentialtounderstandthatmans[andwomans]firstandmosttechnicalobject,andatthesametime technicalmeans ishis [her]body (p.104).More importantly,Mauss suggests that,sincethebodyismans[womanstoo]firstandmostnaturalinstrument(p.104),learnedforms of bodily action may become strongly imprinted and operate at a subconsciouslevel.

Shusterman (2008) suggests that, in the field of Western philosophy, thephenomenologistMerleau-Ponty(1962) is somethinglike thepatronsaintof thebody,arguing that the body is the crucial source of all perception, and that in theintersubjective and temporal world, the body should become mindful, and the mindshouldbecomeembodied(p.66).Merleau-PontywritesinSigns(1964):

Astheartistmakeshisstyleradiateintotheveryfibresofthematerialheisworkingon, I move my body without even knowing which muscles and nerve paths shouldintervene,norwhereImustlookfortheinstrumentsofthataction.Iwanttogothere,andIamhere,withouteverhavingenteredintotheinhumansecretofthebodilymechanismorhaving adjusted thatmechanism to the givens of the problemI look at the goal, I amdrawnbyit,andthebodilyapparatusdoeswhatitmustinorderformetobetherejustaglancetowardsthegoalalreadyhasitsownmiracles(p.66).

At the time that this passage is written, it is an enormous step forwards towardrecognizingthevitalimportanceofthebodyasthesourceofbothperceptionandaction,although,asShustermanpointsout, itwouldseemthatMerleau-PontyissuggestingthatthereisnoneedtothinkofwhatIamdoingorwhereIaminspace,Ijustmovemybodydirectly and spontaneously and achieve the results, even without consciouslyrepresentingmyintentions(1972,p.59).

TheanthropologistJohnBaily(1977)alsoarguesthatthemovementsofthebodyareanintegralpartofperforming.Althoughhefocusesonthemusicalinstrumentknownasthe

dutar,8 there is, nevertheless, a useful comparisonwith piano performance, because hesuggeststhatmusiccanbeviewedasaproductofbodymovementtransducedintosound(p.274).

Today,thereisaveryrealpotentialforaninteractionbetweenthemindandthebodyinpiano performance, since two key issues have emerged: first, the relationship between

analysis andperformancewhich engages the performersmind and second, researchbyneuroscientistsintothehumanbrain.

In the first case, the inquiry into the relationship between analysis and performanceenablesamoreinformalapproachtotheanalysisofmusic,onewhichengagesthemindofthe performer in trying to understand more fully the ways in which music might beorganised(Rink,2002).Thisapproach,hecontinues,canproveliberatingtomusiciansstrivingformoreinformedintuition[and]moreprofoundconsciousthought(p.41).

In the second case, advances in the development of technological tools enabledneuroscientists - Damasio (2000) and Edelman (2007), amongst others, to produceevidencewhichuprootsthoseconceptualdualities[showingthat]themindasthesiteofmentalphenomenaisfullyembodied(Dack,2014).

Theresultofthisresearchrevealstheinadequacyofthosedualisticconceptionswhichuntilrecentlyhaveseparatedthemindfromthebody,thoughtfromfeeling,andtheselffromtherestoftheworldinmainstreamphilosophicalandpsychologicalthoughtforthe

greaterpartofthe20century(Dack,2014,p.1).Inspiteof thisprogresshowever, likeClarke(2002)Ibelievethatpianoperformancecontinuestosufferinaprofoundwayasaresultofthemind/bodydualism,despitethecollapseoftheCartesianphilosophyofmindinWesternthought.

MemorizingtheMusic

Memorizingmusic forpublicperformance,which is inpart a roleof thebody, is thesecondthemeofthisbook.Yet,whiletheartofmemorizingmusicforperformanceisofcentral importance in the Western concert tradition, how performers memorise hasreceived scant attention until recently. This may be because performing music frommemoryinpublicisnotestablisheduntilthepianistClaraSchumannsetstheprecedentin1828(Williamon,2004,p.113).Sincethen,ithasbeengenerallylefttoperformerstofindtheirownindividualsystemofmemorizing.

The following reasoning byYates, in her bookTheArt ofMemory (1966),may castmore light on why methods have not been developed for performers to enhance their

meansofmemorizingmusic.10ThebookendswithdiscussionsoftheworkofGottfriedLeibniz and of the early emergence of the scientific method in the 17th century] She

suggeststhat,whiletheartofmemorizingundergoesmanytransformationssincethetime

of Simonides.11Descartes (amongst others) brings about a transformation, which is toensureitssurvivalasafactorinthegrowthofscientificmethod(Yates,p.355).BelowisadescriptionwhichYatesprovidesofDescartesviewofthememoryprocessinthebrain:

theporesorgapslyingbetweenthetinyfibersofthesubstanceofthebrainmaybecomewiderasaresultoftheflowofanimalspiritsthroughthem.Thischangesthepatterninwhichthespiritswilllaterflowthroughthebrain,andinthiswayfiguresmaybepreservedinsuchawaythattheideaswhichwerepreviouslyontheglandcanbeformedagainlong

afterwardswithoutrequiringthepresenceoftheobjectstowhichtheycorrespond.

With thedevelopmentof this idea,memorizing is turned, according toYates, fromamethod of memorizing the encyclopaedia of knowledge, of reflecting the world inmemory, to an aid for investing the encyclopaedia and the world with the object ofdiscoveringnewknowledge.12

Yatesclaimsthatnoothermodernbookonthesubjectofmemorizingisavailableatthetimeshewriteshers;thismakesitlesssurprisingthatthereisnosystematicapproachtothe art of memorizingmusic for performers, although, according toWilliamon (2002),bothEdwinHughes(1915)andTobiasMatthay(1926)trytoaccountforhowperformersmemorise.Sincethen,littleattentionhasbeengiventothesubject,althoughthissituationisnowbeginningtochange.

Finally, in the last ten years a welcome development has taken place, in whichconferencesareheldgloballywith theaimofforgingan interactionbetweenperformersandresearchers.Ideasandresearchfromawiderangeofscientificandmusicalfieldsarenowenabling amoreunified approach tomusical performance - amajor changewhichallowsforthedevelopmentofmyownargumentthroughoutthisbook,whichisthatthefullpotentialforperformanceenhancementliesinexamininghowthepianistsintellectualandbodilyabilities-thatistosay,howtheroleofthefunction,ormovementofthebodyand the roleof themindmaybeunifiedwithaimof shapingandmemorizingmusicalworksforperformance.

Introduction

Pianists routinely encounter a great variety of bodily and intellectual demands inpreparingpianoworksforperformance,butuntil recently, theemphasishasbeenontheintellectual aspect of performance, or radical mentalism. However, since pianoperformancerequiresanindissolubleunionofmindandbody, thisbookwillpresent theargumentthatthemovementorfunctionofthebodymayhavearoletoplayinshapingand memorizing musical works for performance. While this is a view which is nowbeginning to be supported in musical academic circles who wish to promote a moreinterdisciplinary approach to performance, it is as yet an unexplored area of pianoperformance.Theapproachwill includeanexaminationofbothhistoricalandempiricalstudies, and reflect some of the most important trends in the study of musicalperformance,suchastherelationshipbetweenperformanceandanalysisontheonehand,andanthropology,andthehumanmovementsciencesontheother.

The book is structured in four parts. The Prefacewill give a brief overview of whymind/bodydualismshavebeencentral to thestructureofWesternmusical thoughti.e.,whyone isprivilegedover theother,andabriefaccountofsomemorerecentviewsbyanthropologists,phenomenologistsandphilosophers,whichmaypointupawayforward.Chapter 1 surveys the great historical treatises written by pedagogues and performersbetweenthemid-sixteenthcenturyandthemiddleofthetwentiethcentury.Theaimistoestablishwherethegapslieinourknowledgeabouttheroleofmovementandmemorizing(whichisinpartaroleofthebody)inpianoperformance.Chapter2discussestheworkoffour pioneers, namely Mason, Whiteside, Fielden and Levinskaya who, through moresystematicapproacheseachcontributedtoadeeperunderstandingoftheroleofmovementinpianoperformance,althoughtheirconclusionsaresomewhatfragmented.Itshouldbenotedherethatbecausethefocusofthissectionofthebookisontheroleofmovementofthe body, it does not provide a comprehensive history of all the great figures inperformanceandpedagogy.

Part 2 will investigate recent research by anthropologists and the human movementsciencesintothestructureandfunctionormovement[13]ofthebodyandthebraincontrolsystems, which enable movement, and memorizing in piano performance. This willestablishthebasisfortheworkinthefinalpartofthebook.

Before thisworkcanbeundertaken the roleof themind inmusicalperformancealso

needsinvestigation.Part3willexaminetherethinkwhichhastakenplaceinrecentyearsinmusicalacademiccirclesabouttherelationshipbetweenperformanceandanalysis,andwhether or not these changes are relevant to the performer. As I will show, a moreperformativeviewisbeginningtoemerge,andvital issues,whichuntilnowhavebeenlargely neglected such as shape as opposed to structure will be explored here. Threeinformalanalysesarepresentedwhichexaminemusicalcomponentssuchastime,motion,retards and accelerationthe aim being to showways of exposing the shape of threeDebussyPreludesforpianofromBooks1&2.Themodelsofanalyseswillunderpin,inpart,theapproachtothefivetheoreticalstudieswhichfollowinthefinalpartofthebook.Thesestudieswillattempttoestablishaconvergencebetweentheroleofthemindandtheroleofthebodyinpianoperformance,andareintendedalsotoopenthewayforfurtherinterdisciplinary research and applications which may contribute significantly to theunderstandingofpianoperformanceforfuturegenerations.

The book is aimed at two audiences; first to pedagogues and performers at theconservatoiresandmusicdepartmentsofuniversities,theprivatepianoteachingfraternity,enquiring piano students and passionate amateurs; second to clinicians and healthpractitioners,althoughawideraudiencewouldbeabletogainmuchfromit.

PARTI:

AnHistoricalLiteratureSurveyoftheRoleofMovementorFunctionoftheBodyinPianoPerformance1650-1965

Chapter1:ABriefHistoricalLiteratureSurveyoftheRoleofMovementorFunctionof

theBodyinPianoPerformance:1650-1965

InthisChapterIwilldiscusstheroleofmovementorfunctionoftheperformersbodyin piano playing as it is perceived by pedagogues and performers from the mid-seventeenthtothemid-twentiethcentury.Thisdiscussionwillentaildrawinguponwrittenaccounts of keyboard playing in the great historical treatises by some of the foremostexponentsofthisart.Theroleofmemorizingwhichis,inpart,aroleofthebodywillbe

notedherealso.

From the fourteenth to the eighteenth century the clavichord is the instrument most

favouredbycomposersandperformersforteaching,playingandaccompanying.14Rosen(2002)writesthatthisearlyinstrumentcalledforverylittlecorporalforce,anddoesnotengagethemuscles-thebody-oftheperformer(p.19).Theclavichordthereforeneedsto be handled with care and the historical treatises of the seventeenth and eighteenthcenturiesshowthatpedagoguesandperformersalikearewellawareofthedelicatenatureof the instrument,and theneedforasmallmovementof thefingerdescribedbelow.Toperform,theplayerplacestheirhandgentlyonthekeys,andthefingerslightlydepressitwith a perpendicular movement from the knuckle toward the key bed. This lightmovementofthefingerssetstheslipofmetalattheotherendofthekeyleveragainstthestringandproducesthesound.Thisslipofmetalisknownasthetangent,andasitstrikesthestring,itremainsincontactforaslongasthekeyisdepressed.

Because the action of the clavichord requires a small movement of the finger inperformance,itisunderstandablethatingeneralallgesturesormovementsofthebodyarediscouraged.However,physicaldifficultiesforperformersareacommonproblem.C.P.E.Bach categorizes them thus: flat, extended fingers, stiffness of the hand, and snorting,grimacing and uncommon awkwardness (1974, p. 43). He finds fault also with thoseteachers who, although they recognize that their students suffer from stiff hands,encouragethemtopractisewiththerighthandonly,thuspartiallyavoidingtheproblem.Despitethesecommonphysicalproblems,C.P.E.Bachdoesnotsuggestthattheymaybealleviated by allowing the torso or the upper arm, or both, tomove freely. Instead, hepursues thenotion that facilityofperformancemaybeobtainedbyadopting thecorrectfingering.Hedoesnotmeanfingerstrainedinindependenceandstrength,ratherthattheincorrect choice of one finger following another would lead to the impossibility of

performingthenotes(p.41).

C.P.E.Bachisnotaloneinholdingthisview;itwouldseem,fromtheotherpedagogicaltreatises published at this time, that the positioning of each finger to express amusicalpassageisawidespreadpractice.Thisviewstillprevailstodayintheconservatoiresandmusic departments of universities. Reasons for this are discussed by Cook (1999). Hesuggeststhatteachersandmusicianswhoplaceemphasisonhowapieceofmusicshouldbefingered,dosonotbecauseofpragmaticconsiderationsofperformance(p.82),butratherbecauseit isthemeansbywhichabstractinterpretationsofmusicalstructurecanbeevaluated,remembered,andcommunicatedintermsofaconcretemusicalcontext(p.82).

With the development of the pianoforte, numerous treatises are written on how todevelop the art of playing the new instrument by pedagogues and performers such asMuzioClementi(1752-1832),JohannCramer(1771-1858),JohannHummel(1778-1813),IgnazMoscheles(1794-1870),andCarlCzerny(1791-1857).However,itisClementiwhoisgenerallyconsidered tobe responsible forestablishing the earlybeginningsofa truepiano technique (Gerig 1976, p.59), althoughFielden (1932-3) refutes this, saying thatClementicontinuestopromotethetraditionthatallunnecessarymotionmustbeavoided(p.15).

LeopoldMozart(1719-1787)showshisobviousdisapprovalofayoungplayerwhoisunable to conform to the correct style of motionless playing. He writes sardonically:whenapassageisbeingplayed,thearmmustberaisedashighaspossibleandaccordingasthenotesinthepassagearestressed,thearm,notthefinger,mustdothis(Sadie,1980,p.712).

In 1839,Czerny continues to uphold the view that movements of the body haveadetrimentaleffectonPiano-Forteplaying[and]thatagoodandgracefulpositionmustbethefirstthing(pp.1-2).Heelaboratesfurther,writingeveryobliquityofposition,everygrimace, and every useless gesture, has a disadvantageous influence on the hands andfingers(pp.1-2).Anexceptioncanbemadeonlywhenbothhandshavetoplayinthehighest octave on the right hand side of the keyboard, or the lowest octave on the left.Then,agentleside-motionmaybepermitted,butwithoutmovingontheseat(pp.1-2).This last remark by Czerny shows that he does recognize the necessity for lateralmovementsofthetorso,evenifinalimitedwayonly(seethediscussionsinChapters3and10onthefunctionofthetorso).

Aswehaveseensofar,withtheexceptionofJ.S.Bach,whoflexeshisfingersagainst

thekeysinacaressingmovement(thisisdiscussed,asareafewotherexponentsofthistechnique, in the first study in Part 4), the focus by other performers and pedagoguescentresalmostentirelyupontrainingthefingerstodepressthekeyswithaperpendicularmovementofthefingerwhilethebodyremainsmotionless.

However, with the ever-increasing quest for a greater volume of sound, heavierhammers are a natural corollary to the heavier stringswhich the new iron frame in thepianonowsupport.Thisdevelopmentmeansthatgreaterphysicaleffortisneededbytheperformer to depress the keys.And, asRosen rightly points out the increase in volumemeansthatthesoundwouldbefeltbythewholebodyofthepianist,bringingintoplay[the]backandshouldermuscles(p.19).However,pedagoguescontinuetodisregardthiseffecton theperformersbody,encouraging itall thewhile to remainmotionless,whilethefingersarenowtrainedtoberaisedashighaspossibleattheknucklebeforestriking

them down perpendicularly onto the keys with as much force as possible.15 CharlesHaake(1921)describesthistechniqueasthehingemethod(p.74),andrecordsalsothatitbecomesanestablishedteachingmethodinthenewconservatoires.

According to Ritterman (2002) during this period, social, economic and culturalchangessweepingEuropeledtoanincreaseinthedemandbythemiddleclassesforpianoteaching. To satisfy this demand, the first conservatoires emerge in Paris, and soonafterwards others are established in Prague, Vienna, Milan, Brussels and London andGermanyaswell as inRussia,Britain andAmerica (p.78).Leading performersof theday,whosereputationswereknownthroughoutWesternEuropeasaresultof touringasconcertartists(p.78)begintoteachinthenewconservatoires;and,ingeneral,perpetuatethemethod of forcing the fingers tomove vigorously upward from the knuckle beforestrikingthekeysinadownwardmovement,whiletherestofthebodyisheldmotionless.

SomeMechanisticMethods

In1816,LogierinventsamechanisticdevicewhichhenamestheRoyalChiroplast(seeFigure 1.1, below). His objective is to train the fingers to increase their strength bymovingthemattheknuckleinisolationfromtherestofthebody.Toachievethisend,headvisesthattheperformermustkeeptheshouldersdownandholdthebodyerect,withagentle inclination towards thekeyboard,and thearms, fromtheelbowupwards,a littleadvanced,andnearlyclosetothebody(Logier,1816,p.5).Figure1.2,below,providesa

closerviewofthemechanismofTheRoyalChiroplast,andwecanseethatitcomprisesagamutboard,positionframe,and twofinger-guides.Thegamutboardhas twostavesoffivelinesdrawnuponit-oneforthenotesinthetrebleandtheotherforthenotesinthebass.Thenotesofall thekeysarewrittenin,frombottomAin thebass to topCin thetreble.Thepositionframeismadeupoftworailswhichareplacedoverthekeyboardandattached by screwswhich hold it firmly in place. The finger guides are twomoveablebrassplateswithfivedivisionsforeachfinger.Thedivisionscorrespondperpendicularlywiththekeysoftheinstrument,andmaybemovedbymeansofabrassroduponwhichtheyaremadetoslide.

To practise, each finger of the performer is attached to a brass wire with its ownregulator.Thisisthewristguideandisintendedtopositionthewristcorrectly.Thehandsofthepianistarethenputbetweentherailsuntiltheyareplacedonthekeysasfarastherootofthethumbnail(1816,p.5).

Figure1.1.TheRoyalChiroplast.

Figure1.2.AnenlargedviewofthemechanismofTheRoyalChiroplast.

Kalkbrenner(1745-1849)too,believesthattopractisefingerexercisesusingmachinesis the way forward, after noting that when he uses the arm of his chair to sustain hisforearm, his fingertips are able to movewithout the slightest contraction (1830, p. 3).Furthermore,heobservesthatheobtainscetttranquillitydemainsetdecorp(1830,p.3), or greater tranquility of ease in the hand and the body, as a result. After thisdiscovery,hedesignstheguide-main,whichhesayswillmakeitimpossibletocontractbadhabitsinpianoplaying(p.4).

Aguidebarisplacedalongthelengthofthekeyboardandheldlevelbyscrewswhichare driven into each end of the keyboard. It is intended to support the weight of theforearm as the pianist adopts a slightly forward position of the torso in piano playing.Kalkbrenner particularly recommends this method of practice for the more delicatepersonsso that theywill find that,as theirarmsaresustainedand their fingersalone inaction,itwillbepossibleforthemtostudylongerwithoutfearofinjurytothechest(p.

4). Kalkbrenner does not modify the traditional finger-exercises,16 recommending thattheyshouldbepractisedwhilerestingthearmonthebar.Henotestoothatpractisingin

thiswayparticularlyenhancestheperformanceofwristoctavesinperformance.17

ExtendingtheBoundaries

Despitethecontinuationofthetraditionalapproachtotrainingthefingers,andtheuseoftherestrictivemechanisticmethodsdescribedabove,evidenceofchangeisbeginningtoemerge.PedagoguesandperformerssuchasCzerny,whobelieve,aswehaveseen,thatallmovementsofthebodyhaveadetrimentaleffectonPiano-Forteplaying(1839,pp.1-2),nowbegintoobjecttotheuseofthemechanisticdevices,writingthattheyfetterbyfartoomuch,all freedomofmovement(p.129).Moreinterestingly,J.S.Bachsmethodofusing the hand to caress the keys emerges in the teaching of a few such as Kontski,Chopin,MarxandDeppe(seethefirststudyinPart4).

Atthistimealso,advancesarebeingmadeinunderstandingtheroleoftheforearm.Forexample,Kontski recognizes that the forearmmayassist thecaressingmovementof thehand by drawing backwards.However, he contradicts this view later by saying that le

bras doit rester tranger tous les mouvements,18 i.e., the arm should be inactive.Presumably,whenhereferstothearm,hemeanstheupperarm,becausehegoesonto

say that the forearm which is tout different 19 i.e., completely different, and isresponsibleformovingthehandfromoneplaceonthekeyboardtoanother,andmaybe

employed when lattaque vigoureuse des Accords 20 i.e., attacking the chords in avigorousmanner.

Kontskidoesnotrecognizethattheupperarm,whichispartoftheshouldercomplex,cannotbedisengagedfromtheactivityjustdescribed,becauseitsupportstheforearmatthe shoulder blade (see the section on structure in Chapter 3), and is responsible fordrawing the forearm away from, or towards the keyboard. Furthermore, the forearmcannot move the hand from one position to another at the keyboard, as he suggests,becauseitisthefunctionoftheupperarmtoreach,thuspositiontheforearm/handatthekeyboard(seediscussiononthereachingroleoftheupperarminChapter3).Neithercan

theforearmproducelattaquevigoureusedesAccords21,orvigorousattackasKontskidescribesit,sinceitistheupperarm,inpart,whichprovidestheforceforattackingthechordsinthisway.

Deppes (1828-1890)work isoutstanding,becausehebreakswith the traditionwhichadvocates the stiffly held hand and wrist and strongly articulated movements of thefingers,becomingpossiblythefirsttorecognizethepotentialforlinkingthemovementsof the upper arm, the forearm and the hand by expounding the principle of muscularsynergy.Bythishemeansthatthereshouldbeacoordinatedactioninwhichtheweight

of thearm is supportedby the shoulder, so that thehandmaybeas light as a feather

(Caland,1903,p.22), and the fingers are then free to caress, or extend.22Erroneously,Deppebelievestoothattheweightofthehandmaybesupportedbythewrist,thewristbytheforearm,andtheforearmbytheupperarm.However,theforearmisnotsupportedbytheupperarmasDeppesuggests,butbyitsattachmenttotheshoulderinconjunctionwiththeotherbonesoftheshouldercomplex(seediscussionontheanatomicalstructureoftheshouldercomplexinthefirstsectioninChapter3).

Other developments are also beginning to be reported about the way in whichperformersareadaptingthemovementoftheirbodiesinpianoperformance.Forexample,Kalkbrennernowsuggeststhatawiderrangeofmovementsofthebodyshouldbeused,

suchasprcipitantsurellecommelionquesesaisitdesaproie,23orhurlingoneselfonto the keyboard like a lion seizing its prey. Schumann (1810-1856) too describes thepianistFranzLisztexpressingavarietyofmovementsinhisplaying([1854]1956,p.155). Evidence of this is borne out in the illustrations by Jnos Jank (see Figure 1.3,below). These drawings depict Liszt performingwith a great deal of exaggerated bodymovement. And, although the illustrations are clearly caricatures, they do provideevidence that Liszt is using amuchwider range of bodymovements, which appear todepartfromthetraditionalmethodofpianoperformance.

Figure1.3.TwocaricaturesbyJnosJank,aHungarianartistdepictingLisztperformingatthepianowithavarietyofexaggeratedmovementsofthebody.

AdivisionofViews

By the mid-nineteenth century, two other directions are being pursued which would

outweighDeppesachievementsandinfluence.OnedirectionistakenbyTobiasMatthay(1858-1945) inEngland, and theotherbyLeopoldBreithaupt (1873-1945) inGermany.Bothmenareconcernedwithfindingalternative techniques to theexcessivemovementsofthefingersdemandedbytheGermanschooloffingertechnique,anddevelopmethodstoencouragethepracticeofrelaxationandarmweight.ThisisincompletecontrasttotheapproachadvocatedbyDeppe,which isvigorouslyrepudiatedbyMatthay,whoin1903wroteTheActofTouch,hismostimportantandinfluentialwork.

Matthays writing is difficult to absorb; however, the essence of his thoughts aresummeduphere verybriefly.Aswe shall see, likeBreithaupt (to bediscussedbelow),Matthaylaysgreatstressontheuseofweightandmuscularrelaxationofthearms,whileat the same he recognizes that complete relaxation of armweight on to the keys couldresultinrisktolimbandPianocramping(orNeuritis)(1932,p.34).Hestresses:wemust rest continuouslyon thekeyboardwith sufficientweight to compel the implicatedfingerstoretaintheirkeysdepressedthisweightisobtainedbyrelaxingthewholearmfromtheshoulder,butnomore,thanwillover-balancethekeyintodescent(1903,p.40).

In1905,Breithauptwrites theNaturalPianoTechnic,TheSchoolofWeight-Touch inwhich he is equally concerned to find alternatives to the inadequate methods of theGermanschooloffingertechnique.Thefollowingdescriptionbyhimpresentssomeofthebasic principles which he teaches. At first sight it would appear from his openingstatementtobeasomewhatmoreflexibleapproach,forhewritesthatthereisnohardandfastruletodetermineonespecialwayinwhichthearms,handsandfingerssuitallcasesand answer all purposes (1909, p. 8). However, he negates this in his next statement,writingthatallnormalpositionsaretoberejected.

One thing - he continues - is required for weight-technic, i.e., for the transmission,supportandbalanceoftheweightofthearmandthatisafirmsteadybridge,onwhichthe arm rests like the superstructure of a bridge on its arches and pillars (p. 8). Thecontradictions in Breithaupts approach lie, first, in the fact that he calls for a passivehand,and,second,thathedemandsthatthehandshouldbestrongenoughtosupportthewholeweightofthearm(seediscussiononsupportingthehandonthetransversearch,inthefirststudyinPart4).

The following text, written in 1921 by Wesley Weyman (1877-1931), is a usefuldistillationofthegenerallyacceptedmeaningofrelaxationandarmweight,asexpounded

byBreithauptandMatthay.24Theauthorbeginsbyaskingthequestion:

Whatotherforcethanpressureisatourcommand.Thecreationoftheforceofweightinthearmisduetoarelaxingorletting-goofthesupportingmusclesthemoreweletgo,thegreatertheforcewehave.Therecanbenofatigue,andwecaninconsequencelookforwardtoourfortepassagesratherasaperiodofrecuperationthanexhaustingmuscle-strainingordeal.Furthermore,thisweightforce,powerfulasitiswhenitisunrestrained,iseasilythemostcontrollableoftheforcesatourcommand.Itmaybereleasedineverydegree from the softest pianissimo to the mightiest forte of which the instrument iscapablemostimportantofallisthefactthattheweightcanbeusedwithmuchgreaterdeliberationthanmuscularforce,throughayieldingoftheknucklesandjoints(Weyman,1968,p.131-132).

MoreScientificApproaches

Until theFirstWorldWar,pedagoguesand students fromAmericaweredrawn likeamagnet to Europe. Thereafter, many of Europes most eminent pianists and teachersmigrated toAmerica,where new ideas began to flourish andwheremusicalmagazinesandjournalssuchasTheEtude,TheMusician,TheMusicQuarterlyandTheRsumarefounded.

In1925,OttoOrtmannestablishesthefirstlaboratoryatthePeabodyConservatory.Hisobjective,whichisaradicaldeparturefromallthemethodsandtreatiseswhichprecedeit,istoanalyseandrecordmeasurementsoftheeffectbywhichthisartisticcontrol reactsonthepiano[and]eliminatethevagariesofthepersonalequation(1929,p.xv).Indoingso,hedoesnotdismiss,asdoestheweightschoolexpoundedbyBreithauptandMatthay,the advantages of some of the traditional aspects of piano pedagogy, but continues toadvise that the finger drill, or traditional finger exercises should be practised with theshoulderplayingitspartinsupportingtheweightofthearmabovethekeys.

Four years later in 1929, Ortmann writes The Physiological Mechanics of Piano

Technique,25 in which he comments that the general attitude of pianists toward ascientificinvestigationoftheirart ismostregrettablethewhysandthewhereforesdonotconcernthem(p.xiii).Today,asweshallsee,Ortmannwouldfindthattherehasbeen littlechange ingeneral.Abrief surveyamongstperformersandpedagoguesat themusicconservatoiresrevealsthattheroleofmovementofthebodyinperformanceisstilllargelyignoredandthetraditionalapproachtopianoteachingwithitsemphasisoncorrect

fingerusageisstillpreferred.

However, it is his exploration of the shoulder complex (see section on structure inChapter3),whichofinteresthere,since,aswehaveseensofarinthissurvey,therehasbeenalmostnorecognitionoftheimportanceofitsroleorfunctioninpianoperformance.In thediscussionof the shouldercomplex,whichhe refers toas the shouldergirdle,heidentifiesthemuscleswhichmovethescapula,butstatesthatitsfunctionisstability,notmobility (1929,p.25) (seesectionon functionof theshouldercomplex inChapter3).Furthermore, but in direct contradiction to this statement, he says that all movementsdemandingthepassagesofthearminfrontofthebody,illustratedinthepassageswhichdemandacrossingoverofthehands,orapplyingoftherighthandinthebassandthelefthandinthetrebleregion,and,ofcourse,thereversemovements,areprimarilymovementsof the shoulder-girdle, demanding a stooped shoulder position are often erroneouslyassignedtotheshoulderjointentirely(p.35).

This passage makes it clear that he does not recognize that there is an anatomicalstructural relationship between the shoulder complex and the upper arm, since themovementsoftheupperarmthathedescribescanbeachievedonlyiftheshoulderbladeand the collarbone respond in a cooperative way which allows for full mobility (seesectiononfunctionoftheshouldercomplex,inChapter3).

Jzsef Gt (1913-1967) not only recognizes that the additional, complementarymovements of the clavicle and the scapula are indispensable in assuring the completefreedomof theupperarm (1965,p.11),butalso introduces thenotion that the torso iscapable of performing a swaying movement, although he says that this movement ispermitted only in so far as it brings the arms into play at the keyboard [or whenattempting]peculiar(grotesque,crude)toneeffects.

However, with great insightfulness Gat recognizes also that the spine is a source ofelasticsupport,whichifhinderedwillspoiltheexpressivenessoftheplaying(p.118).Toavoidthisproblem,hesuggeststhattheplayershouldflexthespineatthelowervertebraeandavoidusingactiveswingstrokesof thearms (p.118).Holding theview,however,that the lower vertebrae of the spine should be held firm by contracting the lowerabdominal muscles in the pelvis, is prescient, since it is the fundamental approach ofpresent-dayphysiotherapists(forfurtherreading,seetheworkofCarlsoo(1972,pp.81-93),andthePilatesmethod).

Tosummarize,accounts in thehistorical treatisesshowthat, initially,pedagoguesandperformersinsistthattheperformermustmaintainamotionlessstanceofthebodyduring

performance,andthatthefingersofthehandshouldmovefromthefirstjoint(orknuckle)inaperpendicularordownwardactiontodepressthekey.However,aftertheintroductionof the pianoforte, questions began to arise about how performers should overcome theproblem of a heavier action. As we have seen, extreme solutions were sought; somepedagogues and performers advocate an increase in themovement of the finger, whileothersfeltthatthisdidnotincreasetheirstrengthenough,anddevisedmechanisticdevicessuchastheRoyalChiroplastandtheGuide-maintoovercometheproblem.Stiffnessandfatiguewereacommonoutcome.

Althoughat this juncture theanatomicalstructureof theforearm/hand isnotyet fullyunderstood, a broader view of the role ofmovement of the body in piano performancebegintodevelopasareactionagainsttheexcessiveuseoffingermovement.Amongthosewhoadvocatechange,areDeppe,BreithauptandMatthay.Others,likeOrtmannandGt,conductmorescientificinvestigations,but,aswehaveseen,therearecontradictionstobefoundintheirconclusionsonthefunctionoftheshouldercomplexinperformance.

It will be noted that so far there is no reference to the role ofmemorizing in pianoperformance,despitetheexpectationthatperformersshouldplayfrommemory,andthatitisoneoftwoskillsofcentralconcernintheWesternconcerttradition(Clarke,2002,p.61).ThisaspectwillbeaddressedinChapter3,andinthefourthstudyinPart4,entitled:EnhancingtheMemoryinPianoPerformance:Amindbodyapproach.

The following Chapter will focus upon the research of four extraordinary pioneerswhoseworkisnowlargelyforgotten.Theircommonaimistogainadeeperunderstandingofthestructureandfunctionofthebodyanditsroleinpianoperformance.Betweenthem,theirresearchspansthefiftyyearsfromtheendofthenineteenthcenturytothemiddleofthetwentiethcentury.

Chapter2:FourPioneers:Mason,Whiteside,FieldenandLevinskaya

Inthischapter,myaimistoshowthatimportantnewdirectionsarebeingtaken,albeitinasomewhatfragmentedway,whichareconcernedwithfindingouthowthestructureandfunctionoftheperformersbody,inparticulartheshouldercomplex,theforearm/handandthetorsofunctionsinpianoperformance.

Thefouroutstandingpioneerswhoseworkfocusesonimprovingtheunderstandingoftheroleofmovementofthebodyinpianoperformancearefirst,theAmericansWilliamMason (1897)andAbbyWhiteside (1929,1955),whosework is largelyempirical;and,second,ThomasFielden(1927)andMariaLevinskaya(1930),whoarebothpublishedinEngland, and who both claim their work to be scientifically based on the anatomical

research in progress at that time.26 All four surveys are critiqued as they progress;however,thisisadifficultprocessbecausethereareofteninherentdifficultiesintheiruseoflanguage,whichcallforaninterpretationthatreliescloselyupontheworkof,amongstothers,kinesiologistssuchasTyldersley&Grieve(1996)anthropologistsMarzke(1994),Weir (1994) Schwarzt (1994), and Jeannerod (1994), and the anatomical drawings ofAndras Szunyoghy (1994).Descriptions and Illustrations of the anatomical structure orfunctionofthebodymentionedinthischaptermaybefoundinChapter3.

WilliamMason

In theyearbeforeWilliamMasondeparts forEurope in1849 to study thepiano, the

playing of the pianist Leopold de Meyer 27 (1816-1883), a pupil of Czerny, has aprofound influence on him. Meyer is touring America, and Mason, never missing anopportunitytohearhimplay,studieshistechniqueclosely.BywatchingthemovementsofMeyershand,armandshoulder,Masonacquiresthehabitofplayingthepianowith,ashedescribesit,fullydevitalisedupper-armmuscles(1901,pp.19-21).

DuringhisstayinEurope,however,henotesthatthereseemstobeverylittleknownthereoftheimportantinfluenceofthemovementoftheupper-armmuscles,andtheirveryefficientagency,whenemployedintheproductionoftone-qualityandvolumebymeansofincreasedrelaxation,elasticityandspringinessintheirmovements(pp.68-70).Mason

continues,thatonnooccasionduringhisentirestayinEuropedoeshefindanyevidencethatthemethodsoftheteacherswithwhomhestudies,ortheirstudentswithwhomheisintimatelyconnected,exploreanythingmorethanthedevelopmentofthehandbelowthewrist(pp.68-70).

Uponhis return toAmerica,Masonpublishes a number of analyticalwritings (1887,1889,1901).Althoughmuchofhisworkisoriginalinthought,itisnowlargelyforgotten;so,forthepurposeofthissurvey,IhavechosentolookatVolume1ofTouchandTechnic:

ArtisticPianoPlaying(1901),28inwhichheexpoundshisnovelideasontheuseoftheupperarmandthehand,andprovidesseveralillustrations.Tomakehispointsmoreeasilyunderstood,Masonseparatesthemovementsofthepianistsarmintothreecategories:theupper arm, the wrist, and the hand. Each category is then divided into three differentmovements:thedown-movement,theup-movement,andthedevitalizedarm.

TheDown-armMovementoftheUpperArm

Masonwrites: the highest service which the proper use of the triceps [the extensormuscles at the back of the upper arm] renders, is in the capacity of a guide, for itsinfluencequicklyleavensthewholelumpofthemuscularsystem:itpenetrates,pervades,and vitalizes the entire action, and accomplishes more in bulk and in detail in thedevelopmentofatemperamentaltouchthanispossibleinanyotherway(1901,pp.14-15). Masons use of the word leaven may be understood perhaps as a pervasive ortransforming influence. He goes on to suggest, rightly, that the tricep is active in thedownwardthrustofthearmtowardsthekeyboard.

Todevelopthedown-armmovementoftheupperarmtheperformerisadvisedtoresthis or her arm on the knee, andwith an impulse from the upper arm the hand shouldrespondbybeingthrownupwardstoaheightofapproximatelyteninchesbeforefallingbackunderitsownweightontotheknee.Toclarifythisfurther,Masondrawsananalogywithaballwhichisthrownintotheair.Oncethepupilunderstandsthisprocesshe/sheisthenpermittedtopractisethemovementatthekeyboard.

Figure2.1.Thearmatrestafterfallingfreelyofitsownweightontothethirdfinger.

InFigure2.1,above,wecanseethatthehand,shownbythedottedlines,isheldabovethekeyboard(Masonrecommendsaheightofthreeinches),andthenbyanactofwill,orletgo,thearmisallowedtofallfreelyofitsownweight[ontothethirdfinger,whichshouldbreak]theforceofthefall(1929,p.5).Thewristshouldrelaxcompletelyasthehandcomestorestonthethirdfingeronthekeybed

There is an inconsistency of approach to be found between the preparatory exercisedescribedaboveandthepracticalexercisesforthedown-armmovementtobeperformedat thepiano.For, aswehave seen in thepreparatory exercise,Masondemands that theimpulse should bemade by the upper arm, afterwhich the arm falls as a result of thatforwardimpulse.However,inthepracticalexerciseatthekeyboard,heomitstosaythatthe relaxed fall of the whole arm onto the keys must be preceded by the forwardmovementoftheupperarm.

Once these exercises have been mastered, Mason advises the student to play fiveascendingconsecutivenotes;first,frommiddleCtoG,placingtherighthandthumbonthe C; second, placing the thumb on the left hand on the G below middle C, anddescending to the5th fingeron theCbelow.Masonsaim is thateach finger shouldbeabletotaketheweightofthearmuponoccasionanddeliveraspowerfulatouchasmaybe desired (p. 5). Mason considers that applying this form of touch will eventuallyproduce a proper development of finger power and strengthen each individual finger inturn.

The risk of severe muscular strain, or tendonitis,29 from practising in this way isconsiderable,andMasonmustsurelyhaveexperiencedtheresponseofmanystudentswhowould have shown some reluctance to release the armweightwhen themuscles of the

hand and forearm are poorly developed, and unable to support the fingers against theforce, or weight, of the arm (see Chapters 4 and 9 for a discussion on supporting thehand).

TheUp-armMovement

Masonsaysthattheup-armmovementisthusnamed,becausetheupperarmseemstospring boundingly into the air away from the keyboard [without a] sense of havingdeliveredadownwardblowtothekeys(p.6).Throughoutthisexercise,Masonadvisesthat thehandandwristshouldbekeptentirely relaxed(seediscussionon therelaxationfallacy, in thesectiononFielden).The instructionswhichfollowthisadviceseemtobesomewhatcontradictory,foreitherthereisanalternationoftheupanddownposition(p.6)of thewrist -whichsuggestsacontinuousmovementat thewrist joint -or thehandmaintainsan entirely relaxedcondition (p.6), i.e.,withoutanymovementat thewrist.Thetwoconditionscannotexistsimultaneously.

TheWrist

Mason is unclear about the function of the wrist, although he recognizes that theimpulse for thismovementcomes from theupperarm (seeChapter3).ThedrawingbyMason,inFigure2.2below,showstheup-downmovementatthewristjoint.

Figure2.2.Raisingandloweringthewristatthekeyboard.30

TheDevitalizedArm

Masondescribesthedevitalizedconditionofthearmasbeinglimp,suppleandlimber.Thereseemstometobeaninherentcontradictionhere, limpbeingawordwhichis theopposite of limber, awordwhich implies that the conditionof thebody shouldbe in a

stateofsubtlepreparedness.31Hegivesthreepreparatoryexercises,whichareintendedtodeveloptheconditionof thedevitalizedarmso that itcandeliverapowerful touch,orstrongblow(p.6),tothekeyboard.Theyshould,headvises,bepractisedawayfromthekeyboard as follows: first, the arm shouldbe allowed tohangdown listlesslywhile thehandoftheotherarmpushesattheupperarmuntilthewholearmswingsbackwardsandforwards,and thehandandfingersswing limply inawave-likemotion (p.7);second,theupperarmtheninitiatesthisactionusingthemusclessituatedintheshoulder[hedoesnotspecifywhichmuscles],while thehandandfingers remain limpasbefore; third,herecommendsthatthearmandhandshouldbeheldintheusualposition(p.7),whichhedescribes as a forward-swinging actionwhile themiddle finger lightly touches the key,andthewristmakesacircularmovement

In thepracticalexerciseat thepiano, thestudent is instructed toswing the limphandontothekey,andthen-withoutdepressingthekeys-thefingersthenplaythenotesCDEFGrespectively,usingthefingering12345withadetachedeffect.Masonsaysthattheimpulseforeachnotewillbefromtheupperarm,andthehandandfingersmustbeloose[and]whollyfreefromconstrictionorpositiveeffort(p.7).

TheHand

Forhisexplorationoftheroleofthehandinpianoperformance,Masonusesthesamethree groupings, namely the down-hand, the up-hand, and the devitalized hand. Theprocessesforthepreparatoryandpracticalexercisesforthesethreeconditionsofthehandaresimilartothoseofthearm.

For the preparatory exercise of the down-hand movement, Mason suggests that thestudentshouldbeseated,withthehandrestinguponthelapthen,byanimpulsefromtheupperarm,thehandshouldbethrownupwardsbyafewinches.Hesaysthattheforearmwillrespondsomewhat(p.7)tothisactionoftheupperarm,butthehandshoulddosomore. Interestingly, Mason is partially aware that the forearm has a function in thisexercise,butseemsunawarethatthebicepmuscle,whichflexestheforearmuptowardsthehead,doesnothaveanattachmenttotheupperarm,butisconnectedtotheshoulder

bladewhilethetricepmuscle,whichextendstheforearminaforward-pushingaction,isattachedtothehumerus(seeChapter3onstructureofthehumerus).

Masonprovidesalsoanalternativesuggestion,whichis,thatthehandshouldberaisedand lowered using an impulse from the arm, upon which the hand must hang looselyuponthewristlikethefreeendofaflail(p.8).Thissuggestionmaybeputintopracticemore feasibly, since it is possible for the hand to be raised and then lowered, using animpulsefromthearm,butwithoutengagingtheflexingandextendingmusclessituatedintheforearm,providedthatthefingersremainincontactwiththelap,ashesuggests.

Oncethesensationofemployingthearmtocreatetheimpulseforthehandmovementisappreciatedbythestudent,he/shemayapplythisatthekeyboardintwopracticalways.First,thehandmustbeheldabovethekeyssothatthethirdfingertouchesthekeysurface

afterthefallingbackofthehandandaftertheup-motion;32second,thistouchmayberepeated, but with an added down-impulse from the arm, by which the hand should

respond, as described above, with a flail-like swing upon the wrist joint.33

Unfortunately,Masondoesnotspecifywhetherornotthenoteshouldbesounded.WhileMasonsattemptstointegratethearmmovementsintotheperformanceareonlypartiallysuccessful,thisisneverthelessaseriousbeginning-eventhoughitiscomplextoabsorb.

TheDevitalizedHand

In the section on the devitalized hand,Mason says that this may be achieved bypractising in the sameway as for the devitalized arm, i.e., by allowing ones hand tohang from thewrist listlessly and then shake it up and down bymeans of pushing theforearm up and down with the free hand. The following is Masons test to see if thestudentshandhasachievedaconditionofperfectlimpness,suppleness,andlimberness(p. 7). He advises the student to play a group of notes, such as C D E F G, with thefingering12345.ThethumbisplacedonCandthefifthfingeronG,withtheremainingfingers-thatis2,3,and4-placedonD,E,andFrespectively.Theimpetusisachievedby throwing the hand against the first note, the effect of which should carry the handthrough theremainderof thenotes inaboundingmotion.Thedevitalizedconditionofthe wrist must remain throughout this process, and the force will be reduced as eachsuccessivenoteissounded.

TheFingers

Astoointhepreviousdiscussionsonthethreeconditionsinthearmandinthehand,heapplies themovementof thefingers to thesameconditions,whichare: thedown-finger,the up-finger, and the devitalized fingers. In this section,Mason does not providepreparatory gymnastic exercises to obtain the right physical condition of the finger, butinstead aligns the differentmovements with different kinds of touch. For example, thedown-fingeractionentailsliftingthefingerupatthemetacarpaljoint-thatis,theknuckle(fortheanatomicalstructureofthehand,seethefirstsectioninChapter3)-andlettingitdescendwith the tip contacting the key perpendicularly (p. 9).Mason gives no adviceabouthow to achieve the devitalization action of the finger, althoughhe says that theconditionisthesameasforthedevitalizedarm.

TheGrasporClingingLegatoTouch

ThisisthemostinterestingpartofMasonswork,forheunderstands,correctly,thatthe

function of the hand is to grasp 34 (seeChapter 3 and the first study in Part 4 on thecarezzando touch). He describes the movement of the fingers as clinging (p. 9), andexplainshismeaning in the followingways: first,hesays that thecushionof the fingermaymakeaclingingcontactwiththekeyssothatplayerswillhavethesensationthattheyarepullingthekeytowardsthem;second,anactionmaybemadebythetipofthefingerwhichflexesandsweepsittowardsthepalmofthehand,thuscreatingastaccatoeffect;third, he says that when the pressure from the finger increases commensurately, it inextreme forms draws upon theweight of the arm (p. 9).He advises that the degree ofpressurewillvaryaccording to the intensity[i.e.,dynamics]andvelocityof themusicalpassage. Thus, faster playingwill require less pressure than slower playing.Where themusic requires great melodic expressiveness, the pressure from the finger increasescommensuratelyuntilinextremeforms[it]drawsupontheweightofthearm(p.9).

Masonsdiagrams,givenbelow,showfirst,howthefingersofthehandcanextendonthekeysurface(seeFigure2.3,below),andsecond,howthefingerscanflexagainstthekeysurfaceinasweepingmovementtowardsthepalm(seeFigure2.4,below).

Figure2.3.Masonsdrawingofthefingersinanextendedpositiononthekeyboard.

Figure2.4.Masonsdrawingshowingthehandinaflexedpositiononthekeyboard.

Hesaysthatattheendofthesemovements,thehandshouldberaisedatthewristjoint.Whythisshouldbesoisnotclear!

WhileMasonsviewofthestructureandfunctionoftheshouldercomplexisnotwellunderstood,themostimportantaspectofhiswork-which,ashepointsout,iscontrarytothe general teachingmethods of his time - is that he understands, like Deppe, that allmovementsofthefingershavetheiroriginnotonlyinthehand,butinthearm,althoughhedoesnotspecifywhere.Equally,whileherecognizesthatflexingthefingeragainstthekey surface is exploiting thegraspingpotential of thehand, hedoesnotunderstand thevitalimportanceofsupportingthehandatthepointofcontactwiththekeybed(seethefirststudyinPart4onthecarezzandotouch).Consequently,asIhavealreadypointedout,thereisaconsiderableriskoftendonitisifthepressureoftheclingingactionofthefingerisincreasedwithouttrainingthehandtosupportthisactionatthetransversearch.

AbbeyWhiteside

Whiteside writes several treatises on piano performance, but it is in The PianistsMechanism(1929)andIndispensablesofPianoPlaying(1955)thatweseeevidencethatshenotonlyextendsMasonsviewofthemovement,orfunction,oftheshoulderandthehand in piano performance, but she explores also the ability of the hand to support thearm, and the functional role of the oppositional thumb. More importantly still, sherecognizesthatthetorsoplaysavitalroleinpianoperformance.Thus,alltheseareasofherworkwillbediscussednext.

TheRoleoftheShoulder

AsIhavealreadyshown,Masonrecognizesthattheupperarmiscapableofprovidingpower to the hand in pianoperformance, butWhiteside (1929) goes further, suggestingthat the shoulder has a threefold purpose: first, she writes in importance among theshoulder-actionsis theuseoftherightkindofpower(p.19),whichwilldetermineanychanges in tone required by the score; second, of almost equal importance is thegoverningofthesidewiseprogressionofthehandonthekeyboard-findingtheplaceofthetonestobeplayedineitherdirection,sothatthefingersandthumbdonotinitiatethecontrol for either distance or power (p. 43). On the structure of the forearm/hand inChapter3,thislatterpointwillbeenlargeduponinthediscussioninChapter3;third,herpointisthattheroleoftheshoulderistoaccuratelygaugethelevelofthekey-bedandapplythepowerwherethetoneisproduced(p.19).

Whitesidesfirstpointdemonstratesherfundamentalconcept,whichisthattheshoulderisdesignedinsuchaway,thatinpianoperformance,itprovidespowertothesoundofthenote.In the lightofpresent-dayresearchthis iscorrect(seeChapter3fordiscussiononthefunctionoftheshouldercomplex).But,whilesheisunabletodescribeaccuratelyhowtheshoulderproducestheappropriateforce,orpower,likeMasonsheprovidesapracticalexercise,whichisintendedtohelptheperformertofeelthemuscleenergy(p.20)oftheshoulder. To achieve this feeling of muscle energy, she suggests that resting oneselbowsontheshoulderofaseatedpersonandpressingthembackintotheirchairastheytrytorise.

Whiteside illustrates her second point by suggesting that the lateral action of theshoulderalongthekeyboardisthesameastherelationshipbetweenthetipofthefinger

and the shoulder, i.e., she explains that it is the same as the process of holding a penbetween the fingers andguiding it along thepagewith the shoulder.This suggestion isevidence that she understands that part of the function of the shoulder complex is topositionthehand.ThisisconsistentwithmorerecentresearchtobediscussedinChapter3andinthethirdstudyinPart4entitledSynchronizingtheMovementsoftheBodywithShapingtheMusic.Herthirdpointisthattheshouldershouldbeabletogaugethelevelof the key bed, and she recognizes too that the flexingmuscles of the forearm shouldremain constantly active to keep the forearm hooked up to the source of power at theshoulder(p.23).However,shealsoexpectsthatthesesamemusclesshouldyieldatthesameinstanttotheactofextension(p.23)ofthetricepmuscle,butnotquiterelax.Itisdifficulttoreconcilethesedemandswheninfactitisthefunctionofthebicepmuscletocontrol the speed of the triceps, or extensor muscleswhen they perform a pushing orforwardmovementtowardsthekeyboard.

TheTransverseArchorHandSupport

ThefollowingisthefirstaccountthatIhavefoundwhichexploresthequestionofthetransversearchofthehandprovidingsomesupportagainsttheforceofthearmafterthefingerhasreachedthekeybed(seethesectioninstructureinChapter3andthefirststudyinPart4).Theforceofthearm,Whitesidewrites,meetstheforceofreactionatthecentreoftheradiusofmovementforthefingerasawhole(1955,p.25),andthispointshouldbetheknuckle.Shesaysalsothattheforceofreactionagainsttheknucklewillbeproducedafterthekeyhasbeenplayed.Onceagain,Whitesideusesapracticalexercisesothattheperformermaysensepreciselyhowtheknuckleshouldfeelat thepointofreaction.Sheadvises that the forearmshouldbepronated, and then,with thehand lightly closed, theknuckleof the fifth fingershoulddepressablackkey.Asaconsequence, theperformerwill learn to feel thepointof reactionat theknuckle.Afteracquiring thissensation, theperformermayturntheforearmintoasupinepositionsothatthethirdfingerofthehandrestsonthekeywithoutdepressingit;thenagain,withthesameamountofpowerandthesamefreedomofapplication(p.25),thelefthandmaytaptheknuckleofthethirdfinger,preventinganymusclereactionofthatfingerexceptthatwhichisstrictlynecessaryfortheaction to send the keydownward to the keybed.Once again she says that the knuckleshouldfeelthepointofreaction.

Whitesidedoesnotsaywhat theroleof theupperarmshouldbeduringthisexercise,

i.e.,whether thedeltoidmuscle should support theweight of the upper arm (asMasonadvocates), orwhether it shouldbe relaxed, thus allowing theupper arm tohangdownbesidethebody.If it is theformer, thentheweightontheknucklewill toogreatforthefingertosupportthehandwhenitisturnedintothesupinepositionanditwillnotbeabletorestlightlyonthekeysurface,assheadvises.

If,however, theupperarmissupported in thewaythat Idescribe inChapter3 in thesectiononstructure,thenthefingerwillbeabletorestlightlyinasupinepositiononthekeysurface,thatistosay,withoutdepressingthekeytothekeybed.Ifitisthelatter,thentheperformerwillfeelthereactionatthepointoftheknuckle,asshesays;butsinceshedisregardsthefunctionoftheflexorandextensormusclesoftheforearm,andofthewristextensors which would provide support at the knuckles, considerable overuse of theextensorsintheforearmislikelyandmayresultinstiffnessintheposteriorforearm.

OpeningtheFingersoftheHand

Whitesideisadamantthatacommoncauseofstiffnessinthearmorhandofpupilsisthattheyover-reachwiththeirfingers,i.e,theystretchtheirfingersouttofindthenotes.She believes that it ismuscles in the palm of the hand only,which are responsible forgoverning the spacing between the fingers for chord-formation (: 27) (seeChapter 3),andtheimagerywhichWhitesideusestoachievethisactivityinthehand,isthatthepalmshouldfeelasifitisholdingalargebubble,whichthenbecomesasmoothshallowbowl,wherein it rests lightly (: 27). Any undue tension of the muscles she says, should beprevented,sinceitwillbreakthedelicatesurfaceofthebubble.However,holdingalargebubble in the palm of the hand employs not only the interosseous muscles, but thelumbricals, which are also situated in the palm of the hand (see the first section onstructureinChapter3).Bothgroupsworktogethertoflexthemetacarpophalangealjointinwardtowardsthepalm.Furthermore,thelumbricalsarelinkedtotheflexormusclesintheforearm,andconjoininflexingthemetacarpophalangealjoints.

I should like to add however, that in the following section on the thumb,Whitesidecontradictsherpoint that themuscles responsible foropening thehand lie solely in thehand,writing, it is not accurate to say that all sideways extensions of the fingers andthumb lies in the palm, and continues erroneously that it is an aid in avoiding anundesirableactivitytothinkitentirelythere(1929,p.30).

TheOpposableThumb

WhileWhiteside does not completely understand the grasping role of the hand, shedoesunderstandthefunctionofthethumb,whichisdesignedtoopposethefingers.Thisisanimportantpartofunderstandingthefunctionofthehandwhichistograsp(foramorerecentviewof theoppositional functionof the thumband fingers seeMarzke (1994) inChapters3and4).

Drawing on the research of the anatomists and kinesiologistsBowen andMcKenzie,Whitesidepresentswhatisauniquedescriptionatthistimeofthefunctionofthethumbanditsapplicationinpianoperformance.Shewrites:thehandofmandiffersfromthatoftheanthropoidapesmainlyinthedevelopmentofthemusclesofthethenareminence(seeChapter 3), and in the habitual position of the thumb, which is one of more completeoppositiontothefingers(:29).Shebelievesthatthethumbiseasilythemostvaluablefingerofthehand(:29),anddescribesitsfunctionasthatofgraspingbydrawingthetipofoneormorefingerstowardsthethumb(:29).[2]Duringthisprocesssheadvises thatthe tipof the thumbshouldnotbecomeengaged.However,discouraging theuseof thetip or distal joint of the thumb in pianoperformance is to reduce the advantage of itsoppositional function. Also, Whiteside contradicts the point above that the musclesresponsibleforopeningthehandliesolely in thehandwriting,it isnotaccurate tosaythatallsidewaysextensionsofthefingersandthumbliesinthepalm,ratheritisanaidinavoidinganundesirableactivitytothinkitentirelythere(1929:30).

TheTorso

In1955,WhitesidewritestheIndispensablesofPianoPlaying,andinChapter5,whichis entitled Techniques other than Fingers, she says that her views on the torso are adiamondmine (p.31).Asweshallsee, theyarecertainly innovative, forshesays thatwhenthestudentisseatedatthepiano,thetorsorestsonthechair,andshouldbalanceonthetwoischialbonesofthepelvis(seefirstsectiononstructureinChapter3).Whitesidesaysthatthemusclesundertheseischialbones[thepelvicfloormuscles]createactivityinthetorso,muchasthefeetagainstthefloor(p.31),butshedoesnotnamethemuscles,acknowledging that she feels a certain clumsiness (p. 30)whendoing so. Instead, she

preferstouseimagerytodescribethemuscles,whichshesaysarelikeacushion(:31)andwhichbecomethickerthroughcontractionwhenthepianistliftsupthetorso.Equally,shesays,thereversehappenswhenthetorsoislowered,i.e.,thecushionofmusclesthenbecomesthinnerandmorerelaxed.Continuing,shesuggeststhattheraisingandloweringofthetorsothroughthecontractionsdescribedabovemaybedonegraduallyorsuddenly;thus,ifitisthelatter,thetorsowillrespondasifdancingagigue,andifitisperformedgradually, one contraction may last for a long crescendo, and the relaxation may besustainedforthefollowingdecrescendo:thetorsodancesaslowwaltz(p.32).

Fascinating as this is, contradictions appear: first, because, as she says, themusclesunder these ischial bones create activity in the torso (p. 31); second, we sit upon acushionoflargemuscles(p,31).However,ifthetorsorestsonthetwoischialbones,thenit cannot sit on a cushion ofmuscles at the same time. The cushion ofmuscleswhichWhitesidemaybe referring toare thepelvicdiaphragmor floor-musclegroup (see firstsectiononstructureinChapter3),which,althoughtheywillnotliftthetorsoupordown,asshesuggests,willgive the torsoasensationofcontrol.Thisseems tobe in linewithPilates,which advocates training the abdominal andpelvic-floormuscles to support theupperbody.

Whitesidealsobelieves that thesamecushionofmuscleswhich lifts the torsoupanddownwillenablethetorsotoswayinotherdirections,thusempoweringthebodytofeelthe rhythmic response to whatever is being performed. Furthermore, when the torso israisedofftheseat,Whitesidesuggeststhatthiswillinvolveatransferofresistancetofeetandfloor,awayfromtheischialbonesandchairseat,notunlikethetransferfromsaddleto rump (p.32).Whitesidewarns thatnot to explore this activitywill lead to a furtherdammingupofasourceofemotionalexpression.

Othermovementswhichchangethebalanceofthetorso,suchasthecollapsinginthecentreofthetorso,or,relaxingofthespine,or,theraisingofthetorsoofftheseat,are,inherview,a signof aphysical response to theemotionalmoment in the score suchasadramatic sforzando, or pianissimo, and should not be allowed to dam up a source ofmusicalexpression(p.32).Oncethetechniqueofmovingthetorsointhewaydescribedaboveismastered,Whitesidewritesallthenativesourcesaresoutilizedthattheplayingoftheartistnolongerseemsremote,incredibleandimpossible(p.30);andshewarnsthatifallthesepossibilitiesforblendedactioninplayingarenegatedpianistswillbelopsidedandfallshort(p.30).

SupportingtheArms

Whitesideisinterestedalsointherolethatthetorsocanplayinsupportingthearmsinpianoperformance.Sheconsidersthatthetorsocanactasthefulcrumfortheupperarm,andsheprovidesgoodimageryforfulcrumactivity,whichistositinthedriversseatandhold the reins (p. 33).This, she says,will convey the idea of both an active bodywhich is alive rather than stodgy (p. 33), and a body which takes part in theperformance.

Whiteside is not specific aboutwhichmuscles shouldbe engagedwhen the arms areheldinthisway,anddoesnotwarnagainstcontractingthewrongmusclegroup,suchasthe trapezius muscles, whose function is to elevate the shoulder blades upwards andlaterally (see first section on structure in Chapter 3). Contracting these muscles is acommon fault to be found amongst performers and can result in mild to severe pain,usuallybetweentheshoulderblades.

ThomasFielden

Thomas Fielden considers that the achievements of Breithaupt and Matthay (seeChapter1),brokenewgroundandthatthishelpedtopavethewayforhisownresearch.In1927,hewritesTheScienceofPianoTechnique.Thisisascientifictreatise,i.e.,itisbasedonanunderstandingofhumananatomyatthistime,ratherthanbeing-ashewritesinthePreface-yetanothernewmethodofpianotechnique.Hisaim,whichhesayswillinallprobabilitymake themodern pianoforte pedants throw up shocked hands (p. 85), is toprove that the performers body can be engaged in piano performance if physical and

mechanicallawsareappliedinanaturalratherthananartificialway.35

Incontrast toWhiteside,Fieldenproposes that technical training shouldbecombinedwithpractise,whichisbasedontheunderstandingofthreekeyissues:thementalfactor,thenervousfactorandthemuscularfactor.Elaboratingfurther,andpresciently,asweshallsee,hewritesthatthesefactorsdonotneedtobetrainedseparately,sincetheywillreactuponandcoordinatewitheachother.For thebrainconceives themovement, thenervescommunicate it to the muscles concerned with the movement, and they in their turn

executetheorderstheyreceive.ThisisinaccordancewiththediscussiononthefunctionofthesomatosensorysysteminthelastsectiononcontrolsystemsinthebraininChapter3.

AlthoughFieldenplacesthemuscularfactorlastinorderofthethreefactors,hedevotesthegreatestpartofhisattentiontoit,andurgesthestudenttounderstandfromtheoutsetthatthegoalofmuscularefficiencyisnotanabnormalitysomuchasfitness,notstrengthasmuchassuppleness(p.11).

Fieldenbeginsbydescribingthegeneralsituationofthemusclesgroups(p.26),whichare grouped around six groups of bones, as those being engaged in the act of pianoperformance.Theyare:thescapulaandclavicle,thehumerus;theforearm(whichconsistsoftheulnaandtheradius);thewrist,whichcompriseseightsmallbones;themetacarpalbonesofthehand;andfinally,thephalangesofthefingers.

TheScapulaandClavicle

Fielden begins his discussion on the anatomical structure of the performer with thescapula and the clavicle. Importantly, he recognizes that these bones provide theanchoragefortheshouldermuscles,whichheidentifiesasthedeltoid,thepectoralandthedorsalmuscles.He describes their function as follows: the deltoidmuscle lifts the arminto a horizontal position, while the pectoral muscle swings it laterally inwards andforwards,andthedorsalpullsitbackwardsandlaterallyoutwards.Thesecondboneisthehumerus,whichFieldenbelieves,providestheanchorageforthebrachialis,thebicepandthetricepmuscles,whichmovethebonesoftheforearm,whichisdiscussednext.Infactitistheshoulderbladewhichprovidestheanchorage,althoughfromthisdivisionofthescapulaand theclavicle from thehumeruswecansee thatFieldendoesnotcompletelyunderstandtheimportanceoftheirinterrelationship,whichasweshallseeinChapter3aregroupedtogetherastheshouldercomplex.

Fieldensuggests too, that it isnotnecessarytodividethemusclesof theforearmintoseparate compartments since it is toodifficult todo so,but that there are two functions

whichshouldbeunderstoodbytheperformer.36First,theforearmrotatesonitsownaxis.Thisinvolvesthesupinatingandpronatingmusclesintheforearmaswellasthebicep(intheupper arm) (p.89).Second, the rotationof theelbow joint (and in somecases thewristjoint)isactuatedbythemusclesintheshoulder(p.90).

Inconclusion,Fieldenwritesthatthemovementoftheforearmisadefinitemusculareffort(p.95),anditsrotatoryactioninconjunctionwiththerotatoryactionofthewristmay be used to increase the freedom and suppleness of the movement of the fingers.Finally,hesays that the lowerendof thehumerusserves,with theradiusorulnaas theanchorage for the bones of the wrist, hand and fingers. His discussion of the wrist islimited, for hewrites only that it consists of eight small boneswhich lie between theradiusandtheulnaandthemetacarpalbonesofthehand.

TheAnatomicalStructureandMusclesoftheHand

Fielden gives a very detailed account of the anatomical structure andmuscles of thehand,believing thataconscious locationof thefunctionof themuscles isan invaluablepartofdevelopingtheworkofthefinger.Figure2.5,belowisarathercrudedrawingofthethreephalangesofthefingers.

Figure2.5.AreproductionofFieldensdrawingofthethreephalangesofthefingers.

TheStructureoftheHand

Describingthemetacarpalbonesinthehand,Fieldensaysthattheyformtheanchoragefortheinterosseousmuscles,which lie in twolayers in thehand; theyareknownas thedorsal andpalmarmuscles. Their function is twofold: in the first instance, thepalmarmusclesabduct the fingersaway from themiddle fingerand in the second instance, thedorsalmuscles adduct the fingers towards themiddle finger. These samemuscles alsoassist inextending thephalangesof thesecondandthirdfingers.The lumbricals,which

arealsosituatedbetweenthemetacarpalbonesofthehand,flexthefirstphalangesofthefingers (see first section in Chapter 3 on structure). Fielden also says that the flexormuscles in the forearm,which he describes as the flexor profundus digitorum, flex thesecondandthirdphalanges,whiletheextensorcommunisdigitorum,whichissituatedinthebackoftheforearm,extendsthefirstphalangeofthefingers.

Fielden concludes: There are two important and interdependent factors to beconsideredbeforeleavingthesubject.Thefirstisthatwhenthemuscleshavecompletedtheir ownparticular function, they canbe, andoften are, used to assist thework of thegreatermuscles. For instance,when the fingers are used to theirmaximum, the flexingmusclesofthefingersgoontoassistthewristandforearm(p.31).Hecites,forexample,thelumbricals,whicharesituatedinthepalmofthehand(seefirstsectioninChapter3onstructure), andwhich arise from tendons in the hand. Their function is to flex the firstphalanges of the fingers, but, as he has already stated, there can also be cooperationbetween themusclessituated in thehandand the flexingmuscles in the forearm,whichmay come to their assistance and flex the second and third phalanges. Equally, theinterosseousmuscles,whichextendthesecondandthirdphalanges,mayalsodrawontheextensormuscles,situatedintheforearm,whichextendthefirstphalanges.

TheRelaxationFallacy

At the time that Fielden is writing, finger training has become very neglected. Thereasonhegivesforthis,aswehaveseeninChapter1,isthatthetraditionalmethodsoffinger training led to rigidity within the forearm (p. 45). However, unlike Whiteside,Fieldendoesnotbelievethatatechniquewhichencouragesfulluseofthearmweightistheanswer.Here,FieldenisreferringtothemethodpromulgatedbyBreithaupt,amongstothers(seeChapter1),andhepresentshisownargumentagainstthetheoryofrelaxationinpianoperformance,writing there isno such thingas relaxationRelaxation isnotanegativeactionbutadefiniteandpositivemuscularfunction(p.58).Usingtheanalogyofthecatlyinginreposewhilewaitingtopounceonitsprey,Fieldenarguesthatthecatisnotrelaxed,but inastateofgraceofmovement, that is tosay,poiseandbalance(p.75). In this state, there is no extraneous muscular contraction, only a perfect nervouspreparation(p.80)(seethediscussioninthefirststudyinPart4).FinallyFieldenstatesthatthisstatecannotberelaxation,sincerelaxationcomesonlyaftereffort,andthateffortisinacompartmentbyitself(p.60).Fieldensviewthattherelaxationofmusclesisan

exertion, is a futuristic observation, which has only recently been addressed, by sportspsychologists,amongstothers.

TheRoleoftheFinger

While Fieldens description of the function of the finger in piano performance is notwholly accurate, it is neverthelessvery interesting, given that itwould appear tobe thefirstdetaileddescriptionofhowthefingersmoveinpianoperformance.Infingeraction,he writes, the finger swings from the knuckle-joint and the power is supplied by themusclesofthefingers,whichstartinthehandandcontinueintotheforearm.Theknuckleis the fulcrum and the energy is exerted against the keyboard bymeans of the flexingmusclesincombinationwiththisfulcrum(p.48).

However, the statement above is misleading, because Fielden describes the flexingmusclesasstartinginthehandandcontinuingintotheforearm,butthelumbricals,whichare situated in the hand, do not continue into the forearm. To flex the muscles morestronglyasIpointedoutearlierinthechapter,theintrinsicmuscleswithinthehandmaybe selected rather than the flexors, which do continue into the forearm. Equally, thereversemaybethecase.

Fieldencontinueshisdiscussiononthemusclesofthefingersbydescribingtheforearmflexors of fingers 2, 3 and 4, which he says are located in the forearm in onecomprehensivemuscle(p.99),whichis the flexordigitorumprofundus(seesectiononstructure in Chapter 3). However, there are further divisions within the onecomprehensivemuscle,ashedescribesit,whichareconnectedtoindividualfingers,andmaybemoreorlessdevelopedindifferentperformers.

TheHandanditsRoleinSupportingtheArm

Fieldenstatesthatthemusclesofthehandmustbetrainedtosupporttheweightofthearm. He explains that the forearm and the fingers, which act as a brace, take up theresistance,andhedemonstratesthisphysicalconditionatthepointofcontactwiththekeyby drawing the analogy of attempting to touch an object gently. Fearful that the wristmight fall downwards in anuncontrolledway, thus,wehold the forearmandhand in a

state of contraction. Finally, he says, the ability to apply the muscular condition ofcontrolled fixation and contractionwill give authority and definiteness to the playersinterpretation(p.86).

This isan interestingview,becauseFielden ismooting theprincipleofsupport in thehand,whiletheweightistakenoffthehandbytheactionoftheshouldermuscles.But,aswehaveseen,whileheusesthewordssupporting(p.61),pivot(p.62)andpress(p.62), there is not a clear explanation about themuscular process that takes place in theforearmor in thehandat thepointof contactwith thekeys - althoughhe says that theflexing muscles (which muscles, he does not say) and the triceps act as buffers,preventingashocktothearm(p.60).Thetruth,heconcludes,isthatthecontractingmuscles should not be at full rigidity at the critical point: they should be in a state ofresilience(p.63),aprescientviewwhichisdiscussedinthefirststudyinPart4.

TheRoleoftheThumb

Fieldengives the thumbscantattention,andemployshisargument,alreadydescribedabove, that the smallermusclesmayassist the largermuscles in theworkof the thumbmusclesduringtheperformanceofwristoctaves.Asanexample,hesaysthatthethumbsflexormuscle,whichissituatedintheforearm,mayassistinflexingthewrist-thatistosay,whendrawingthewrist(orforearm)downwardstowardsthekeyboard-andthatthethumbshouldnotbemoved independentlyof thewrist action,because this resultsonlyresultinirritationandfatigue(p.30).Equally,Fieldensaysthesamemaybesaidoftheopponensminimidigiti,whichalsoflexesthefifthfingerduringtheperformanceofwristoctaves(p.31).

TheLawsofLeverage

Havingsystematicallybrokendowntheanatomicalstructureandthemusclesengagedinpianoplaying,Fieldenintroducesthenotionthatanybonewhichismovingmustfollowthelawsofleverage,i.e.,thebonemusthaveitsfulcrum,oranchorage,atsomepointontheadjacentbonethatisbeingmoved.Furthermore-ashepointsout,inaccordancewithMason-muscleshavetwoprocesses,contractionandrelaxationandthattheirfunction

is tomove the bones of the limbs, enabling the bones to operate as levers (p. 68).Aninnovativethought,asishisuseofdiagrams.

InFigure2.6,below,Fieldensdiagramshowsthetwobonesofthearmasrepresentedbytwolines:first,bythelefthandlinemarkeda,whichrepresentstheforearm;second,by the right hand line marked b, which represents the humerus. The shaded portionrepresents the bicep muscle, which is shown in a state of muscular contraction. Thismeansthatithasbecomeshortenedandbulge-like,withtheresultthattheforearmboneisleveredupwardsinanextendingactiontowardstheshoulderjoint.

Figure2.6.AreproductionofFieldensdiagramshowingtheshadedarea,whichisthebicepinacontractedstate.

Whentheforearmboneislevereddownwards,thebrachialmuscleextendsandrelaxes,andthetricepmuscleon theundersideof thehumerusorupper-armbonecontracts inabulge-likeway(seeFigure2.7,below).

Figure2.7.AreproductionofFieldensdiagramshowingtheshadedareaofthetricepontheundersideofthehumerus,whichisinacontractedstate.

MariaLevinskaya

Like Fielden, Maria Levinskaya claims that her work is scientific in its approach.

However,Ihavefoundnoreferencetoherlife,ormusicalwork,37butinherintroductiontoTheLevinskayaSystemofPianoforteTechniqueandTone-ColourthroughMentalandMuscularControl (1930),shesays thatsheisdescendedfromafamilywhoforseveralgenerationscountedamongstitsmembersmenofscienceandmedicine(p.4).This,shesays, givesher the advantageofbeing able toorganizeknowledge; also, sinceherownmusicalstudiessufferfromthelackofageneralscientificbasis,sheputsherobservationsto the severe test of personal experiment (p. 4). By this she means that from thebeginningsheteachesyoungchildrentoplaythepiano,andthisprovestobenotonlyherreallaboratoryofexperiment[butgivesher]conclusiveevidenceastothefundamentalprinciplesofaPianisticScience(p.8).

By 1917, Levinskaya has formulated a balance between two opposing schools ofthought:thepurefinger-workschool,andtheschoolofrelaxationandweighttouch.Shebelievesthatthelatterhasdevelopedonlyasareactionagainsttheevilsattendantontoogreatandincorrectconcentrationonthisbranchoftechnique(p.ix).However,shedoesacknowledgethattheworkofresearcherssuchasOrtmann(seeChapter1)influencesherduring her research, since they supportedmy theories from a totally different point ofview(p.213),i.e,inheranalysisofthecausesspringingfromthehumantool-thearmanditssourceofenergy-themuscles(p.214).

ArmWeight:TheHammock-Arm

Levinskayas work is of great interest to me, because she appears to be the first torecognize that the shoulder blade has a function in piano performance (see section onfunctioninChapter3).Shebelievesthatthefullarmweightmaybesuspendedatoneendfromtheshoulderbladeandattheotherendfromthefingertip,andatanygivenmomentthewholearmshouldbereadytoswingbetweenthesetwopoints(p.141).Shedescribesthis as the Hammock-Arm (see Figure 2.8, below). However, contradictions appearwhen, as she says, it becomes necessary tomove fromone note to the next, the single

curvedshapeofthewholearmchanges,andwhiletheupperarmmustretainitscurve,theforearmbecomesconvex.This,shesays,maybeachievedbyholdingthewristinsuchawaythatitbecomesthehighestpointoftheupwardcurve.ThismuscularchangefromtheshapeoftheHammock-Armtotherearrangementdescribedaboverepresents,accordingtoLevinskaya, a complicated combination of the parts, whichwillmean, first, that theweightofthearmiscarriedbythedorsalmusclesontheshoulderblade,and,second,thatthe steadiness of the upper armwill be controlled by the appropriatemuscles, i.e., thebiceps,orthetriceps.

Figure2,8.AreproductionofLevinskayasdiagramoftheHammock-Arm.

Levinskaya defines the Hammock-Arm as being the passive suspension of the fullarmweightinitspointofequilibriumandreadytoswingbetweentwopoints(p.141)-namely, the shoulder blade and the fingertip. However, contradictions appear in herapproachwhen,asshesays,itbecomesnecessarytomovefromonenotetothenext.For,she says that to do so will necessitate carrying the weight of the arm on definitelysupportingdorsalmusclesontheshoulderblades(p.142).However,thedorsalmusclessherefersto(seeFigure2.9,below),areinfactthedeltoidmuscles,whosefunctionistosupportthearmduringallitsmovementsinpianoperformance.

Figure2.9.Levinskayasdrawingshowingtheupperdorsalmuscle,andthelowerdorsalmuscleintheshadedareas,witharmraised.

Stillon thesubjectofmovingfromonenote to thenext,Levinskayasays: theupperarmmustdothesteadyingbycontrollingthedifferentdegreesoftenseness(p.142),andat the same time the fingers must be ready to flex for an immediate control of keydescent(p.142).Levinskayadoesnotrecognizethattherearethreeimportantgroupsofmuscleswhichcontributetothemovementoftheupperarmattheshoulderjoint;thesearethedeltoid, thepectorals (seeFigure2.10,below)and the latissimusdorsi. Instead, sheassignstheworkofliftingandsupportingthearmtothedeltoidalone.

Figure2.10.AreproductionofLevinskayasdrawingshowingthepectoralmusclesthatadductthearmacrossthebody.

TheRoleoftheForearm

Levinskayareasonsrightly(seediscussioninfunctioninChapter2)thatthedescentofthe forearm towards thekeyboardshouldbedone inacontrolledwayand it shouldnotsimply be allowed to fall. Thus, to bring the forearm bone in a downward movementtowards the keyboard, the tricep will contract, while the bicep relaxes, but to lift theforearm upwards, the bicep and the brachialis on the interior side of the forearm willcontractasthetriceprelaxes(seeFigure2.11,below).

Figure2.11.AreproductionofLevinskayasdrawingshowsthebicepmuscle,whichliftstheforearmupwards

LikeFielden,Levinskayaconsidersthatthemethodsoftherelaxationandweightschoolas expounded by Breithaupt and Matthay (which, as I have already pointed out are areactiontotheexcessivetrainingofthefingers)havegonebeyondallboundsandbytheirexaggeration had destroyed much of the old teaching which was sound (p. xi). AfterhearingBreithauptplay,shespeculatedthathemayneverhavebeencapableofmasteringfingerarticulation,sinceitseemstoher,withallitscontrolis,toogreatasacrificeevenforthepurposeofprovingonestheoriestovoluntarilyrenouncesowonderfulanasset(p.58).

TheRoleoftheHand

While, as we have seen, Mason understands that the muscles, which are partially

responsible forgrasping lie in the forearm,Levinskayagoes further and recognizes thatthemuscles in the hand and the forearm combine to flex and extend the fingers in thegraspingmovement.However,accordingtoLevinskaya,layingthecorrectfoundationforfingerwork(p.141)meansthattheHammock-Armmustfirstbeestablishedasabase,beforethekeysarepresseddownbyflexingthelumbricalsinthepalmofthehandandtheflexors in the lower part of the forearm, or released by raising the fingers using theextensorsandinterosseous(seeFigure2.12,below).

Figure2.12.Levinskayasdrawingoftheflexormusclesintheforearm,andthelumbricalsinthepalmofthehand.

To feel the contracting action of the lumbricals, forearm flexors, and interosseousLevinskaya suggests that the student close the fingersof thehandwith thepalmof thehand supinated. No other muscular contraction must be felt while this action is beingpractised.Shealsoposits correctly thatwhen the fingertips pinch together, orwhen thefingersextendawayfromthecentreofthehand,itistheinterosseous(seeFigure2.13b,below)whichcontrolthetwolowerphalangesofthefingersandperformtheseactions.

From this description, we can see that Levinskaya understands that the fingers arecapableofemployingdifferenttypesofgrip,whichshedescribesastheTheGrip-PinchandThePinch(pp.142-3).DescribingtheTheGrip-Pinch,shewritesthatthefingersare flexed at the knuckles by the lumbricals (see Figure 2.13a, above). However, themuscles responsible for the fingertips pinching together are the interosseous, thelumbricals flex only the proximal phalanges (which are the phalanges nearest to theknucklejoints),althoughsheshowsthe lumbricals, inconjunctionwithotherunnamedmuscles,drawingthefingerstogethertoformahollowinthepalmofthehand(p.143).

Levinskayaalsoillustrateswithadiagra