responsive professional education: balancing outcomes and opportunities. ashe-eric higher

DOCUMENT RES=

ED 273 229 BE 019 645

AUTHOR Stark, Joan S.; And OthersTITLE Responsive Professional Education: Balancing Outcomes

and Opportunities. ASHE-SRIC Higher Education ReportNo. 3, 1986.

INSTITUTION Association for the Study of Higher Education.; ERICClearinghouse on Higher lacation, Washington,D.C.

SPONS AGENCY Office of Educational Research and Improvement (ED),Washington, DC.

REPORT NO ISBN-0-913317-30-6PUB DATE 86CONTRACT 400-86-0017NOTE 144p.AVAILABLE FROM Association for the Study of Higher Education,

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EDRS PRICE MF01/PC06 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS Architecture; *Attitudes; Business Administration

Education; Competence; *Iducational Objectives;Engineering Education; Ethics; Health Occupations;Higher Education; Journalism Zducation; KnowledgeLevel; Legal Education (Professions); LibraryScience; *Outcomes of lducation; *ProfessionalEducation; *Professional Personnel; *SkillDevelopment; Socializatios; Social Work; TeacherEducation

ABSTRACTGoals and outcomes in various fields of professional

education are considered. Attention is directed to generic outcomesof professional preparation, the emphasis these outcomes receiveamong professional educators, some problems that concern professionaleducators, and recommendations for future action and study. Thegeneric outcomes, which were derived from existing literature aboutprofessional education, include six aspects of professionalcompetence: conceptual competence, technical competence, contextualcompetence, interpersonal communication competence, integrativecompetence, and adaptive competence. Also considered are fiveattitudinal outcomes: career marketability, professional identity,professional ethics, scholarly concern for improvement of theprofession, and motivation for continued learning. The issues andtrends concerning these outcomes were dram primarily from recentarticles in educational journals of 12 professional fields:architecture, business administration, dentistry, education,engineering, journalism, law, library science, medicine, nursing,pharmacy, and social work. Information was also obtained from asurvey of faculty in 10 professional fields with respect to theiremphases on preferred outcomes and educational activities.Information on the research methodology is appended. (SN)

cj Responsive Professional Education:re\ Balancing Outcomes and OpportunitiesIMI by Joan S. Stark, Malcolm A. Lowther, andC3 Bonnie M.K. Hagerty

ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No. 3, 1986

Prepared by

[ERIC Clearinghouse on Higher EducationThe George Washington University

Published by

Lc, ASH*Association for the Study of Higher Education

(r Jonathan D. Fife,Series Editor

U.S. DEPAROffice of Educators

EDUCATIONAL FCI

a/This dOcumenreceived fromoriginating itMinor changesleproduction ca

Rointsof view oment do not nOERI position

Cite asStark, Joan ;.; Lowther, Malcolm A.; and Hagerty, Bonnie M.K.Responsive Professional Education: Balancing Outcomes andOpportunities. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No. 3.Washington, D.C.: Association for the Study of Higher Educa-tion, 1986.

Cover design by Michael David Brown, Inc., Rockville, MD.

The ERIC Clearinghouse on Higher Education invites individualsto submit proposals for writing monographs for the Higher Edu-cation Report series. Proposals must include:1. A detailed manuscript proposal of not more than five pages.2. A 75-word summary to be used by several review committees

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Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 86-82077ISSN 0884-0040ISBN 0-913317-30-6

*MCI. Clearinghouse on Higher EducationThe George Washington UniversityOne Dupont Circle, Suite 630Washington, D.C. 20036

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This publication was partially prepared with funding from theOffice of Educational Reseal eh and Improvement, U.S. Depart-ment of Education, under contract no. 400-86-0017. The opinionsexpressed in this report do not necessarily reflect the positions orpolicies of OER1 or the Department.

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Enrollments in college programs that prepare students forprofessional occupations remain strong. At the undergrad-uate !eve!, they now have surpassed enrollments in liberalstudies programs. It seems clear that students will continueto select collegiate programs with promise of professionalemployment, yet many educators believe such programsare inappropriately narrow and specialized. In truth, fewattempts have been made to examine the intended out-comes of professional preparation programs to determinewhether these beliefs are justified. An initial step in bring-ing educational philosophies and curricular outcomes intobetter alignment is to clarify the goals and dilemmas ofeducators in professional programs. Is it true that profes-sional educators concentrate on technical skills anddevalue broader aspects of their students' education? If so,is this posture more characteristic of some fields than ofothers? What commonalities and distinctions of profes-sional preparation programs are most important for facultymembers and administrators to understand? Can betterunderstanding of common issues faced by professionaleducators help identify ways in which faculty and adminis-trators can foster educationally effective interprogram col-laboration? What research models, with appropriate modi-fications, can be used to explore the achievement of out-comes in diverse professional programs?

While this report does not answer all of these importantquestions, it takes a first step toward improving under-standing of intended outcomes in various fields of profes-sional preparation by identifying several competences andattitudes that are generic outcomes of professional study,by exploring the emphasis professional educators believeshould be placed on these outcomes, by summarizingoutcome-related issues and trends common to professionaleducation in diverse fields, and by providing some recom-mendations for the future.

The generic outcomes described in the report werederived from existing literature about professional educa-tion. They include six aspects of professional compe-tenceconceptual competence, technical competence,contextual competence, interpersonal communication com-petence, integrative competence, and adaptive compe-tenceand five attitudinal outcomescareer marketabil-ity, professional identity, professional ethics, scholarly

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concern for improvement of the profession, and motivationfor continued learning.

The issues and trends concerning these outcomes identi-fied in the report are drawn primarily from recent articlesin the educational journals of 12 professional fields: archi-tecture, business administration, dentistry, education,engineering, journalism, law, library science, medicine,nursing, pharmacy, and social work.

The synthesis of the literature should be helpful to threeaudiences: (1) college and university administrators seek-ing better comparative understanding of professional prep-aration programs; (2) professional program and liberal artsfaculty members desiring to facilitate interprogram collabo-ration; and (3) researchers seeking to address a variety ofrelated issues, particularly documentation of the outcomesof professional study.

What Aspects of Professional CompetenceAre Educators Discussing?Professional educators devote considerable attention tofield-specific aspects of professional competence, such asfoundational knowledge and technical skills. Yet, withinthese two areas, educators in diverse fields are addressingsome common issues. All fields are reviewing program pur-poses, curricular validity, the role of foundational courses,and the volume of conceptual and technical material stu-dents must learn. Such reviews have common origins inthe rapid growth of specialized knowledge, changing prac-tice roles, including application of new technologies andresponse to new socioeconomic conditions, and increasingresponsiveness to a broader range of clients. Across fields,concern also is apparent for better ways to cultivate cogni-tive problem-solving skills.

Although literature in the educational journals moreheavily emphasizes the development of technical compe-tence, faculty members in professional fields judge techni-cal competence of graduates to be slightly less, rather thanmore, deserving of emphasis than conceptual competence.Additionally, faculty strongly believe that students shouldunderstand the social, cultural, and economic contextwithin which professional practice occurs. While such acontextual emphasis is more widely espoused in "helping"and "informing" professional programs than in "enterpris-

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ing" programs (like business, architecture, and engineer-ing), all fields are questioning whether traditional liberalarts is the best curricular vehicle for its achievement. Par-ticularly as they attempt to serve diverse client popula-tions, the helping and informing programs are rapidly infus-ing social science content into their professional courses toensure its relevance to professional concerns. Althoughtraditional written and oral communication remains impor-tant, communication skills required of new professionalsnow are conceived more broadly to include interpersonalrelations with colleagues and relationships with clients. Infour-year undergraduate fields where expansion of theknowledge base has already crowded the curriculum, thisdesire for broad education is difficult to implement.

In all fields, the nature and function of simulated or realexperiences that assist students to integrate concepts,skills, contextual knowledge, and interpersonal skills intocompetent professional judgments are being activelydebated. Fields with formal field experiences are grapplingwith similar problems of supplying appropriate field super-vision, ensuring adequate role modeling, providing feed-back to students, and maintaining good relationships withpractitioners. Discussion of these curricular managementissues appears to overshadow the need to define moreclearly the outcomes of field and clinical placements. Per-haps because little is known about the learning processthrough which integration takes place, professional educa-tors seem to link quite loosely the processes and intendedoutcomes of integrative field experiences.

Professional educators recognize rapid technologicalchange that affects classroom teaching as well as practicesettings. Nonetheless, discussions about integrating var-ious components of professional education have not yetfully focused on the need to help students understand thatthey will be responsible for adapting professional practiceto future societal changes. As technology develops, simula-tions increasingly may help bridge the gap between class-room and real world settings and the gap between currentand future practice.

What Aspects of Professional SocializationAre Educators Discussing?Development of accepted professional attitudes and com-mitment, that is, professional socialization, is of greatest

Responsive Professional Education

concern to educators in health and in human and informa-tion service fields and of less importance to educators infields like architecture, business, engineering, and law.Even when professional educators express strong interestin fostering attitudes like long-term career awareness,professional identity, and ethical standards, discussionsprimarily focus on providing opportunities for these atti-tudes to develop. Articulating and measuring such attitudesare discussed very little. Nonetheless, some professionalfields can provide useful examples for other educators. Toillustrate, educators in dentistry, accounting, and socialwork are developing new models of career guidance; nurs-ing educators pay particular attention to making preservicestudents aware of needs for continuing education andresearch to improve professional practice.

Writers in professional education journals exhort theircolleagues concerning the need for students to internalizeaccepted ethical standards. Despite such rhetoric, littleconsensus is apparent in most fields about what these stan-dards are and how best to teach them. Social work, nurs-ing, and law educators feel they have incorporated profes-sional ethics in their curricula, but at the same time, laweducators as well as journalism and business administra-tion educators believe agreed-upon standards or codes donot exist.

Recommendations for the FutureThis literature review and survey of professional educationfaculty found little evidence to support the view that edu-cational outcomes are narrow in intent. To the contrary,professional education faculty are struggling to maintain,and even to initiate, curricular breadth that is relevant todeveloping professionals. Strong concerns about contin-ually increasing curricular volume and related time con-straints are coupled with a sense of unrest regarding thecontribution of both traditional liberal arts courses and tra-ditional professional foundations courses. Thus, opportuni-ties are excellent for interprogram collaboration, particu-larly in courses that convey to students the importance ofthe social context in which the professions are practiced,the anticipated effect of technology on professional prac-tice, and the need for broader interpersonal communicationskills. College administrators should encourage such dis-

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cussions of collaboration, as well as frank exchangesamong liberal and professional education faculty aboutmutual needs and services. Joint problem solving amongprofessional educators and between liberal arts and profes-sional faculty may be productive in devising solutions tomutual problems of integrating theory and practice and inarticulating more effectively the outcomes and processesgenerally thought of as professional socialization.

Several outcomes of professional education seem amena-ble to measurement. Yet because measurement largely hasbeen restricted to field-specific conceptual and technicalcompetence, professional educators seem to have foregoneopportunities to demonstrate successful achievement ofbroad educational goals. The generic outcome frameworkused in this synthesis of the literature provides one vehiclethat groups of professional educators might use for badlyneeded comparative research.

Responsive Professional Education vii

ADVISORY BOARD

Roger G. BaldwinAssistant Professor of EducationCollege of William and Mary

Susan W. CameronAssistant Professoi and ChairHigher/Postsecondary Education ProgramSyracuse University

Clifton F. ConradProfessor of Higher EducationUniversity of Arizona

Elaine H. El-KhawasVice PresidentPolicy Analysis and ResearchAmerican Council on Education

George D. KuhAssociate Dean for Academic AffairsSchool of EducationIndiana University

David W. LeslieProfessor and ChairDepartment of Educational LeadershipFlorida State University

Yvonna S. LincolnAssociate Professor of Higher EducationUniversity of Kansas

Responsive Professional Education ix

CONSULTING EDITORS

Richard AlfredAssociate Professor and ChairGraduate Program in Higher and Adult Continuing EducationUniversity of Michigan

G. Lester AndersonProfessor EmeritusPennsylvarna State University

Robert C. AndringaPresidentCreative Solutions

Robert BarakDeputy Executive SecretaryDirector of Academic Affairs and ResearchIowa State Board of Regents

John B. BennettDirectorOffice on Self-RegulationAmerican Council on Education

Carok J. BlandAssociate ProfessorDepartment of Family Practice and Community HealthUniversity of Minnesota

Larry BraskampAssistant to the Vice Chancellor for Academic AffairsUniversity of Illinois

Mark H. CurtisPresident EmeritusAssociation of American Colleges

Martin FinkelsteinAssociate Professor of Higher Education AdministrationSeton Hall University

Andrew T. FordProvost and Dean of CollegeAllegheny College

Mary Frank FoxAssistant Research ScientistCenter for Research on Social OrganizationUniversity of Michigan

Responsive Professional Education xi

1 0

Timothy GallineauVice President for Student DevelopmentSaint Bonaventure University

G. Manuel GunneAdjunct Associate ProfessorCollege of NursingUniversity of Utah

Richard M. MillardPresidentCouncil on Postsecondary Accreditation

L. Jackson NewellProfessor and DeanUniversity of Utah

Steven G. OlswangAssistant Provost for Academic AffairsUniversity of Washington

Patricia RueckelExecutive DirectorNational Association for Women Deans,

Administrators, and Counselors

Richard F. StevensExecutive DirectorNational Association of Student Personnel Administrators

Thomas R. WolaninStaff DirectorSubcommittee on Postsecondary EducationUnited States House of Representatives

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CONTENTS

Foreword

Acknowledgments

New Perspectives on a Continuing DilemmaThe Diversity of Professional Study 1

The Potential for Collaboration and Cooperation 1

What Is a Professional Preparation Field? 4The Size of the Professional PreparationEnterprise 7

Study Methods1

Faculty Views of the Emphasis on Outcomes 16Summary 17

Professional Competence 19Conceptual Competence 19Technical Competence 27Contextual Competence 30Interpersonal Communication Competence 36Integrative Competence 40Adaptive Competence 48Summary 51

Professional Attitudes 53Career Marketability 53Professional Identity 57Professional Ethics 61Scholarly Concern for Improvement 65Motivation for Continued Learning 67Summary 70

Summary and Implications 71Common Themes in Professional Preparation 71Usefulness of the Professional PreparationOutcome Framework 74

Implications for Faculty, Administrators, andResearchers 75

Appendix A: Methodology for the Study 81

References 89

'ndex 113

Responsive Professional Education xiii

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i OREWORD

Recant blue ribbon commission reports have criticizedMehl, education, especially the curriculum. What is thecurriculum? Is the curriculum "a set of independentcourses taught by independent professors held togetheronly by a central heatine system and a common complaintabout parking," as has been alleged? Perhaps a more accu-rate definition is "a reflection of the needs of society?" Amore honest attempt is to define the curriculum simply as"the fiscally." It has also been described more broadly asthe total educational experience of attending an institutionof higher education and more narrowly as the combinationof courses taken in fulfillment of a particular degree. Whichdefinition is most accurate? Probably none; possibly all.Like the four blind men with the elephant, there are asmany definitions at points of view. Frederick Rudolphdescribed the higher education curriculum as well as any-one when be said:

"Values change and so does the curriculum, as themore than 300 years since the founding of Harvard Col-lege clearly say. Since that time long ago, when a pecu-liarly seff-demanding band qf alienated Englishmen gotthemselves a college almost before they had built them-selves a privy, change in the course of study has beenconstant, conscious and unconscious, gradual and sud-den accidental and intentional, uneven and diverse,imaginative and pedestrian."

Reprdleu of how we define the curriculum of highereducation, the undeniable fact is that over the last decade,students have dramatically shifted their educational prefer-ence from liberal arts to the professions, as shown by thetable on the following page.

Whether the students are choosing professional fieldsover liberal arts as a reflection of the rising cost of highereducation and therefore the increasing dependence on bankloans to finance it, or simply as a reflection of the increas-ingly rigorous requirements for entry-level positions in ourcomputerized, technological society is not an issue here.What is important is that this shift has occurred. Andshows no sips of abating.

It is therefore important to have an understanding of thecurriculum of the professions in order to make informed

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Bachelor's Degrees Conferred by Institutions of Higher Education

Program Areas 1973-74 1983-84 % Change

Business and Management 131,766 230,031 75%Communications 16.250 38,586 131

Computer and Info Science 4.756 32,172 576

Education 185,225 92.382 50*Engineering 42.840 75,732 77

Foreign Languages 18,840 9,479 50

Health Sciences 41.394 64,338 55

English 55,469 33,739 39

Library and Archival Sciences 1.164 255 78Life Sciences 48.340 38,640 20

Mathematics 21.635 13.211 39Philosophy and Religion 9.444 6,435 32

Physical Sciencs 21,178 23.671 12

Psychology 51,821 39,872 23

Social Sciences 150.298 93,212 38

*Minus sign indicates declineSource: U.S. Dept. of Education. 1985

judgments about the quality of specific programs andhigher education in general. This report, written by JaonStark, professor of higher and adult continuing educationat the University of Michigan and director of the NationalCenter for Research to Improve Postsecondary Teachingand Learning (NCRIPTAL), Malcolm Lowther, professorof higher and adult continuing education at the Universityof Michigan and research associate at NCRIPTAL, andBonnie Hagerty, a doctoral candidate in higher educationand nursing at the University of Michigan, reviews thesimilarities and differences of the curricula for twelveprofessional fields. After reviewing well over 300 publica-tions, the authors divide their study into professional com-petences and professional attitudes.

In this analysis of six professional competences and fiveattitudinal outcomes, the authors not only examine the pur-poses for and successes or failures of professional educa-tion programs, but raise the larger issue of evaluating com-petence and measuring outcomes for other curricula. Thismonograph provides administrators with an understandingof the frustration felt by faculty members trying to fit allthe necessary requirements for a professional degree intothe allotted time-frame. It also gives faculty a clear under-standing of the major issues and relative importance paid

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to each one in similar professional programs nationwide.Effective professional education is important because ofthe impact professionals have on our socicty. And as theeducational preference chart shows, professional educationprograms are becoming the foundation of more and moreinstitutions of higher cducation.

Jonathan D. FifeSeries EditorProfessor and DirectorERIC Clearinghouse on Higher EducationThe George Washington University

Responsive Professional Education xvii

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This report was prepared over a three-year period as partof a broader study of preservice professional preparationprograms in colleges and universities. During that period,many individuals provided assistance, particularly withtime-consuming tasks of locating, classifying, and review-ing nearly 3,000 journal articles. Our thanks go to currentand former graduate students Ann Austin, Dennis Dieck-man, Carol Freedman-Doan, Pamela Lokken, CynthiaOrczyk, Mark Ralph, Peter Rush, Jan Starr, and KarenSwift, all of whom assisted at some time with the projectconceptualization and literature review. Daniel Alvarezand Natalie Fisher helped to compile the bibliography.Special thanks go to Mrs. Helen Candiotti for tireless anddedicated typing and retyping.

Numerous colleagues and faculty members at The Uni-versity of Michigan and elsewhere provided ideas and sug-gestions. We appreciate financial support for the projectfrom a Spencer Foundation Seed Grant, and we are grate-ful to Dean Carl F. Berger of The University of MichiganSchool of Education and to University of Michigan VicePresidents Bill E. Frye and Alfred S. Sussman.

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NEW PERSPECTIVES ON A CONTINUING DILEMMA

The Diversfty of Pk.ofessional StudyA focus on outcomes of professional preparation is particu-larly timely. Enrollments in programs that prepare studentsfor professional occupations have remained strong foryears. At the undergraduate level, they now have sur-passed enrollments in liberal studies programs, and for theforeseeable future students likely will continue to selectcollegiate programs that hold promise of challengingemployment. In 1984 a study group commissioned by theNational Institute of Education (NIE), judging undergradu-ate professional preparation to be narrow and to over-emphasize specialized or technical education, called forincreasing attention to assessment of outcomes (N1E 1984).A second national report also criticized narrow specializa-tion but held forth the possibility that a professional educa-tion could, if properly directed, be a liberal education aswell (Association of American Colleges 1985). In general,these recommendations and the subsequent discussionshave tended to bypass dialogue among educators in thespecific professional fields. Critics have devoted little timeto actually examining professional preparation yet havemade assertions about the processes and outcomes ofprofessional-type study that cry out for gubstantiation.This report takes a first step toward improved articulationof goals and outcomes in various fields of professionalpreparation by (1) identifying generic outcomes of profes-sional preparation, (2) exploring the emphasis these out-comes receive among professional educators, (3) summa-rizing some problems that concern professional educators,and (4) providing some recommendations for future actionand study.

The Potential for Collaboration and CooperationThis report was written for three audiences: (1) college anduniversity administrators who wish to achieve better com-parative understanding of professional preparation pro-grams; (2) professional program and liberal arts facultywho desire to understand issues and trends in professionalfields; and (3) researchers who may be encouraged toaddress a variety of important related issues, such as bal-ancing liberal and professional study, integrating theoreti-cal and practical education, developing more sensitive pro-

Enrollments inprograms thatpreparestudents forprofessionaloccupations

. . now havesuipassedenrollments inliberal stwliesprograms. . . .

Responsive Professional Education 1

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gram review criteria, or fostering cooperative efforts withinuniversities.

Previous AAHE-ER1C Higher Education ResearchReports (Anderson 1974; Nyre and Reilly 1979) dealt withthe topic of professional education. According to the 1974report, "ln spite of a significant literature in the variousfields of professional education, the process of becomingeducated in the professions has received limited atten-tion. . . . Comparative studies, discussion of common poli-cies and practices . . . are rare" (Anderson 1974, p. 1).Drawing from the sociological literature to define "profes-sion," the 1974 report compared, across educational pro-grams, processes such as student selection, curriculum,instruction, and student socialization as well as the relationof professional schools to society, institutions, and accredi-tors. Data presented documented the increasing numbersof workers in professional occupations and the emergingtrend for baccalaureate education to be concerned withprofessional preparation.

The 1979 report reviewed literature defining a professionand took the pragmatic stand that professional educationwas "an amorphous conglomerate" not easily definedexcept by the existence of educational programs directedat entrance to certain occupations (Nyre and Reilly 1979).Accepting this ambiguity, the authors updated the 1974work by reporting research on admissions, the professionalschool experience, curricular development, labor marketprospects, continuing education, and accreditation.Finally, they provided recommendations for the future ofprofessional education, stressing both evidence of andneed for integrating the theoretical and the practical andincreasing cooperation across professional education pro-grams. These two foci were believed to be influences thatwould command the attention of professional schools inthe eighties, replacing the emphasis on expansionism of theseventies.

As Nyre and Reilly predicted, the integration of theoryand practice has become a focal point of discussion in theeighties. For example, recommendations for improvedintegration have been made directly in several self-studyreports issued by the professional fields themselves (Amer-ican Bar Association 1980; American Pharmaceutical Asso-ciation 1984; Association of American Medical Colleges

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1984) and more obliquely in general reports like Integrity inthe College Curriculum (Association of American Colleges1985). Since this literature review was begun, promirmteducational statesmen have stressed the potential benefitsof integration across the liberal and professional studyareas as well as within professional programs (Curtis 1985;Rhodes 1985). Indeed, as such scholars point out, to advo-cate that the liberal and professional spheres of educationshould be separated may be based on a lack of realismabout today's societal context.

Although conditions during the 1980s certainly have pre-sented the challenge for cross-program cooperation amongprofessional fields that Nyre and Reilly foresaw, discussiondevoted to this issue has been le:.s obvious. As resourceshave become increasingly scarce, undoubtedly some col-leges and universities have examined the possibilities ofinterprogram cooperation as a preferred method ofretrenchment and reallocation of resources. In many cases,however, decision makers have moved directly to programclosure as the most feasible and expeditious solution tobudgetary problems. The failure of professional programpersonnel to recognize possibilities for collaboration andthe need of administrators to move forward rapidly toreduce budgets have foreclosed some opportunities forinterprogram cooperation.

Furthermore, efforts to allocate resources have beenconducted without benefit of comparative research, whichcould assist professional program faculty and administra-tors in understanding commonalities and differences in pro-grams. Clearly, programs independently seeking to collab-orate, or mandated to do so, need to strive for enhancedunderstanding. And review criteria used by administratorsto assess program dimensions like centrality, quality of fac-ulty and graduates, work opportunities for graduates, andcost-effectiveness depend on the decision makers' bestefforts to understand the program's special goals,emphases, and curricular dilemmas.

A parallel may be drawn between potential outcomes offailure to develop communication across fields of profes-sional study within universities and failure to develop cul-tural understanding of other countries with whom we mustcooperate in a global society. To extend the analogy fur-ther, just as citizens misunderstand the intent of those who


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do not share their customs, faculty members and adminis-trators may unwittingly apply review criteria derived froma few high-demand fields to oth fields where they are lessappropriate. In short, neither cross-program cooperationnor program review decisions have benefited fromresearch-based attempts to discover the similarities anddifferences across various professional fields.

Both previous Higher Education Research Reports men-tioned the broad range of published educational literatureapplying to each professional field, but they more fre-quently summarized material from secondary sources orcomparative syntheses. Both covered a wide range of top-ics, treated them briefly, and piovided valuable resourcesto the administrator or researcher seeking a broad intro-duction to professional education. The literature synthesisin this report was begun to develop a deeper understandingof the educational issues and challenges that face diverseprofessional preparation programs.

This report uses two approaches to explore the out-comes of professional preparation and the strategies usedto achieve them. The primary approach is an integrativereview of the literature relating to professional preparation.A secondary approach uses preliminary results of a surveyof faculty in 10 of the 12 professional fields with respect totheir emphases on preferred outcomes and educationalactivities. First, however, it is necessary to apprise thereader of what is meant by "professional preparation" anda notion of the size of this enterprise in American highereducation.

What Is a Professional Preparation Field?Progress toward better understanding and improvement ofeducation dictates that we deal with what society views asreality rather than with scholarly abstractions. This reporttherefore considers programs that are at least four years inlength and frequently referred to as "professional" ineveryday campus parlance (to separate them from thestudy of nonoccupationally,directed liberal arts programs).

Most students attending a college or university programin nursing, business, or engineering, to name only a fewfields, see themselves as enrolled in professional prepara-tion programs. Similarly, most faculty members teaching infields that attempt to relate theory to practice and that have

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reasonably well-defined occupational entrance points forgraduates see themselves as professional program faculty(although of the fields to be discussed, journalism educa-tors are least likely to accept the idea that they teach in a"professional program"). In casual campus conversation,college and university administrators refer to programs thatconsume four or more years of students' time and aredirected at a designated area of employment as "theprofessional programs or schools." And when liberal artscolleges debate the appropriateness of adding "profes-sional programs," the studies under consideration typicallyare business, teacher education, social work, journalism,or computer science. Thus, although it is recognized thatthe term "professional" frequently evokes a legitimate def-initional debate, the term is used in this report in this com-mon sense.

Previous research reports have dealt at length with thedimensions of the debate surrounding use of the term"professional" as applied to educational programs (Ander-son 1974; Nyre and Reilly 979). Briefly, the debate stemsfrom several sources: (1) an extensive scholarly literaturethat has attempted to define a profession; (2) a definitionused by the U.S. Department of Education in its HigherEducation General Information Survey (HEGIS) thatrestricts the term "first professional degree" to post-baccalaureate degrees granted in theology, law, medicine,dentwtry, pharmacy, and a few other health-related fields;and (3) recruitment concerns of colleges that cause them tolabel their programs as professional, or to avoid the term,depending upon the image they desire to project. Authori-tative sources such as the Carnegie Foundation (1977) andthe NIE study group (1984) recently ignored all of theseissues, the Carnegie Foundation stressing increasing enroll-ments in a large group of undergraduate programs theytermed professional and the NIE study group criticizing asunduly narrow a seemingly extensive group of undefinedundergraduate professional programs offered by colleges.

What, then, is "professional"? Having considered andrejected several synonyms, the authors concluded that"professional" is the most efficient term, encompassing asit does the understanding and curricular assessment ofheavily enrolled college programs that lead to occupationsin fields commonly viewed by the public as professional.


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As this report emphasizes academic collegiate-level work,the authors chose to use the term "professional prepara-tion" rather than "professional education," which mayimply no skill component, or "professional training,"which may imply skill development at the expense of theo-retical learning (Anderson 1974). The term "professionalpreparation" is intended to encompass the totality ofprofessional studylearning academic concepts, learningnecessary professional skills, integrating concepts andskills, and becoming socialized into the profession.

In addition to casting a broad net at the undergraduatelevel, the authors used the term "entry-level" or "preser-vice" professional preparation to include as well traditionalprofessional programs that historically have followed thebaccalaureate degree. This decision was based on two fac-tors, one pragmatic and one more idealistic.

Pragmatically, the distinction between undergraduateand graduate professional education has become veryfuzzy, and "whenever one tries to delimit the range ofgraduate education, one is likely to discover that theexceptions overwhelm the rule" (Millard 1984, p. 41).Some universities, for example, offer social work, libraryscience, and business administration as undergraduate pro-grams; others offer these fields only at the graduate level.Despite exhortations to the contrary, the student pursuingany of these graduate-level specialties is not guaranteed tohave completed a broad program of liberal study while anundergraduate. Students have long had the option of apply-ing to law or dental school without completion of a bacca-laureate degree, pharmacy education has recently beenextended in length, and a national campaign is being wagedto extend initial education for teacher preparation into thegraduate years. At the other end of the spectrum, someuniversities are experimenting with shortened premedical/medical curricula that integrate and encompass liberal andprofessional training. Given the wide variety of patterns inAmerican higher education, some believe it more produc-tive to soften the outdated barriers between traditional lev-els than attempt to make the definitions clearer but poten-tially more rigid (Albrecht 1984, p. 19).

More idealistically, professional programs that tradition-ally have followed a period of general or liberal educationcan contribute vast experience that should be shared.

622

Some of these programs are taking renewed interest in therelation of the components of a liberal education to profes-sional development. For example, a recent report by theAssociation of American Medical Colleges (AAMC) refersto the "general professional education" of physicians toencompass the entirety of collegiate-level education andincludes recommendations concerning outcomes of bothpremedical and medical schools (AAMC 1984). The reporttreats many ideas that seem to be just germinating in theliterature of other professional fields. Although a few tradi-tionally graduate programs may refrain from discussingcertain issues that they believe to be strictly the provinceof earlier educational levels, the trend seems to be in theopposite direction. Thus, a comparative study aimed pri-marily at cross-fertilization of ideas rightfully includes thebroad range of patterns through which professional educa-tion is acquired and integrated with liberal education.

Given these broad criteria for defining a professionalprogram, the number of professional-type programsincluded in any comparative study could be extensive. Thefocus of this report has arbitrarily been narrowed to pro-vide a manageable project, and it includes a few programscommon in the nation's larger colleges and universities.The literature search included professional preparationprograms from different degree levels and from threeemphases: (1) helping (dentistry, medicine, nursing, phar-macy, social work); (2) enterprising (architecture, busi-ness, engineering, law); and (3) informing (education, jour-nalism, library science). This classification is not the onlypossible one that might have been chosen. Some havereferred, for example, to the "service" professions and the"production" professions, based on a perceived orienta-tion toward clients (Anderson 1974), or to the "enablers"and "exploiters," according to the degree of altruismexhibited toward clients (Reeck 1982). Other fields mighthave been included, too: art, chiropody, forestry, music,optometry, osteopathy, podiatry, public health, public rela-tions, religion, research, various sciences, computer sci-ences, or veterinary medicine (Nyre and Reilly 1979).

The Size of the Professional Preparation EnterpriseTable 1 provides estimates of the numbers of degreesgranted annually in each of the professional preparation

Comparativestudy aimedprimarily atcross-fertilization ofideas rightfullyincludes thebroad range ofpatternsthrough whichprofessionaleducation isacquired andintegrated withliberaleducation.


23

cc

TABLE 1

U,S. DEGREES GRANTED IN SELECTED PROFESSIONAL FIELDS, 1981-82'

Percent

Percent Change Percent at

of over Percent Private

Degrees Total 1970-71 Women' Colleges'

Bachelor's Level Programs

All degrees in U.S. 952,998 100 + 13 50 33

Architecture' 9,728 1 + 75 30 23

Business/management 212,474 22 + 87 39 35

Communications' 32,428 3 + 214 56 28

Education' 101,113 11 43 76 23

Engineering 67,021 7 +49 1 1 25

Nursing' 32,794 3 NA 95 36

Social work! 14,000 1 NA 45 NA

Total 455,558 48 NA

Master's Level Programs

All '4grees in U.S. 295,546 100 +28 51 38

Library science' 4,506 2 36 82 29

Social work' 11,000 4 NA 38 34

24

First Professional Degrees'

All degrees in U.S. 73,600 100 +94 28 59La035,991 49 + 107 34 60Medicine 15,814 21 + 76 25 39Dentistry 5,282 7 + 40 15 40Pharmacy' 1,047 1 NA 42 48

Ihditionally, the National Center for Education Statistics provides figures showing changes with respect to the federal census year mostrecently available. Thus, this table includes percent change in degrees granted since 1970-71. Because of estimates and changes in categories,some change figures have not been provided.

"Rounded estimates based on data available.

'Some institutions confer the master's degree in architectureor environmental design as a first degree at the end of five years of study. Thesedegrees are not included.

'Recent transitions from journalism programs to broader degree programs called "communications" make data difficult to compare. In 1979-80,73 percent of the degrees in communications were given in the subfield ofjournalism, Some institutions report both journalism and communica-tions programs, however, where the degree given is in liberal arts.'Education degrees do not include degrees given in a teaching held of arts and sciences accompanied by teacher certification. Institutionalpractice varies widely, but, in general, education degrees reflect primarily those in elementary education, physical education, and specialeducation.

Tor 1980-81.

'Social work degrees are not reported separately but are given in "social sciences," in "public affairs" (social and helping services), and under"clinical social work" in health professions. Estimates based on these data are provided but do not allow any guesses about the percent ofdegrees granted by private colleges.

'In 198142, 307 undergraduate degrees in library science also were giver.. Such programs, not included here, are nonaccredited and most oftenassociated with school librarianship.

Those degrees classified as "first professional" indude law (51 percent), medicine (21 percent), theological professions (9 percent), dentistry (7percent), other health fields (optometry, osteopathy, podiatry, chiropractictotal of 7 percent), veterinary medicine (3 percent), and pharmacy(1 percent).

JA1though most law schools grant the Jutis Doctor or Doctor of Judsprudence degree, 846law degrees were classified as bachelor's degrees in1981-82.

'Bachelor's degrees are also granted in pharmacy, and thedistinctions between the bachelor's and first professional degrees vary among institu-lions. In 198142, 625 bachelor of pharmacy degrees were reported sepamtely.

Sources; National Center for Education Statistics, Condition of Education, 1984; National Center for Education Statistics, Earned DegreesConferred in 1981-82.

2

programs examined in this report as well as informationconcerning recent enrollment trends. Estimating the num-ber of degrees granted in each professional preparationfield and the number of existing programs is no easy task.Not all professional preparation degt ees, as defined here,are designated separately in HEGIS data. In addition, uni-versities use a wide variety of degree designations to indi-cate similar academic work. College sourcebooks intendedfor prospective students also use varying terminology. Spe-cialized accrediting agencies release no records of existingprograms that have not sought accreditation. Finally, dif-ferent universities offer similar programs at different lev-els. To illustrate, social work is offered at either the under-graduate level (B.A., B.S., B.S.W.) or graduate level(M.S.W.), depending on a college's philosophy. Similarly,while some colleges offer a degree designated as bachelorof science in journalism, others group journalism majors

TABLE 2

ESTIMATED FREQUENCY OF SELECTEDPROFESSIONAL PROGRAMS IN THE MOST

COMPREHENSIVE U.S. COLLEGES ANDUNIVERSITIES°

ProfessionalProgram

OriginalEstimate

of Numberof Programs°

AccreditedPrograms

Not ConfirmedConfirmed` Programs°

EstimatedNumber

ofPrograms'

Architecture 88 18 66 84Business 499 52 355 407Dentistry 58eEducation' 463 78 358 436Engineering 247 39 191 230Journalism 278 12 177 189Law 157 33 106 139`Library science 79 9 48 57Medicine 112eNursing 339 57 227 284Pharmacy 73 11 44 55Social work(undergraduate)s 316 14 215 229

Social work(master's) 36 11 27 38

1026

TABLE 2 (continued)

Mu set of 340 colleges and universities used as the population includedall classified by the CUM* Council (1976) as research universities,doctorate-panting universities, and comprehensive colleges (I). Whileprofessional-type programs occur in comprehensive colleges (II) and lib-ers1 arts colleges, they are typically small and concentrated in one or twofieWs, namely business and education. Including these programs wouldhave expanded the population substantially without producing new infor-mation.' Original estimates for programs occurring within the selected classifica-tions of colleges and universities were made from various college guide-books.°Programs not confirmed directly by colleges but listed by specializedaccrediting agencies as having approved programs.9t confirmed program is one verified by the institution's registraror otherofficial whether accredited or not and irrespective of its listing in other110111Ves.

'Known accredited programs plus confirmed programs. Estimates aregenerally low. For medkine and dentistry, the number of institutionsawarding degrees is taken from Digest of Educational Statistics, 1982 andis for 197940. This source reports 179 law schools granting degrees in197940. lids figure differs from the authors' estimate because they omit-ted schools not located within a college or university.institutions offering only graduate degrees in education were excludedfrom the population even when those degrees provided initial entrance toteaching.' When an institution offered both undergraduate and graduate programs insocial work, the institution was included with undergraduate programs.Thus, master's level social work includes only those institutions offeringno lower degree,

with liberal arts graduates in English, communications, orother fields.

A review of college guidebooks and a 76 percentresponse to an inquiry of registrars at all colleges includedin three Carnegie classifications (research universities,doctorate-granting universities, comprehensive collegesand universities I) give a reasonable sense of the frequencyof occurrence of most of the programs in these 540 institu-tions. These data are shown in table 2.

Study MethodsIdeate* outcomesMost lists of outcomes for professional preparation havebeen derived from an early definition of "professional"that included a knowledge base, craftsmanship, a measureof control over the educational process, a standard of ethi-cal conduct, and the use of peers' judgment of professionalcompetence (Flexner 1915). Building upon this definition,


27

various analysts have attempted to confirm the characteris-tics of a profession, and from this base comes the limitedliterature comparing professional preparation across fieldsof study. Because the two previous research reports(Anderson 1974; Nyre and Reilly 1979) reviewed the hand-ful of mRjor efforts, summaries of those works are notrepeated here (see, for example, Becker and Carper 1956;Blauch 1955; Boley 1977; Gartner 1976; Haber 1974;Hughes et al. 1973; Larson 1977; McGlothlin 1960, 1964;Mayhew and Ford 1974; National Society for the Study ofEducation 1962; Schein and Kommers 1972; Vollmer andMills 1966). This report instead draws upon this and otherliterature (for example, Bucher and Stelling 1977; Hopp-mann, Liu, and Rivello 1980; Houle 1980; Sherlock andMorris 1967) to describe a set of outcomes of professionalpreparation that seem to be generic to all fields. The listof outcomes was derived using a "grounded theory" ap-proach, alternating between literature reviews and discus-sions with professional program faculty. A detailed discus-sion of the derivation and the place of the outcome list in abroader conceptual framework for studying preserviceprofessional preparation programs is found elsewhere(Stark et al. 1986).

The professional preparation outcomes that appear to besufficiently specific to allow the examination of program-matic differences fall into two categories. One category,called "professional competence," corresponds to thecommon notion of the "technically competent practi-tioner" but has six important facets, each of which may bethe target of specific educational processes. The secondcategory, called "professional attitudes," encompassesfive dimensions of professional commitment (McGlothlin1960, 1964; Sherlock and Morris 1967). Table 3 provides abrief definition of each dimension within the two broadcategories of professional competence and professionalattitudes.

The literature reviewUsing the definitions of generic professional preparationoutcomes, the authors explored the literature published ineducationally focused journals of the various professionalpreparation fields to identify articles that defined, de-scribed, measured, or exhorted professional educators to

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TABLE 3

PROFESSIONAL PREPARATION OUTCOMES

Professional CompetencesConceptual competenceUnderstanding the theoreticalfoundations of the professionTechnical competenceAbility to perform tasks required ofthe professionalContextual competenceUnderstanding the societal context(environment) in which the profession is practicedInterpersonal communication competenceAbility to usewritten and oral communication effectivelyIntegrative competenceAbility to meld theory and techni-cal skills in actual practiceAdaptive competenceAbility to anticipate and accommo-date changes (for example, technological changes) importantto the profession

Professional AttitudesCareer marketabilityThe degree to which a graduatebecomes marketable as a result of acquired trainingProfessional identityThe degree to which a graduate inter-nalizes the norms of a professionEthical standardsThe degree to which a graduate internal-izes the ethics of a professionScholarly concern for improvementThe degree to which agraduate recognizes the need to increase knowledge in theprofession through researchMotivation for continued learningThe degree to which agraduate desires to continue to update knowledge and skills

consider one of the outcome categories. They also exam-ined books dealing specifically with education in particularprofessional preparation fields, accreditation guidelines,and major reports published by professional associations orgroups of professional schools. Although this report drawsupon all of these sources, it draws most extensively fromthe educational journal literature of 12 fields.

Library sources like Resources in Education led to manyjournals that are primarily or partially devoted to discus-sions of educational practices and issues in the variousprofessions. Based on the space they devoted to educa-tional concerns and on discussions with colleagues inprofessional fields, one (in one case, two) journal from


29

each field was selected for detailed examination. As shownin table 4, those choices were generally coincident withjournals professional faculty read to become informedabout issues of educational practice as reported in a latersurvey (see Appendix A for details).

Nearly 3,000 articles published in 14 different journalsfrom January 1979 through December 1984 were examined,of which 660 were selected for detailed review. The detailsof selection are given in Appendix A.

This review confirms earlier statements (Anderson 1974;Nyre and Reilly 1979) that medical educators and teachereducators are among the most prolific writers of literaturefocusing on issues of professional preparation. Dental andpharmacy education are other fields where educational lit-

TABLE 4

CONGRUENCE BETWEEN JOURNALS PROFESSIONALFACULTY READ AND JOURNALS SELECTED FOR

REVIEW

Journal

Number ofFaculty

Members in Percent- PercentageField Naming age of Firstat Least One of First and Second

Reviewed Journal Mentions Mentions

J of Architecture Education * 84 67.9 40.3Architecture 4.8 11.4

ACSA Journal 10.7 10.7

No business administration journalwas named by at least 10 percent ofthe survey respondents.

J of Teacher Education * 422 15.2 11.4

Phi Delta Kappan 26.1 22.1

Engineering Education * 203 26.6 18.0

IEEE Spectrum 11.8 12.2

J of the American Society ofEngineering Education 7.4 21.7

Journalism Educator * 190 43.7 32.5Journalism Quarterly 24.2 23.1

J of Legal Education * 176 96.0 77.6American Bar AssociationJournal 1.7 12.1

14

30

TABLE 4 (continued)

J of Education forLibrarianship 33.1 20.9

J of Education for Library/Information Science 32.4 20.0

Nurse Educator 343 9.9 11.3J of Nursing Education 38.5 28.5Nursing Research 5.5 10.3Nursing Outlook 23.3 23.0J of PharmaceuticalEducation 92 83.7 58.1

American Pharmacy 1.0 13.2J of Education for Social

Work 204 56.9 36.8Social Work 27.5 36.3

No SurveyJ of Dental Education Information

No SurveyJ of Medical Education Information

aAs described in Appendix A, faculty members were asked to contributethe names of up to two journals. Because some provided only one journalname and because the journal named second by some faculty memberswas a first mention for others, two columns of data are provided. "Per-centage of first mentions" indicates the percentage of responding facultyin the field who mentioned the journal first. "Percentage of first and sec-ond mentions" indicates the percentage of mentions the journal receivedfrom the combined set of first- and second-named journals. Only first andsecond mentions greater than 10 percent are included.

erature is abundant. In contrast, no single journal dealingwith educational issues for business administration couldbe found, and, in this survey, even 10 percent of faculty inbusiness did not name a journal. Each subspecialty of busi-ness (marketing, accounting, organizational studies, and soon) has some type of publication devoting space to educa-tional practice, but business administration faculty namednone of them consistently in a manner parallel to journalslike the Journal of Medical Education or the Journal ofEducation for Social Work.

While it seems likely that articles published in the estab-lished education journals of each field reflect current dis-cussions within each field of professional preparation, sev-eral factors may call such an assumption into question.Journal sponsorship varies, as do editorial and manuscript


31

acceptance policies. In some cases, published articles maypresage changing practices in the field; in other cases, theymay reflect primarily past trends or merely the "publish orperish" pressure on faculty members. Because this reviewseeks to describe broad trends in the literature, the authorsmade no attempt to evaluate the articles, beyond exclusionof those that were clearly not helpful.

The literature on professional education is so extensivethat delimiters are necessary in any brief report. Exceptwhere it was difficult to draw the line, this report wasrestricted to articles about initial professional preparation(whether at the undergraduate or graduate level) and didnot review the extensive literature on continuing profes-sional education. Articles that were reports of curricularexperiments, unless they dealt with the broad outcomes inthis framework rather than with specific content or teach-ing methods, were also excluded. In addition, labor markettrends in the various professional fields have not been dealtwith.

Three broad questions guided the literature review.What does the literature in education journals from therespective professional fields have to say about the genericoutcomes? Is the outcome framework feasible for use inidentifying special and common aspects of preparation?What practical implications for faculty, administrators, andresearchers are suggested by a comparative literaturereview?

Faculty Views of the Emphasis on OutcomesBy the time the literature review was finished, surveyresponses from 2,217 faculty members in 732 professionalprograms representing 10 of the 12 professional fields wereavailable (see Appendix A for information about the surveypopulation and response). These data provided informationabout the emphasis faculty thought "ideally" should begiven to each generic professional preparation outcomeand faculty descriptions of educational activities designedto achieve the outcomes. Because the literature review,rather than the survey, was the primary source andbecause a detailed analysis of the survey is still underway,the authors have not made formal statistical comparisonsbetween the emphasis in the journals and faculty percep-tions gathered in the survey. Nonetheless, the traditional

16

32

literature review was supplemented with some preliminarysurvey results to give the reader a notion of the extent towhich the discussions in the literature reflect outcomes fac-ulty in various fields perceive as important. Thus, for eachoutcome are listed the fields with the most extensive andleast extensive journal discussion, the fields in which fac-ulty perceive the outcome to be of greatest and leastimportance, and the fields in which the highest and lowestpercentage of faculty said that specific formal or informalactivities intended to achieve the outcomes existed in theirprogram. The reader is cautioned that the professionalfields included in the survey were not identical to those forwhich literature was reviewed, the estimates of emphasisgiven to a topic in the journal literature are not precise, andthe reasons why a topic may be widely discussed in jour-nals but appear less important on campus (or the reverse)are still under study.

SummaryA profession "may be a fundamental social processembedded in the relationship between society and thosewho practice certain expert occupations" (Forsyth andDanisiewicz 1985, p. 60). The use of the term "expert"implies competent performance; thus, it is not surprising tofind that a frequently expected outcome of professionaleducation is to produce competent practitioners. This com-prehensive outcome, shared by all preparation programs,probably leads to the widely accepted assertion thatprofessional education is technical education. Yet it is fartoo simplistic a definition. This analysis of the literature, aswell as the preliminary analysis of the authors' survey offaculty in 10 professional fields, indicates that professionalpreparation is a much more complex concept encompass-ing several components involving knowledge, skill, andattitudes.


33

PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCE

Developing competent professional workers is the primaryobjective of professional education programs. From earlierstudies and discussions, six types of professional compe-tence have been identified that appear to be sought in all ormost professional programs: (1) conceptual competence,(2) technical competence, (3) contextual competence, (4)interpersonal communication competence, (5) integrativecompetence, and (6) adaptive competence (Stark et al.1986). [The sense in which the term "competence" is usedis the level of proficiency that professional program facultyexpect a new entrant to the profession to demonstrate.While some have suggested that professional "profi-ciency" would be a better term (as competence implies aminimal level of performance), others suggest a perfor-mance continuum from competence to proficiency to mas-tery, with mastery resulting from considerable work expe-rience (Schaffer 1965).]

Certainly, the degree to which individual graduatesachieve the expectations faculty hold for them vary as dothe expectations in different programs. Although variationsexist among fields, reactions of 2,230 professional programfaculty members in 10 fields to statements describing grad-uates in terms of each of these competences indicate thatall of these outcomes are quite important. (The 10 fieldssurveyed included architecture, business administration,education, engineering, journalism, law, library science,nursing, pharmacy, and social work. Medicine and den-tistry were not surveyed.) Of the articles concerned withoutcomes in the professional journals reviewed, about 38percent were classified as dealing with technical compe-tence, about 22 percent with conceptual competence. Eachof the other competences accounted for less than 15 per-cent of the outcome-related articles. Adaptive competencewas the outcome represented least frequently; less than 10percent of the articles were classified as discussing it.

Conceptual CompetenceGraduates may be considered conceptually competent ifthey have learned the generally accepted foundationalknowledge upon which professional practice is based.(Other terms for this knowledge domain include "theoreti-cal foundations," "professional science," and "profes-sional knowledge base.") Partly because of a rapidly

Developingcompetentprofessionalworkers is theprimaryobjective ofprofessionaleducationprograms.

Responsive Professional Education19

34

TABLE 5

CONCEPTUAL COMPETENCE

RelativeProportion of

Journal Articles'

High

Importance ofProfessional Outcomeb

High

Program HasEducational Activitiesto Achieve Outcome`

High

Social work Nursing 84%

Law Social work 79% No data

Medicine

Low Low Low

EngineeringPharmacy Architecture 49% No data

Library science Business 46%

,A "high" proportion of articles indicates that over the five-year periodexamined, the percentage of outcome articles devoted to this competencewas above the third quartile of percentages of all fields examined; a"low" proportion indicates the percentage of articles in the field fellbelow the first quartile. Because the number of articles reviewed variedwidely by field, because not all journals were included, and because the

purpose of the review was integration of ideas rather than precise classifi-cation of articles, this level of precision is appropriate to convey the level

of discussion.Tercentage of faculty members in the survey who answered "7" on aseven-point scale when asked what emphasis would "ideally" be placedon the outcome in their professional preparation program.Tor most outcomes, this information includes the percentage of facultymembers in the survey who reported that their program had formal orinformal educational activities intended to foster the outcome. Becausethe authors presumed that all programs would have educational activitiesdesigned to lead to conceptual competence, faculty responding to the sur-vey were not asked to describe such activities for this outcome.

changing technological society, faculty members in profes-sional fields do not fully agree on the content that makesup the knowledge base. Even in the least debated fields(business and engineering), over 40 percent of facultymembers believe a lack of consensus exists concerning theconceptual knowledge base (Stark, Lowther, and Hagerty1985). Thus, as might be expected, conceptual competencereceives substantial attention in the literature about profes-sional preparation.

As indicated in table 5, relative to other fields, journalsdirected at educators in social work, law, and medicinepublished the greatest proportion of articles dealing with

20

35

conceptual competence, while journals aimed at educatorsin engineering, pharmacy, and library science publishedthe smallest proportion. The survey results indicate, how-ever, that the proportion of articles published does not nec-essarily correspond to views of faculty in the field concern-ing the importance of conceptual competence. In the sur-vey, nursing and social work faculty viewed conceptualcompetence as most important, while faculty in architec-ture and business perceived it as less important.

A pervasive, frequently contentious, problem for profes-sional educators is the amount of conceptual content toinclude in the entry-level curriculum. In recent years, thisproblem has been exacerbated for all professional fields byat least three influential factors: (1) the rapid growth of spe-cialized knowledge, (2) the application of new technologiesto practice, and (3) the expansion of professional obliga-tions to include new clients or recipients of service. Thesefactors have modified the priorities of professional prepara-tion and have provoked searching analyses of the curricu-lum in all fields, particularly in relation to conceptual com-petence. In dentistry, for example, the expansion of theservice framework is reflected in assertions that dentistsshould be sensitive "to the needs of all the peopletheeconomically, physically, and emotionally disadvantaged"(Dworkin 1981, p. 693). Similarly, in engineering, "thecomputer has revolutionized engineering course contentand instructional methods" (Le Bold 1980, p. 407). Suchdevelopments have profound implications for the attain-ment of conceptual competence and, as discussed later, ofcontextual and technical competences as well. Dental edu-cators must find space in the course of study to includecontent from the behavioral sciences; engineering educa-tors struggle with the social ramifications of new technolo-gies. These same two phenomena, an ecological view ofthe client and an expanding technology, stimulate m4jorcurriculum debates (and sometimes changes) in mostprofessional fields.

Consequently, the literature about conceptual compe-tence, that is, the literature that examines the fields' theo-retical foundations or fundamental knowledge base, oftenis characterized by uncertainty and disputation and occa-sionally by heroic rhetoric about mission. Questionsemerge about the purpose and thrust of the profession


36

itself, about what knowledge is fundamental to the field,about the relationship between theory and practice, andabout how to meld the program into a meaningful andrational whole.

For the purposes of this discussion, different sets of lit-erature about conceptual outcomes have been identified.One set of articles addresses the broad issue of programvalidity, that is, the rationale or integrity of the total prepa-ration program. Do all the courses and experiences linktogether into an intellectually coherent entity? What is theappropriate overall strategy for preparing a person forentry-level practice? Is one conceptual framework "best"for professional preparation? Of course, all of these ques-tions hark back to the essential query: What is the purposeor mission of the field? These questions, in fact, form thebulk of the literature dealing with conceptual competence,far surpassing that providing more specific discussions ofconceptual competence, means for achieving student out-comes, or empirical examination of outcomes achieved.

A second set of articles addresses knowledge or theoryas foundational bedrock for the attainment of all othercompetences. Such articles assume that practice is indeedguided by theory and must be preceded by mastery of rele-vant concepts. Much of this literature, devoted as it mustbe to the particular concepts to be taught and learned, isoccupationally specific, and frequently it is difficult fornonmembers of the profession to distinguish discussions ofconceptual competence from those concerning technical orskill competence. This report focuses on that literature inwhich several fields discuss similar problems.

A third set of articles focuses on conceptual compe-tences that do not reside specifically in knowledge or the-ory but can be characterized as integral to the person:They must be present for successful attainment of othercompetences and for practice. They include such attributesas values, attitudes, and cognitive capabilities, whichinclude, for example, problem-solving skills, creative capa-bilities, and critical thinking skills. Such internal compe-tences are called "entry-level characteristics," which mayor may not be present in the student but are conceptualfundamentals for subsequent education and practice(Bloom 1976). Thus, they are distinguished trom "profes-sional attitudes." Although professional attitudes are

22

37

developed during professional study, the prerequisite stu-dent characteristics are classified as conceptual becausethey underlie performance in the professional preparationprogram and may serve as a basis for distinguishing classesof students' performance (very creative, a good problemsolver, and so on).

Program validityOn the education of pharmacists, some writers haveobserved that "we have yet to decide which science(s) andat what depth are relevant to professional practice instruc-tion" (Vogt, Montagne, and Smith 1981, p. 237). Similarly,in law:

One can say without fear of serious contradiction thatlegal education taken as a whole is best described as acraft that has been dead in the water since the late fif-ties. Changes there have beenclinical education hasgrown, seminars have appeared at the smallest schools,women have appeared everywhere in great numbersbut the fundamental structure of legal educationremains essentially as it was at the elite schools in theimmediate post-war years (Schlegel 1984, p. 103).

These two statements from writers describing quite dif-ferent preparation programs illustrate a mood of self-assessment and uncertainty that appears in all fields tosome degree. Concerns, observations, and recommenda-tions are expressed about such general preparation issuesas program mission, direction, and control (Alofsin 1983;Auerbach 1984; Bakalinsky 1982; Barondess 1981; Cantor,Schroeder, and Kurth 1981; Cavers 1983; Cramton 1982;Dinerrnan 1982; Dostoglu 1983; Frumkin 1979; Gianniny1982; Hacker 1982; Hartman 1980; Huling and Hall 1982;Isakson and Ellsworth 1979; Ivey 1982; Jarrett 1979; Jor-don 1979; Klare 1982; Kroll and Mikellides 1981; LeBold1980; LeBold, Lindenlaub, and Seibert 1980; Loe 1981;Meunier 1979; Pye 1982; Richardson and Hernon 1981;Rowles 1982; Roy 1979; Schlegel 1984; Smith, Johnson,and Johnson 1981; Snyder and Anderson 1980; Teigiseri 983; lerkia 1981; v ernon 1983; Vogt, Montagne, andSmith 1981; White 1982; Wodarski 1979; Zeichner 1983).


38

The recommendations in these overall statements rangefrom the very broad to the very narrow and usually reflectexperience-based opinion rather than conclusions drawnfrom systematic research. On the one hand, such broadself-critical statements of concern may represent some de-gree of instability and uncertainty about professional prep-aration. On the other hand, such expressions of self-doubtmay, in fact, be healthy qualities suggesting educationalmaturity, confidence, and a willingness to entertain criti-cism and recommendations without defensive posturing.

Knowledge of theoretical foundationsAs described earlier, another set of articles focused onconceptual outcomes, many of which were field-specific.Some issues, however, appear to bridge several of theprofessions, and this discussion is organized around threesuch generic themes:

1. The value and role of certain academic courses;2. The incorporation of social science content as a con-

ceptual foundation;3. Changes in practitioners' roles that imply needs for

w theoretical foundations.

Value and role of certain courses and content. Professionaleducators in several fields appear to be questioning thetheoretical utility of traditional foundations courses. Mostfrequently targeted for criticism are courses treating histori-cal andlor philosophical foundations of the particularprofession. Architecture educators have questioned thecontribution made to effective practice by the study ofarchitectural history (Abbey and Dripps 1982; Creese 1980;Hubbard 1980); journalism educators have raised similarissues. Perhaps, however, the most searching review of re-quired courses in history and philosophy of a field comesfrom teacher educators. A number of teacher educatorshave argued that these courses are not basic to the fieldas suggested by the name "foundations" (Nash and Agne1982; Warren 1982). They assert that the current content issuperficial and highly abstract and tends to induce ideologi-cal "platitudinizing."

We have argued that contemporary social and profes-sional conditions have put the foundational disciplines in

24

39

a precariously defensive position; in some cases, foun-dational studies have been deleted entirely from profes-sional programs (Nash and Agne 1982, p. 6).

As might be expected, advocates of such courses haveresponded with their own claims of intent (Green 1981;Williams 1982).

The foundations area, by studying the school within asocial context and by analyzing the problems from aninterdisciplinary approach, provides an excellent oppor-tunity to promote cultural thought, the basic ingredientof a true education (Williams 1982, p. 34).

Interestingly, similar debates about traditional founda-tions study exist in many of the professional fields, illus-trating the crowded nature of the curriculum and the dilem-mas of pruning. At the same time, however, many fieldshave begun to introduce social science content directly intotheir professional knowledge core, while others are seekingto expand the contextual horizons of graduates through lib-eral education and interdisciplinary avenues. It is possiblethat the agents of change target their pleas for examinationless at the concepts to be included in the curriculum thanat the particular style and teaching format these founda-tional courses have gradually acquired over the years.Another feasible explanation is that the threat of collegeand university retrenchment encourages faculty to main-tain foundational courses in separate professional studyareas although they could be taught in a more interdisci-plinary format.

Incorporation of social science content. In examining poten-tial physicians, the National Board of Medical Examinersnow includes questions drawn from the behavioral sciencesin an attempt to demonstrate "the interaction of biological,psychological, and Eocial factors in the onset and treatmentof illness" (Begun and Ricker 1980, p. 181). As a conse-queace, "medical educators agree that the behavioral sci-ences are important in medical education, but translatingthis affirmation into an effective curriculum has proven tobe a complex task" (Carr 1981, p. 667). The inclusion ofbehavioral science as contributing to conceptual compe-


4 0

tence in medicine is a phenomenon shared by a number ofother professional preparation programs (AAMC 1984; Bai-ley 1979; Brusich 1980; Dolinsky 1979; Dworkin 1981;Gianniny 1982; Johnson and Wertheimer 1979; Jordon1979; Jvhasz 1981; Leighninger and Leighninger 1980;Mohan 1980; Priest 1983; Seidel 1981; Shreve et al. 1980;Shuck 1983; Svarstad 1979; Sze, Keller, and Keller 1979).

The expansion of the conceptual base to include moresocial science or behavioral theory responds to anexpanded vision of clients' needs and an attempt to pro-vide a basis for clients' interaction that will maximize thedelivery of quality service. Its inclusion, however, createsboth issues of curricular volume and instructional dilem-mas. Who, for example, should provide the instruction?The professional program faculty? Faculty drawn fromother units? Does social science content actually advanceprofessional practice? Can nonprofessional faculty mem-bers modify content to make it relevant to the particularneeds of the professional school?

Changing roles of practitioners. A number of articles pro-pose emphasis on new roles for practitioners to serve newclientsfor example, human service workers in education,health educators in nursing (Graham and Gleir 1980) and inpharmacy (Fedder and Beardsley 1979), public health phar-macists (Bush and Johnson 1979), public agency workersand child welfare workers in social work (Gibelman 1983;Stein 1982). But the introduction of new specialty areaswithin established preparation programs tends to exacer-bate the problem of appropriate conceptual content.

Students' attitudinal and cognitive attributesOne area of the literature treats attributes of students, suchas values, attitudes, and cognitive capabilities as prerequi-site to effective practice and, indeed, to successful profes-sional preparation. The preparation program may attemptto foster the development of such attributes, if the studentdoes not possess them. For example, in engineering, sug-gestions are made regarding ways to advance students onthe Perry scheme of intellectual development (Culver andHackos 1982), to teach holistic ways of thinking and theuse of higher levels of intellect (Williamson and Hudspeth1982), and to structure students' learning goals to meet the

'26

41

goals of engineering education (Smith, Johnson, and John-son 1981). Journalists propose the need to focus on prob-lem solving (Bennett 1984), while in library science, a sug-gestion is made to enhance students' awareness of theirown learning processes as a prerequisite for improving theability to learn relatively independently at high levels (Ford1984). Medicine addresses issues of problem solving:"Reasoning from the premise that highly developedproblem-solving skills are requisite to effective clinicalpractice, many medical schools have incorporated someform of problem-based instruction or assessment into theircurricula" (McGaghie 1980, p. 912). Furthermore, medicaleducators have developed a taxonomy to evaluate the over-all cognitive performance ofmedical students (Buckwalteret al. 1981). In part, the increased concern about such attri-butes represents awareness among professional faculty ofthe advancing research about metacognition and styles oflearning. Emphasis on development of these attributesseems intended to accomplish two purposes: improvingstudents' conceptual capabilities and providing a vehiclefor socializing the student into the modes of thought asso-ciated with the profession. For example, "with respect tolaw school, deliberate, technical socialization is generallyagreed to be the acquisition of information, conccpts, andintellectual skillsoften summed up as learning 'to thinklike a lawyer' " (Schwartz 1980, p. 440).

Technical CompetenceTechnical competence refers to a graduate's ability to per-form fundamental skills required of the professional. In thevarious professions, technical competence is closelyrelated to conceptual competence; thus, the "craft" aspectof professional preparation is clearly unique to each field.Because skills needed by an architect are distinguishablefrom those needed by a nurse or a lawyer, for example,less opportunity seems available to find commonalitiesacross professional preparation programs with respect totechnical competence than in most other aspects of compe-tence. Further, it is more difficult for individuals who arenot trained in the professions to understand the literaturewritten about technical competence, contributing to theview that professional education is narrow. Historians ofthe professions point out, however, that preparation for

Values,attitudes, andcognitivecapabilities[are]prerequisite toeffectivepractice and,indeed, tosuccessfulprofessionalpreparation.


4 2


Journal Articles

TABLE 6

TECHNICAL COMPETENCE

Importance ofProfessional Outcome

Program HasEducational Activitiesto Achieve Outcome'

High High High

Journalism Social work 79% No data

Social work Journalism 71%

Library science Education 63%

Low Low Low

Nursing Library science 35% No data

Pharmacy Architecture 32%

Engineering Law 25%

'The authors, presuming that all fields would have activities to developtechnical competence, did not ask faculty to describe such activities.

most professional fields migrated from apprenticeship sta-tus to university status when the conceptual base of anoccupation had expanded so that on-the-job training inskills no longer sufficed to produce a competent profes-sional (Bul lough 1970). Today, most fields that moreheavily emphasize technical competence compared to con-ceptual competence would not be judged "professional."

As shown in table 6, three fields, library science, journal-ism, and social work, devoted a considerably higher pro-portion ofjournal articles to technical competence than didother fields. Nursing, engineering, and pharmacy, whichthe casual observer might judge to be more concerned withthe development of skills, devoted a low proportion ofjournal articles to this outcome. A similar pattern emergedin the survey of professional field faculty. Faculty mem-bers in architecture and law were the least likely to believetechnical competence should be emphasized. In fact, fac-ulty in some fields, such as law, felt that the developmentof skills currently receives more emphasis than it should.Perhaps recent criticisms have caused professional educa-tors to be reluctant to discuss skill development so as notto appear excessively vocational. Alternatively, one canspeculate that basic skills needed by new professionals arefairly well established in many fields and firmly entrenched

28

43

in licensing and certification examinations where theyexist, and that continued discussion is little needed.

This discussion focuses on identifying a few categoriesof technical skills that seem common to several fields.Three such generic types of technical skills are addressedin the professional journals: (1) psychomotor skills, (2)interpersonal skills, and (3) special cognitive skills.

Psychomotor skillsThe journal literature does not heavily emphasize psycho-motor and technological skill outcomes, although somefields describe entire new curricula for required skills(Heymann and Roberson 1984). Others describe specificskills required of their graduates. For example, one libraryscience article discusses training in on-line cataloging(Downing 1981), while dental educators describe specifictechniques required of students, such as endodontic skills(Goerig 1980). Other articles discuss methodologies forevaluating technical outcomes defined as competencies. Inthe area of measuring competency, one article in socialwork lists 87 specific competencies to be evaluated. Educa-tors in pharmacy describe domain-referenced tests andpractice rating scales (Grussing, Cyrs, and Silzer 1979;Holloway 1979); authors in dentistry discuss the need forfeedback from students and competency requirements forstate board examinations (Terkla 1981). Nursing educationliterature describes employers' competency ratings of newgraduates (Bolin and Hogle 1984).

Interpersonal skillsFor most purposes, interpersonal skills are viewed in thismonograph as a separate category called "interpersonalcommunication competence." Differences are apparent,however, between interpersonal skills as techniques spe-cific to particular fields and a more general competencethat allows one to be adept in interpersonal communica-tion. Particularly in the helping professions, specific train-ing is required for interaction with clients like the elderly,the handicapped, and minorities (Corcoran 1981; Salley1980; Toseland and Spielberg 1982; Wright 1981). Simi-larly, in fields like journalism and law, communicationskills might be viewed as technical competence thatextends beyond a general level.


4 4

Special cognitive skillsSpecial cognitive skills include behaviors specific to a field(design skills in architecture, for example) (Meunier 1979)and more general skills used by several fields (statistics andliterature reading, for example) (Riegelman, Povar, and Ott1983). These types of special skills allow the new profes-sional to perform certain tasks or procedures that enhanceprofessional practice. Such a classification also includes"creative" skills, which may be nurtured in fields such asarchitecture, journalism, and some aspects of engineering(Merrill 1980; Meunier 1979).

Society sanctions professional practice based on techni-cal competence, that is, those skills necessary to ensurethe provision of safe, quality service to clients. Yet the lit-erature contains negligible discussion of technical compe-tence as a component for defining a professional field.Indeed, professions appear to use their skills and technicalbase of practice to expand their boundaries and to definemore inclusively their arena of practice. As economic con-straints increase, clients and employers of professionalsappraise the cost effectiveness of professional practice,based in part, on its technical components. Thus, in spiteof the apparent reluctance of professional educators tofocus on technical competence, this outcome may be influ-enced by pressing issues with respect to the nature, effec-tiveness, and efficiency of professional practice in all fields.

Contextual Competence"Contextual competence" signifies an understanding of thebroad social, economic, and cultural setting in which theprofession is practiced (McGlothlin 1964). It refers not onlyto the professional's specific work setting, but also to thelarger environments, both social and natural, within whichthe work is embedded. The acquisition of this competenceimplies that the student can examine the environmentalcontext from a variety of vantage points: historical, social,economic, psychological, political, and philosophical. Thecapability to adopt multiple perspectives allows the studentto comprehend the complex interdependencies between theprofession and society, thus fostering both increasedprofessional social awareness and more effective citizen-ship (Smith, Johnson, and Johnson 1981). The achievementof contextual competence allows the student to transcend

30

45

egocentric or parochial levels of thought in interpretingcontemporary life. In this fashion, the needs of society andof the professions are met in a complementary way. Byfostering breadth of vision and understanding through mul-tiple perspectives, contextual competence serves tocounter the accusation that professional education is exces-sively narrow and intellectually confining (Torgersen 1979).

Typically, the task of implementing contextual compe-tence has resided with liberal arts and, particularly, witheducators in the humanities. Yet this obligation has longbeen surrounded by debate within professional fields aboutthe appropriate amount and nature of nonprofessional orcontextual course work required (Raths 1980) and whetherliberal arts courses are the appropriate curricular vehicle toachieve the objective (Hodges and Lichter 1980). Recently,this debate has been accompanied by a growing awarenessthat society's moods and needs generate powerful forcesfor most professions that may disrupt established profes-sional life (AAMC 1984; Porter 1979). For example, someprofessions are subject to widespread discontent aboutwhat is seen as self-serving behavior (Larson 1977; Schon1983), and the point is vividly made: "The blunt, inexcusa-ble fact is that this nation, which prides itselfon efficiencyand justice, has developed a legal system that is the mostexpensive in the world, yet cannot manage to protect therights of most of its citizens" (Bok 1983, p. 574).

For the teaching profession, numerous public agenciesare attempting to remedy what they perceive as contextualdeficiencies in teacher training through legislation, testing,and revision of licensing standards. Such considerationsimply that increased emphasis on contextual competencemay positively influence societal/professional relationships,thus serving the needs of both constituents. Consequently,the literature suggests that professional educators are reas-sessing their commitment to contextual competence as wellas the ways in which that competence may be achieved.

As shown in table 7, relatively high proportions of jour-nal articles concerning contextual competence are found inarchitecture and law, relatively low proportions in libraryscience, nursing, business, and pharmacy. Faculty in socialwork, journalism, and nursing believe contextual compe-tence should be emphasized to a substantial degree, whilefaculty in business, pharmacy, law, and engineering rank it


4 6

TABLE 7

CONTEXTUAL COMPETENCE


Journal Articles

High


High

Program HasEducational Activitiesto Achieve Outcome

HighArchitecture Social work 70% Social work 93%Law Journalism 59% Nursing 91%

Nursing 55% Architecture 85%

Low Low LowLibrary science Business 36% Business 66%Pharmacy Pharmacy 34% Law 61%Nursing Law 28% Engineering 60%Business Engineering 19%

quite low among the competences a graduate should pos-sess. According to this survey, those fields in which con-textual competence is least emphasized also cite feweractivities to achieve it.

The literature about contextual competence was groupedaccording to three themes: (1) the liberal arts connection, (2)the social and environmental content within the professionalcurriculum, and (3) the recognition of social diversity.

The liberal arts connectionThe liteic'ure describing the role of liberal arts or thehumanities in professional preparation programs rangesfrom a conceptior (in journalism and law) of the profes-sional program as a liberal arts discipline and as a profes-sional study (Da/ aft 1984; Lindley 1984; Stone 1984;White 1982) to concern (in engineering, for example) aboutwhether the tight professional curriculum can accommo-date even a small number of liberal courses within fouryears (VanderMee and Lyons 1980). Further, graduateprofessional progra.as like medicine see their role as the"shaping" of the baccalaureate program to include socialsciences, natural sciences, and humanities through modifi-cation of perceive d required admissions criteria(..A1 IC 1984). U. ierlying all these discussions is a convic-

32

47

tion that professional education can benefit from the liberalarts tradition (Dovey 1981; Neidle 1980; Reid 1979; Smith1979; Torgersen 1979). What may be at issue is the bestform of implementation. Questions are raised frequentlyabout the appropriate contextual content, the contributionsof various liberal arts disciplines, and the proper ratiobetween such courses and professional studies. Onenational sample of the attitudes of engineering facultytoward liberal arts in the engineering curriculum found thatmost faculty favor no growth or a reduction in liberal artscourses. Further, they are not inclined to be prescriptiveabout what disciplines ought to be represented (Vander-Meer and Lyons 1980). Such attitudes, the authors con-cluded, are fostered partly by rapid advances in engineer-ing knowledge and by the constraints of a four-year pro-gram. This issue seems most acute in those professionalprograms where entry-level professional preparation fre-quently is provided in a four-year period culminating in abachelor's degreethat is, education, nursing, engineer-ing, journalism, and social work. In part, of course, suchattitudes may also reflect distrust among faculty in profes-sional fields about the way in which liberal arts are taught:

Devotees of the humanities and social sciences generallyhave failed to develop an understanding of their ownsubject matter as essentially action guiding. The liberalstudies appear to have been singularly unsuccessful ineither enriching or illuminating the lives of the largemass of citizenry in democratic societies, much less theactivities of highly trained technical professionals(Hodges and Lichter 1980, p. 817).

Despite such accusations and the fact that liberal artscourses account for only about 20 percent of the engineer-ing student's total coursework, the liberal component inengineering education has a long history and con..emporaryvitality (Torgersen 1979).

Some professional teacher education programs, havingemerged from the liberal arts tradition, continue to relyvery heavily on that coursework for as much as two-thirdsof the total curriculum. Currently, however, this traditionalrelationship is being penetrated with seams of doubt. Sev-eral factors may help to account for this reexamination of


4 8

the liberal arts relationship: the growing vocationalism ofstudents in education, the dramatic increases in knowledgeabout teaching (Tymitz-Wolf 1984), and questions aboutthe outcomes of general education (Raths 1980). As mightbe expected, strong liberal arts advocates deplore the per-ceived drift away from the liberal arts tradition to vocation-alism (Carbone 1980; Webb and Sherman 1983), andrecently national reports and government officials havebegun to as well. Although the general education compo-nent of teacher training seems well established, what someprofessional teacher educators are proposing is that thefield be more prescriptive about appropriate courses andmore specific about intended student outcomes (Carbone1980; Raths 1980). Like engineers, teacher educators haveproposed expanding the program to five years, but the pro-posal has not been widely adopted (Kluender 1984).

Journalism faces special dilemmas as a consequence ofits professional accrediting agency's rule that only 25 per-cent of total coursework may be professional in nature(Stone 1984; Zagano 1983). Furthermore, journalism edu-cators are challenged by assertions from some magazineand newspaper editors that professional or technical course-work is unnecessary and that the best preparation for prac-tice is a liberal arts degree. Thus, a core issue for journal-ism educators is how to resolve the tension between expan-sion of technical knowledge and the perceived legitimacyof professional preparation courses (Haroldsen and Harvey1979; Mehra 1984; Mills, Harvey, and Warnick 1980).

Professional preparation in social work can be acquiredthrough either a four-year curriculum leading to a bachelorof social work degree or by pursuing a master of socialwork degree. Supporters of the M.S.W. curriculum arguethat the B.S.W. too heavily erodes necessary groundworkin liberal arts. Advocates of the B.S.W. claim that under-graduate social work education, with its strong emphasison societal problems, can serve as a vehicle for resolving afragmented liberal education (Reid 1979).

Sociallenvironmental content withinthe professional curriculumThe second major category of literature about contextualcompetence focuses on how it can be fostered within theprofessional curriculum rather than relying solely on liberal

34

4 9

arts courses. As suggested earlier, professional educatorsare concerned that the liberal arts lack focus on the occu-pational world of the professional; that is, current liberalarts content is too abstract and too removed from reality.As a consequence, many professional educators haveattempted to introduce contextual issues into their owncurricula (Abramson 1979; Allen and Burwell 1980; Ber-man 1981; Ellis 1981; Findley 1979; Gessner, Katz, andSchimpfhauser 1981; Gitterman and Germain 1981; Gran-tham and Block 1983; Harris and Rosenthal 1981; Lewis1979; Martinez-Brawley 1983; Porter 1979; Smith 1979;Vona It et al. 1980; Von Blum 1979), and in some fields,such as medicine, faculty development programs are pro-posed to raise consciousness and competence concerningthe professional context (AAMC 1984).

Much of the literature describing inte 3ration within theprofessional courses focuses upon how specific contentwas iatroduced in a particular course setting. For example,an interdisciplinary approach was taken in one course tofoster a historical perspective (Von Blum 1979); in anothersetting, attempts were made to fuse social content into anentire curriculum (Gessner, Katz, and Schimpfhauser1981). Professional educators face dilemmas as theyattempt to introduce social content. On the one hand,much of the desired content is interdisciplinary, which maypreclude its incorporation into existing disciplinarycourses. On the other hand, general survey courses do notprovide adequate depth or are unrelated to professionalconcerns. Last, introducing new electives may force stu-dents to choose between them and attractive skill courses.As yet, the arguments are not bolstered by much evidencethat if broad issues are introduced directly into a profes-sional program, the attitudes of faculty and students willchange in the desired directions.

Social diversityThe final category of literature about contextual compe-tence suggests a growing awareness of the wide diversityof populations served by the professions. In part, this rec-ognition may emerge from the economic need to expandthe client base (Brendtro 1980; Carlson and Lockwood1980); more probably it represents implementation ofhumanitarian concern to provide service to all who require

Professionaleducators areconcerned thatthe liberal arts. . content istoo abstractand tooremoved fromreality.


50

it and to recognize clients' differing needs. Most of theprofessions recognize the need to introduce social realitiesand the necessity and moral obligation to provide serviceto women (Kravetz 1982; Rathbone-McCuan 1984), to thehandicapped and other special populations (Cassileth andEgan 1979; Humphreys 1983; Jennings and Smith 1979;Lange and Fender 1980; Salley 1980), to the aged (Allenand Burwell 1980; Buschman, Burns, and Jones 1981; Den-ise and Nauratil 1984; Gessner, Katz, and Schimpfhauser1981; Shepherd and Erwin 1983; Thomas and Ship 1981),to minority and ethnic groups (Baker and Mayer 1982; Bal-gopal, Munson, and Vassil 1979; Proctor and Davis 1983;Pugach and Raths 1982; Sims 1981; Steiner and Devore1983), and to entire communities (AAMC 1984). Just as thepeople-oriented professions express sensitivity to diver-sity, architecture and engineering have introduced contentabout the natural and social environments and the need tointegrate treatments (Comerio 1981; Dovey 1981; Ellis1981; Gaines 1980; Hull 1979; Lewis 1979; Littman, Mayo,and Burgess 1981; Thorpe 1979; Treib 1982).

Interpersonal Communication CompetenceInterpersonal communication implies the ability to commu-nicate effectively with others through a variety of symbolicmeans. As a cornerstone objective of liberal study, stu-dents' achievement of these skills is not the sole responsi-bility of the professional faculty. Professional fields can bedifferentiated, however, in the extent to which they acceptthese goals as legitimate and ensure these applications bystudents in different professional settings.

In the journal literature, the greatest proportional atten-tion to interpersonal communication competence occurs inengineering, pharmacy, and business, the smallest propor-tion in social work, library science, and journalism. Asshown in table 8, the attention to interpersonal communi-cation in the journal literature is not congruent with facultymembers' desired emphasis. It is possible that the mostextensive discussions are found in fields where these skillstraditionally have been neglected. Journalism educators,for example, discuss communication competence in all arti-cles but in a different sense from the other fields.

Despite considerable general concern about the writingskills of today's college students, faculty in several profes-

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TABLE 8

INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE


Journal Articles

High


High


HighEngineering Journalism 92% Law 95%Pharmacy Education 77% Nursing 95%Business Law 76% Journalism 92%

Low Low LowSocial work Pharmacy 79%Library science Engineering 47% Architecture 77%Journalism Architecture 37% Library science 76%

sional fields are specifically concerned about other aspectsof communication. The health professions (medicine, nurs-ing, pharmacy, and dentistry) seem particularly concernedwith those interpersonal communication skills that helphealth professionals become empathetic and responsive tothe needs and feelings of their patients. Medical care maybe becoming more efficient, but it is not yet sufficientlypatient-centered (AAMC 1984; Comstock et al. 1982).Because the interaction between physician and patient pro-vides information for making clinical decisions as well asestablishing a physician-patient relationship, it is viewed ascritical for treatment and compliance (Stillman et al. 1983).For the medical or nursing student, the ability to obtain acomplete and accurate medical history is essential to a clin-ical diagnosis. Additionally, however, genuineness andnonpossessive warmth, in addition to empathy, are espe-cially important when dealing with patients (Streit-Forest1982). If longer-term studies confirm this relationship, thedevelopment of a capacity for empathy and otherpersonal-ity traits among medical students may be more activelyattempted.

Techniques currently used to develop the interpersonalcommunication skills of medical students include role play-ing, simulations of interviewing techniques, and videotap-ing actual cases of patient-staff interactions (Dickinson,

Responsive Projessional Education 37

52

Hue Is, and Murphy 1983). Developing interpersonal com-munication skills among nursing students may include aprogram to promote positive attitudes among the caregiv-ers of the elderly. Techniques in such a program includegame playing, trigger films, guided fantasies, and the use ofanalogy, with the intent to recognize self-feelings, becomeaware of misconceptions, and develop positive attitudestoward working with the elderlyand ultimately toimprove patient care.

In a field quite different from medicine, educators inlibrary science have special approaches to teach studentsto deal with disabled persons. The critical factor is educat-ing librarians to promote positive attitudes so that disabledpersons come alive as individuals of ability (Lucas 1983).Several courses stress library services to people who areblind and physically handicapped, mentally retarded, learn-ing disabled, or emotionally disabled. Learning approachesinclude simulations of disabilities, volunteer projects withdisabled or institutionalized people, and site visits to librar-ies in institutions.

Pharmacy also pays considerable attention to interper-sonal skills, possibly because pharmacists increasingly areinvolved in patient and physician contact. The 1975 reportof the Millis Commission, in its sweeping analysis of thestate of pharmacy and pharmacy education, cites the needfor pharmacists to become health educators (Lezberg andFedo 1980). The pharmacist's role is expanding, movingtoward a more service-oriented, clinical role; dispensingdrugs must incorporate communicating information aboutthe drugs to patients. Patients often do not comply withinstructions, and pharmacists therefore need to becomemore assertive and better able to communicate the impor-tance of their message. A systematic program of classroominstruction to reduce apprehension about communicationin pharmacy students is one example of an attempt to im-prove interpersonal relations (Berger and McCroskey 1982).Role playing and assertiveness training have been success-fully implemented as techniques to improve the communi-cation skills of pharmacy students (Kimberlin 1982).

Studies of dental students reveal their need for instruc-tion in diverse interpersonal areas, including communica-tion with staff, coping with patients' fears, humane collec-tion procedures, and reconciling patients' needs (Godwin

38

53

et al. 1981). Various techniques have been successful,including one-to-one feedback with dental students andtheir patients and videotaped simulations of interactionsbetween dentists and patients. Analysis of actual situationscan provide students with insight into both the patient andthe provider that appears unattainable by other techniques.

Educators and social workers are concerned with chang-ing and expanding roles in society. Teaching interpersonalskills to undergraduates in social work can be viewed asone effort within a larger thrust to identify and teach tech-nical skills (Tose land and Spielberg 1982). Without specifi..training in these helping skills, students remain at low lev-els of helpfulness.

Architecture, business, and engineering frequently trans-late interpersonal communication into the ability to workwith a team, but these professions are also concerned withwriting skills. Engineers are said to spend almost one-thirdof their time in some kind of writing, and the ability towrite effective letters, reports, memoranda, and proposalsis very important. Keeping journals is one way of incorpo-rating writing in an engineering course (Selfe and Arbabi1983); such journals give engineering students an opportu-nity to practice the communication skills that the fielddemands.

In accounting, faculty are concerned that students knowhow to conduct one-to-one sessions, how to make presen-tations to large and small groups, how to prepare presenta-tions for conferences, and how to write memos and sum-maries for executives. Benefits of this type of traininginclude the recognition of interpersonal interactions thatoccur in group activities (Coe 1983). Because the inabilityto communicate is often cited as the greatest deficiency injunior staff accountants, assertiveness training for accoun-tants is a technique that can improve interpersonal skills.Programs have been developed that integrate the teachingof effective writing skills with regular accounting courses(May and Arevalo 1983). Assignments resemble on-the-jobtechnical writing tasks a professional accountant mightencounter. In addition, role playing and internships withaccounting firms offer students experience in interpersonalcommunications. The Federation of Schools of Accountan-cy's first lyceum focused on the development of interper-sonal skills in a simulated professional setting. The pro-


5 4

gram was designed to help bridge thc transition from thcclassroom to the practice of accounting (Williams 1983).

The characteristic that is believed to make law a profes-sion, rather than a science or a technique, is its dealingwith people's problems rather than objects or objectivephenomena (Hunsaker 1980). Thus, law school curriculainvolve communication skills as well as cognitive skills andother types of competence. Interpersonal communicationskills offered in some law curricula include interviewing,counseling, negotiation, mediation, legal decision ;baking,and group processes.

Integrative CompetenceIntegrative competence is the ability to meld conceptual,contextual, technical, and interpersonal competence so asto make informed judgments about appropriate profes-sional strategies to be employed in practice. Integrativecompetence has also been defined as "professional judg-ment" (Anderson 1974), but among professional educators,the use of the word "integration" relates more closely tothe process by which this competence is acquired. Exhibit-ing integrative competence implies that a cognitive processhas occurred, employing capabilities such as reasoning,decision making, and problem solving acquired throughprior knowledge and experience. Such a process involvesnot only decisions about which strategy should beemployed but also decisions concerning issues of magni-tude like "how much" and "in what sequence." Althoughlittle is known about this process when specifically focusedon problems of professional practice, it may be assumedsimilar to other applications of problem solving. In general,educators and psychologists are concerned with developinga better understanding of such cognitive processes and

how they can be developed.A hallmark of university-level professional preparation

programs, one that distinguishes them from occupationalprograms in general, is the conscious attempt to integratetheory and practice. This challenge also differentiates col-lege or university professional study from the basic disci-plines concerned primarily with theoretical knowledge.Although the distinction may grow fuzzy at advanced lev-els in some fields (chemistry, for example), the profes-sional fields are clearly unique among departments in a uni-

40

55

versity in their responsibility to provide real or simulatedopportunities for integration to undergraduate or beginningprofessional students. Despite extensive experience inarranging such opportunities, in the judgment of some,"those looking to professional education as a model forintegrating careerism and vocational training with the moretraditional modes of undergraduate and graduate educationwill also find it wanting" (Nyre and Reilly 1979, p. 38).

One problem is that work experience is an important ele-ment in the perfection of integrative competence. Althoughtheir mastery may remain incomplete, students can bedirectly taught the necessary conceptual knowledge andtechnical skills through standard academic procedures. Butfactors such as judgment and problem-solving skill aremore difficult to nurture within the time constraints ofentry-level professional preparation programs. Professionaleducators expect new graduates to have begun to developintegrative competence, but they typically would not judgethem to have fully achieved this expertise, which may con-tinue to develop with professional maturity to the point ofmastery (Jarvis 1983).

After a career has begun, however, integrative compe-tence may be a crucial factor in distinguishing the merelycompetent professional from the acknowledged expert. Arecent study of practitioners in the fields of engineering,architecture, management, psychotherapy, and town plan-ning, for example, found that a kind of "reflection-in-action" characterized outstanding professional practice(Schon 1983). Others who have examined physicians'behavior in medical problem solving report that consider-able variability exists in the range of clinical reasoning andinquiry, qualities that are associated with integrative com-petence (Elstein, Shulman, and Sprafka 1978).

Given the importance of integrative competence, itsacquisition by students should be a significant and carefullydefined outcome of professional preparation programs.Yet, viewed as a competence, it presents dilemmas for pro-gram developers. More typically, integration is seen as a"process" rather than an outcome, fostered by providingstudents with opportunities for application in a clinical orfield setting intended to represent the real world of prac-tice. Such opportunities provide a connection between theworld of professional preparation and the world of the


56

professional practitioner that changes the student in usu-ally undocumented ways.

As field or clinical experiences provide opportunities forintegrative competence to develop, they also serve thefunction of socialization by providing mediated entry intothe world of work (Lortie 1975). During such experiences,students may recognize dichotomies that had not previ-ously come to their attention. To illustrate, students maynotice that faculty sometimes do not integrate their ownroles but separate their interests along dimensions of the-ory or practice. As integrative competence is fosteredunder the guidance of clinical faculty, students confrontissues of the relevance and utility of conceptual knowledgeas well as uncertainties faced by practitioners. Introducingsuch experiences into the curriculum means that studentsmust be provided with appropriate supervision to helpthem deal with these new and often perplexing observa-tions. Unquestionably, unusual academic burdens aresometimes placed upon clinical or field experiences and onstudents' abilities to cope.

In terms of the percentage ofjournal articles devoted tointegrative competence, education and engineering publishsuch articles relatively more frequently than other disci-plines, while architecture and social work are relativelyless likely to publish articles on this outcome (see table 9).In this survey, faculty members in nursing and social workbelieve integrative competence should be very highlyemphasized. Faculty in journalism, business, and law areleast likely to sponsor integrative activities, but even soover 80 percent of the faculty in these fields report someformal or informal educational activities.

Most of the literature about integrative competencefocuses on matters related to mediated work entry. Withthe exception of law and journalism, the professional prep-aration programs provide clinical and field experienceswithin the curriculum. In fields that provide clinical work,such matters as the extent of clinical experiences, the man-agement of activities, the appropriateness of practice set-tings, the roles of clinical faculty, the evaluation of stu-dents' performance, and the usefulness of real world simu-lation frequently are addressed. This discussion isorganized around two sets of fields: professional studies

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TABLE 9

INTEGRATIVE COMPETENCE


Journal Articles

High


High


HighEducation Nursing 76% Architecture 98%Engineering Social work 74% Social work 97%

Nursing 97%

Low Low LowArchitecture Business 51% Law 88%Social work Architecture 51% Journalism 86%

Law 50% Business 82%Engineering 44%

without institutionalized field experiences and those withsuch experiences.

Professional studies without institutionalized field experiencesThe literature in law and journalism reveals continuingdebate about whether field or clinical education should beformally incorporated into the curriculum (Condlin 1983;Garrison 1983). In law, such discussions about the need forclinical education reveal the theory/practice dichotomy inthe purpose of legal education (Hegland 1982). Some legaleducators believe that the training of practitioners is a sec-ondary function of law schools. Law faculty, they assert,should engage in legal scholarship rather than in teachingskills (Hegland 1982; Summers 1984), and clinical instruc-tors contribute little to legal scholarship (Leleiko 1979).Advocates of clinical legal education claim, however, thateducation based on traditional legal scholarship is sterileand far removed from the world of work, examining theo-retical issues rather than preparing students to be effectivepractitioners (Condlin 1983; Leleiko 1979; Snyman 1979;Summers 1984).

Traditionally, law students were expected to find a sum-mer clerkship for their clinical experience. Within the last10 years, however, many law schools have incorporated


58

clinical experiences into their curricula to the point wherethey are well entrenched and no longer marginal (Condlin1983). Advocates argue that clinical experiences exposefaculty and students to the daily operation of law, thusenhancing the objectives of both legal scholarship andpreparation. Yet one analyst claims that clinical law buildstoo narrowly on teaching "how to" skills at the expense ofunderlying theoretical foundations of lawyering (Vernon1983), contending that clinical legal education should bethe forum where the "how" and the "why" become inte-grated. The debate about the contribution of clinical legaleducation reflects ambiguity about educational purpose.The issue is sometimes couched in terms of whether lawschool should be a "liberal and liberating study" or aprofessional, technical endeavor (Stevens 1983).

Like law, journalism faces issues arising from the theory/practice dichotomy, with some editors claiming that prepa-ration programs are too theoretically based and lack suffi-cient exposure to the news environment (Fosdick 1979;Harvey 1982; Roosenraad and Wares 1983). Professionaljournalism educators, supported by the Accrediting Coun-cil on Education in Journalism and Mass Communication(which states that internships for credit may not accountfor more than 10 percent of the total hours in the majorfield), advance opinions that internships should be extra-curricular to the substantive program (Garrison 1983). Ineffect, traditional journalism educators seem to rely on thedevelopment of integrative competence following employ-ment, even though little attention is paid to such an out-come during the preparation program (Garrison 1983). Afew programs require a credit-based internship for gradua-tion where the grade may or may not be counted in com-puting the grade point average, and many provide non-credit experience in publishing student newspapers. Themajority, however, offer or encourage internships as a stu-dent's summer or extracurricular responsibility. As in law,advocates of a required credit-based internship suggest thatthe experience will introduce a healthy reality into prepara-tion programs and that students and professional educatorswill benefit (Fosdick 1979; Garrison 1983).

In recognition of wide debate concerning internships, theAccrediting Council on Education in Journalism and MassCommunication established an interim committee to pro-

44

5 9

duce guidelines and recommendations, yet the debate con-tinues. At the heart of the matter may be the fundamentalissue of the professional credibility of journalism educa-tion. Some educators, as well as some practitioners, do notview journalism as a professional study, claiming that itsskills are best acquired through on-the-job training follow-ing a liberal education. Such attitudes may foster reluc-tance on the part of professional journalism educators torecognize the possible value of field experience in the stu-dent's overall academic program. Perhaps this debate illus-trates the problems of lifting crafts from apprenticeship sta-tus and embedding them in the college or university set-ting. The issue becomes that of professional identity: Whatare journalists? What are lawyers? What is their role insociety? What education allows them to best fill the role?Should the nature of education be determined by practi-tioners?

Professional studies with institutionalized field experienceAlthough law and journalism debate the role of clinical andfield experiences in the professional program, professionaleducators in other areas seem to have resolved that issueand have incorporated such activities into the curriculum.In architecture, dentistry, education, engineering, libraryscience, medicine, nursing, pharmacy, and social work,some kind of mediated work entry forms an important ele-ment of professional preparation.

In addition to the dimensions of time and experience thatmust be considered in program development and imple-mentation is the factor that responsibility for instructionsometimes is shifted from the professional faculty to practi-tioners who act as clinical or field instructors. Confoundingrelationships between the two groups are perceived dis-crepancies in authority, remuneration, status, and attitudestoward preparation and practice. The literature about prac-tice settings and integrative competence addresses a num-ber of these factors in all of the fields.

In some health-related professions, such as dentistry,medicine, and nursing, internships and clinical experienceshave a long tradition and are widely accepted as a vitalcurricular element (Keen and Dear 1983; Schofield 1984).The literature in these areas is characterized by concernabout the evaluation of clinical performance competencies

Should thenature ofeducation bedetermined bypractitioners?


6 0

(Anderson and Botticelli 1981; AAMC 1984; Davidge,Davis, and Hall 1980; Lee 1979; Wigton 1980), the impactof the experience on personal and professional attitudes(Burgess 1980; Cassidy, Swee, and Stuart 1983; Cotanch1981; Dear and Keen 1982; Herman, Veloski, and Hojat1983; Kahn et al. 1981; Olson, Gres ley, and Heater 1984;Suess, Schweitzer, and Williams 1982), and how clinicalexperiences can foster clinical judgment (Bucher and Stell-ing 1977; del Bueno 1983; Elstein, Shulman, and Sprafka1978; McKenzie 1980; Mazzuca, Cohen, and Clark 1981;Suess, Schweitzer, and Williams 1982).

Although pharmacy is considered part of the health careservice continuum, pharmacy educators are discussing asomewhat different set of issues about integrative compe-tence. In part, this difference seems to grow out of uncer-tainty about the role of the pharmacist. As late as the1960s, pharmacists were prepared as technologists with afocus upon preparing and dispensing drugs. This role, how-ever, served a less important purpose as drug manufactur-ers began to prepare materials in various dosage forms(Vogt, Montagne, and Smith 1981). Consequently, phar-macy educators introduced the concept of clinical phar-macy education, which placed less emphasis on quantita-tive and physical skills and more emphasis on the medicalaspects of pharmacy.

Current programs are designed to permit pharmacists tomake clinical judgments about patients' treatment; thus,students take clerkships in surgery and other medical spe-cialties. These courses, supporting a medical orientation,were incorporated into the curriculum at the expense ofearlier foundations courses. Consequently, the currentscene reflects attempts to resolve the theory/practicedichotomy, with many suggestions about how to a-Lieverapport between basic and clinical faculty (Russo al.1983; Smith and Swintosky 1983).

A common characteristic of the education of teachersand social workers is a strong component of field experi-ence. In many teacher education programs, at least half ofthe professional coursework may occur in classroomobservation or in practice teaching. Similarly, mastci ofsocial work programs strongly emphasize practicums asimportant educational vehicles designed to provide medi-ated entry into the work world. Recognizing their impor-

46

61

tance, the literature in education and social work suggeststhat guidelines for students' expected performance needto be more clearly specified and integrative field experi-ences more effectively linked to other aspects of the prep-aration program (Alvermann 1981; Dwyer and Urbanowski1981; Hodges 1982; Judah 1979; Kettner 1979; Larsen andHepworth 1982; Simpher, deVoss, and Nott 1980).

In both education and social work, relationships amonguniversity or college faculty, professional practitioners,and clinical faculty represent areas of concern and uncer-tain expectancies (Applegate and Las ley 1982; Conte andLevy 1980; Frumkin 1980; Goodman 1983; Kilgore 1979;Kolevzon and Biggerstaff 1983). As in other professionalpreparation programs involving real-world experiences, forexample, the attitudes of the clinical or field faculty abouteducation and technique may differ widely from those heldby the piofessional faculty. Views are diverse aboutwhether such discrepancies weaken or strengthen the pro-gram (Alvermann 1981; Applegate and Las ley 1982; Conteand Levy 1980; Judah 1979; Kilgore 1979; Shur 1979;Zeichner and Tabachnick 1981).

Many teacher educators (and practitioners) argue thatthe amount of time given to practice teaching is far tooshort in relation to expectancies associated with the experi-ence and suggest increased amounts, including full-yearinternships (Kunkel and Dearmin 1981). The timing of suchactivities is also at issue, with suggestions that field con-tacts made early in the program are likely to enhance thevalue of the conceptual coursework (Denton 1982).

Engineering and architecture are both applied fields witha focus on creation and problem solving in the natural envi-ronment. Although some engineering skills can be appliedin class settings using a variety of simulalon devices (Nad-ler and Seireg 1982), many engineering educators advocatethe use of cooperative internships with employers as ameans of enhancing students' professional development(Houze and Simon 1981; Pierce and Birmingham 1981).

In a number of fields, modern technology may help tobridge the gap between theory and practice in a way thatpresents a compromise for proponents and adversaries offield experiences. Educators have proposed the use ofgames to simulate reality for students of architecture(Bender 1979; Bonta 1979; Sanoff 1979) and the use of


62

videotapes as a resource to supplement and extend clinicalexperiences (del Bueno 1983; Liu et al. 1980; Schoonoveret al. 1983). Perhaps outcomes of integrative activities canbe more easily defined and ensured by working within par-ticular domairs where students can find opportunities togradually understand practice settings. For example, onecould imagine progressive experience in three domains:laboratory or class versions of the real world, simulationsof the real world through technology, and practice in real-world settings. The 1970s saw universities accede to stu-dents' demands for more integrative experiences toincrease relevance and a real-world sense of becoming aprofessional (Nyre and Reilly 1979). Perhaps the 1990s willcombine advances in technology with new understandingsfrom cognitive psychology to produce new ways to struc-ture such activities and to ensure the development ofprofessional problem-solving skills.

Adaptive CompetenceAdaptive competence is the graduate's ability to adjust tonew conditions inherent in a rapidly changing technologicalsociety. Because professional practice is dynamic ratherthan static, adaptive competence implies a futuris'ic problem-solving orientation so that graduates can anticipate andprepare for changes that might affect their work. More spe-cifically, adaptive competence is the propensity to modify,alter, or change elements of professional practice orprofessional community; it is a capacity advocated as amechanism to ensure relevant and controlled professionalchange (Hughes et al. 1973). It may be viewed as an exten-sion of integrative competence.

Adaptive competence is a three-part process: (1) sensingand detecting changing conditions in the internal or exter-nal environment that affect practice; (2) acknowledging theneed to alter or adapt some mode of functioning; and (3)taking steps to initiate or accommodate the changesrequired, such as learning new skills (technical), embracingnew knowledge (conceptual), or, perhaps, refocusing prac-tice to meet new market demands (contextual). Thus,adaptive competence allows one to initiate or implementchanges either as an individual practitioner or in theprofessional community (Colson 1980).

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Discussion of adaptive competence in professional prep-aration incorporates two major themes: (1) those changesaffecting society that arc likely to change the qualities andskills needed in the profession; and (2) new modes ofteaching that use technology and thus are transmitted tostudents as new professionals.

Societal changes affecting professional practiceTechnological advance clearly has exerted intensive pres-sure on professional preparation. The strong influence oftechnology on professional preparation, either directly inthe classroom or indirectly through such ramifications asincreased costs, is evident in the literature of each profes-sional program. As changes occur in the workplace, educa-tional curricula and faculty attempt to keep pace with theadvances; in fact, journalism students must be prepared fornew technology even before its development (Adler andVandenBergh 1984). Many authors lament the slow pro-gression and adoption of technological innovation in thepreparation programs (C. Anderson 1983; Roepke 1982;Romney 1983; Ronald 1979; Schroeder, Cantor, and Kurth1981; Speedie 1980; Wallert 1982), and the Association ofAmerican Medical Colleges has recommended that itsmembers establish an organizational unit with specific con-cern for expanding technology (AAMC 1984).

In the area of societal and professional changes, onefocus is on use of technology for the practice of the future(Loe 1981), another on new specialty areas and new sys-tems for delivering services. Medicine is concerned withthe need for improved information management that assistsphysicians in scientific analysis of clinical issues (Baron-dess 1981). Library science educators question who theirservice recipients are and should be and how technologywill define this issue (Association of American LibrarySchools 1981). Pharmacists embrace changes in technologyand service delivery to expand their practice into suchareas as pharmacy psychology, behavioral pharmacy, andpublic health pharmacy (Bush and Johnson 1979; Dolinsky1979; Johnson and Wertheimer 1979). Social work educa-tors discuss the preparation program with respect to thechanging nature of public agency practice (Gibelman 1983).

Indeed, adaptive competence requires that educators inthe professions consider the ways in which students are


6 4

taught to cope with sweeping technological and societalchanges and the resulting complexity. Many authorsbelieve it can be accomplished by facilitating more versa-tile skills of scientific inquiry.

New modes of teachingSome professional educators stress the importance ofteaching real-world "solution finding"how to ask theright questions, gather the pertinent information, and pro-mulgate life-long learning (Nadler and Seireg 1982). Othersbelieve that liberal education is required to produce a ver-satile graduate able to deal with diversity and change(Hodges and Lichter 1980). Indeed, one can speculate thatan emphasis on adaptive competence might be a key tobridging the traditional gap between liberal studies and spe-cialized professional education. In architecture, for exam-ple, the teaching of history can help students better under-stand their professional heritage and envision potentialfuture scenarios (Creese 1980; Hubbard 1980). Dental stu-dents can be taught criteria for examining the reliability ofinformation and developing a healthy skepticism for dogmaand unfounded fad (Loe 1981). In education, writersespouse the need for "generative teachers who can takeany environment under any circumstances, with any bud-get, and work with any child," using internalized theories,a philosophical basis, innovation, and self-assessment (Jor-dan 1979, p. 14). Nursing educators, for example, faultprofessional education that consists of a body of contentevoking responses to a narrow range of clinical cues (Can-tor, Schroeder, and Kurth 1981). In essence, students andgraduates must be able to think about familiar problems inunfamiliar ways (Rango 1981).

Adaptive competence is also manifested in narratives innursing, pharmacy, architecture, dentistry, and social workthat describe and advocate improved communication andcollaboration among professional fields (Collier 1981; Cur-iel et al. 1979; Goyan 1981; Scott et al. 1983; Turnbull1982). Contrary to previous competitive modes, profes-sionals appear to be exploring interdisciplinary collabora-tion as a means to address multifaceted, complex prob-lems. In one team model, for example, multiple disciplineswork together in educational and practice settings to solveparticular dilemmas (May 1979). And, in an increasingly

50

small world, preparation for international involvement isassuming new importance in the curriculum as students invarious fields study languages, international relations, andgovernment (Knepler 1982; Wake land 1982).

The professions appear to be confronting substantialsocial changes and to be tugged by multiple forces, includ-ing changing knowledge and values, external demands ofsociety, and more aware, educated consumers (Bennett1984; Gessner, Katz, and Schimpfhauser 1981; Loe 1981;Meskin 1980; Porter 1979). In dealing with the complexitiesand dilemmas of practice, educators increasingly recognizethe need to help graduates develop more flexibility andproblem-solving capabilities. Thus, a frequently raisedissue is how professional preparation programs will pro-vide the education required for complex, multidimensionaltasks (Goodman 1981).

Although a large amount of literature on change pro-cesses appears relevant to the practicing professional,fewer articles in the educational journals directly discusshow to incorporate a sense of the need for future change aspart of students' professional preparation. Nursing, libraryscience, engineering, and business address this issue mostfrequently, law, dentistry, and journalism least frequently(see table 10). Interestingly, engineering and business fac-ulty see this competence as relatively unimportant for newprofessionals and cite few educational activities directed atits attainment.

The area of adaptive competence appears to be a fruitfulone for future consideration and study in professional edu-cation. Although a suLstantial need is apparent to developthis competcncy, few authors have addressed its multiplecomponents ot the educational practices designed to facili-tate its development for students. Much of the literaturethat represents adaptive competence focuses on specificelements such as the use of computers or interdisciplinarycollaboration. While descriptions of particular teachingmethods and some visionary rhetoric are evident, empiricalstudies examining any outcome akin to adaptive compe-tence are lacking.

SummaryAlthough authors devote most attention to competencesthat are field-specific, such as conceptual knowledge and


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TABLE 10

ADAPTIVE COMPETENCE

Relative Program HasProportion of Importance of Educational Activities

Journal Articles Professional Outcome to Achicve Outcome

High High HighNursing Library science 57% Nursing 72%Library science Nursing 52% Architecture 60%Engineering Social work 58%Business Library science 58%

Low Low LowDentistry Engineering 37% Business 34%Law Business 37% Pharmacy 30%Journalism Architecture 33% Engineering 29%

Law 27%

technical skills, all professional fields are concerned witheducating students about the context within which theirprofession is practiced and with the development of var-ious interpersonal communication skills. All fields exam-ined in this survey are actively debating the nature andfunction of experiences that assist students to integratetheory, practice, context, and interpersonal communica-tion skills. Much less discussion focuses on the necessityto adapt professional practice as society changes.

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PROFESSIONAL ATTITUDES

The six facets of professional competence described in theprevious section are based on reasonably distinct spheresof behavior and knowledge that influence profcssionalpractice. Although some overlap occurs among profes-sional competences, the notions professional educatorshave about them are reasonably clear. Explicit curricularexperiences are designed to teach most of the professionalcompetences, and in some areas procedures exist to testwhether graduates have achieved them.

The professional outcomes discussed in this section aremore elusive dimensions that are often considered to bepart of "becoming professional." Academic programs mayor may not consciously articulate these attitudinal objec-tives, and, frequently, no specific curricular experiencesare designed to achieve them. Rather, the development ofprofessional attitudes is part of a relatively informal sociali-zation process that may begin when the student decides topursue preprofessional or professional education and con-tinues through at least an early stage of his or her career.

On the average, professional attitudes are less frequentlydiscussed in professional journal literature than are profes-sional competences. Overall, slightly more than 10 percentof the articles reviewed for this monograph were devotedto professional attitudes. Although professional educatorsin the socially oriented and helping fields view these atti-tudes as quite important for graduates to possess, they arerated as much less important by the enterprising fields,such as engineering, business, architecture, and law. Ingeneral, these attitudescareer marketability, professionalidentity, professional ethics, scholarly concern forimprovement of the profession, and motivation for contin-ued learningreceive less emphasis in all professionalpreparation fields than the more widely recognized andmore readily measurable professional competences.

Career MarketabilityCareer marketability is defined here as a broad attitudinaloutcome, to distinguish it from job market forces that influ-ence professional preparation. The concept suggests thatgraduates not only can meet professional entry standardsbut also are competitive candidates for professional prac-tice and have an education that makes them reflectiveabout the future course of their own careers. This outcome

Thedevelopmentof professionalattitudes ispart of arelativelyinformalsocializationprocess.


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is, of course, related to job market factors, but it impliesadditionally a graduate's ability to realistically assess themarket, consciously develop knowledge and skills that aremost essential to a professional future, present his or hercredentials effectively, and plan ahead so that, as the mar-ket changes, opportunities will be enhanced rather thanrestricted. Because this responsibility is placed upon stu-dents rather than left to the winds of economic and socialchange, career marketability is classified as an attitude tobe nurtured rather than as a competence. For the profes-sional preparation program, nurturing such an attitudinaloutcome requires conscious assessment of and responsive-ness to the dynamics of the professional job market as wellas substantial program guidance for students. In rapidlychanging professional fields, the concept of career market-ability may overlap with that of adaptive competence.

Faculty were queried regarding the emphasic that shouldbe placed on achieving qualifications that exceed basicentry-level requirements to make graduates competitiveapplicants for positions. Faculty in most professional prep-aration programs think of career outcomes in fairly con-crete termsfor example, how many graduates pass thebar examination, how many obtain positions with presti-gious firms or agencies. Similarly, few articles in the litera-ture could be classified as discussions of "career marketa-bility" as defined here rather than as articles focused onjob supply and demand or obtaining an initial position. Per-haps the concept of marketability must be rephrased toencompass more clearly its dimensions for guidance.

One might expect the geatest concern with career guid-ance to be found in professional fields where the level ofsupply and demand is becoming problematic. A search ofthe literature does not confirm this expectation, however.The highest proportion of journal articles regarding careermarketability are in library science, medicine, and busi-ness. In this survey, nursing, social work, and journalismreported the highest ideal emphasis on this outcome, whilefaculty in education, nursing, and architecture most fre-quently reported particular educational activities designedto assist students in "being marketable" (see table II).

Some professional fields devote attention in journals tothe long-term career implications of changing qualificationsneeded by their graduates. Professional educators in

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TABLE II

CAREER MARKETABILITY


Journal ArticlesImportance of

Professional Outcome


High High HighLibrary science Nursing 59% Education 89%Medicine Social work 58% Nursing 85%Business Journalism 56% Architecture 82%

Low Low LowToo few articles Engineering 31% Law 53%to distinguish Architecture 26% Business 44%

Law 25% Journalism 41%

library science, for example, appear to be acutely aware ofthe importance of socialization in producing librarians whoare better equipped to face their constantly evolving workenvironment. Electronic technology is seen as the singlemost important influence on the library science curriculumas library education makes the transition to library andinformation science education. Thus, library science edu-cators are concerned that librarians of the 1980s are skilledin computer use as well as in cataloging and classification(Downing 1981). Because many library science graduatesare not working in libraries but in business and industry(Gleaves 1982), library educators are discussing whetherjoint or separate graduate programs provide better careerpotential for graduates (Marchant and Wilson 1983).

The need for graduates of teacher education programs tobe able to function in an expanding array of settings is par-ticularly obvious. The literature reflects the recent period(1979 to 1984) when as many as one-third to one-half ofnew education graduates accepted positions (sometimeseducation-related) outside traditional school settings.Under such circumstances, a change of emphasis inteacher education programs can provide graduates withmore choice upon graduation as well as open up new fieldsof inquiry (Brandt and Covert 1980).

New fields of emphasis also appear to be important inaccounting educationbut for different reasons. New


70

rules and regulations in accounting are so numerous thataccounting educators can barely keep pace (W. Anderson1983). Teaching techniques stemming from such changesinclude preparing students directly for professional exami-nations, using more fully professors' prior professionalexperiences, teaching communication skills, incorporatingcomputers in the classroom, and considering the problemof job supply and demand. New curricula focus on the stu-dent's career requirements, forcing faculty to examine theprobable careers students will pursue and to design coursesin the skills needed for those careers (Wilson 1982). Forexample, programs in personal financial planning are beingimplemented because job possibilities have increased dra-matically in that field (Higgins 1983). Accounting educatorsare initiating job counseling for students, requiring thatprofessors understand how to assess the market. Based onexperiences of graduates and surveys of prominentemployers, students are assisted in improving their presen-tation of themselves in seeking a job.

Based on belief that survival depends on the kinds ofskills graduates have acquired, articles in engineering jour-nals focus on the career survival of students after employ-ment. Engineering is concerned with the need for theUnited States to have competent engineers to competeinternationally. To help maintain and enhance the competi-tiveness of U.S. industries, engineering educators believethey need to continue to examine and evaluate the trade-offs and compromises in the curriculum between the newtechnology (software engineering, for example) and the tra-ditional skills on which industrial competitiveness stillstrongly depends (manufacturing processes and design, forexample) (Alic, Caldwell, and Miller 1982). Engineers needmore research skills and training in the real world beforeentering the job market (Alic, Caldwell, and Miller 1982),and preparing engineering students for consulting is becom-ing more common so that graduates can take advantage ofopportunities in this growing field, particularly in environ-mental systems and engineering technology (Manzo 1979).

Several professional fields are considering career guid-ance earlier in a student's educational program. For exam-ple, pharmacy educators recommend early identification ofinterests so that students are exposed to relevant researchand graduate opportunities (Brink 1982). Although dental

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educators do not devote, proportionately, a great deal ofattention to career marketability in journal articles, severalauthors express concern about dentistry's image in themarketplace, particularly with respect to the quality of stu-dent applicants for admission (Smith 1981), and some rec-ommend career counseling for dental students. Most dentalstudents are so busy meeting the demands of schooling thatthey have little time to explore the diverse opportunities inthe field or to plan their future. Dental schools have placedminimal attention on acquainting students with the largenumber and variety of activities that could enrich theirprofessional lives and allow a much needed change of pacefrom the daily routine of private practice. Career counsel-ing as part of the curriculum could help alleviate this prob-lem (Zucker, Selby, and Garbee 1980).

Social work educators seem to be developing strong stu-dent advising systems, including realistic appraisals of thejob market and techniques that students can use to assist incontinued career development once they are practitioners(Faver, Fox, and Shannon 1983). Social work educatorsare particularly concerned with sex equity in their field andemphasize new research and field placement opportunitiesto help broaden available career options for women.

Professional IdentityProfessional identity involves the degree to which gradu-ates integrate the profession's norms, competences, andvalues into a conception of role. The socialization processby which professionals come to acquire a sense of profes-sional identity is well documented in the sociological litera-ture. The emerging professional begins to test and acceptthe traditions and obligations that bind the professionalcommunity (Bucher and Stelling 1977). Eventually, a senseof professional self emerges that other members of theprofession share. The process is socialization and the out-come is professional identity.

Professional identity may not be independent of otheroutcomes but may in fact be positively correlated with asense of mastery of knowledge and skills in the profession(Green 1981). After a seven-year longitudinal study of den-tal students from predental courses through the first year ofpractice, researchers concluded that the outcomes ofprofessional socialization consist of knowledge, theories


72

and principles, technique (skills), ethics, professional Qui_ture, and career plans (Sheriock and Morris 1967). A studyof residents in psychiatry ard internal medicine and sin,.dcnts in biochemistry also described the outcomes ofprofessional identity, professional commitment, and careerplans as including attitude, knowledge, and skills (Bucherand Stelling 1977). In such a view, professional identityincludes all aspects of what is More broadly defined asprofessional competence.

Although theorists have described the abstract outcomesof professional socialization, the professional literaturedoes not clearly describe the sPecific outcome expectationsfor students. Rhetorical articles debate the need for a bet-ter developed sense of self and values through morehumanistic education (Hunsaker 1980; Weinstein 1982) ver-sus the need for "social-technical competence" to aecom .pany interpersonal competence (Rodenberger 1981),Rather than addressing specific outcomes for professionalidentity, much of the literature focuses on the process Ofsocialization.

The term "professional identity" is also used two.waysin the literature. It may refer not only to the professorialidentity of individual graduates but also to the identitY Ofthe profession itself. This dual use occurs particularlY inprofessional fields where practitioners st ive to achieve sta-tus, recognition, or improved compensation. Although thetwo affect each other, an individual practitioner need nOtbe an active crusader for professional status to have Inter-nalized professional identity as defined here.

As shown in table 12, the highest relative proportion ofarticles focusing on professional identity occurs in law,nursing, and pharmacy, the lowest proportions in libraryscience, dentistry, and journalism. In this survey, the con-trast among professional fields is quite sharp. The helPingand informing professions, particularly nursing, socialwork, and pharmacy, place strong emphasis on professional identity as an outcome of professional preparation,while the enterprising professions general! Y consider I ofmuch less importance. Nonetheless, even in business,which rated the importance of Professional identity quite

t

low, 65 percent of the faculty sampled cite some type ofeducational activity intended to address this competence.

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TABLE 12

PROFESSIONAL IDENTITY


Journal Articles

High


High

Pr Pgram HasEducational Activitiesto Achieve Outcome

HighLaw Nursing 65% Journalism 91%Nursing Social work 64% Social work 91%Pharmacy Pharmacy 56% Nursing 89%

Low Low LowLibrary science Business 16% Pharmacy 71%Dentistry Engineering 14% Law 71%Journalism Architecture 10% Business 65%

The reason why some fields so strongly espouse theimportance of developing professional identity and othersconsider it so much less important merits investigation.One theoretically attractive explanation is that strongprofessional emphasis should accompany consensus onprofessional knowledge and skills. The fields generally con-sidered to have least consensus, however, are precisely theones that appear to see professional identity as a veryimportant attitude to be nurtured among graduates. As hasbeen discussed with regard to conceptual competence,many professional fields with a shorter history, such aseducation, dentistry, journalism, nursing, and social work,appear to lack structured paradigms and consensus as tothe appropriate knowledge and skills required for practice(Frumkin 1979; Guidry 1979; Kilgore 1980; Lindley 1984;Matejski 1979; Mulvihill 1980; Roy 1979). A more reason-able explanation seems to be that professional identity isclosely related to the type of client provided service.

In addition, expanding specializations within profes-sional preparation programs seem to weaken professionalsocialization processes. Specialty group developmentimplies socialization into smaller subgroups within the gen-eral profession and may oppose the maintenance ofa holis-tic and internally consistent view of professional normsand practice. As mentioned earlier, many of the profes-


7 4

sions are discussing the need for expanded practice roles tocope with increased social complexities. Pharmacy, forexample, is examining future practice in public health(Bush and Johnson 1979), behavior pharmacy (Johnson andWertheimer 1979), and patient education (Fedder andBeardsley 1979). Other professions, such as dentistry andsocial work, are addressing whether graduates should beprepared as generalists, able to provide an array of ser-vices, or as specialists, able to provide in-depth services ina specific arca of thc field (Meskin 1980; Mulvihill 1980;Teigiser 1983).

The interaction of a profession and society also influt-

ences professional identity. Architecture, for example, isattempting to imbed itself in the social and political exp-ri-ences of the times (Littman, Mayo, and Burgess 1981).1 hequestion of the client base to be served influences theexpected outcomes of the development of professionalidentity. Writers question library science's image in thecommunity and wonder how its services should be directedand used (Benavides, Lynch, and Velasquez 1980; Associ-ation of American Library Schools 1981). Social workersponder the nature of their client base and question how 'ointegrate social work with clients' needs (Benavides,Lynch, and Velasquez 1980). As society changes, profes-sional identity is affected as professionals confront theneed to provide their services where the need exists.

Professional educators are interested in whether the per-sonalities of entrants are congruent with the "ideal profes-sional personality" (Cain et al. 1983). Consequently, someempirical studies have examined changes in students' atti-tudes and values throughout the course of study. Oneinvestigator found that few changes occurred in dental stu-dents' personality traits and values throughout the Puuca-tional process (Cain et al. 1983), but studies a attitudechanges among medical students suggest that they becomemore conservative and less concerned with p.itients'needs, reflecting a greater realism about their ability tohelp others (Leserman 1980). A comparison of physicians'attitudes toward the practice of pharmacy found physiciansto be more understanding and supportive of pharmaciststhan pharmacy students anticipated (Voris. Anderson, andKimberlin 1982).

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Different processes are used in assisting students toacquire a sense of professional identity. Most professionsemphasize the use of the practice setting as a mechanismfor developing identity. In medicine, the residency isviewed as the time when professional identification is con-solidated (Brent 1981). The practicum plays a parallel rolein nursing (Dear and Keen 1982; Olson, Gres ley, andHeater 1984). Educators in medicine, education, and nurs-ing address the anticipatory socialization of student:;, thatis, their ability to think about the role, imagine themselvesin it, and explore their beliefs and attitudes related to it(Cotanch 1981; Harvill 1981; Las ley 1980; Pataniczek andIsaacson 1981).

Although the practice setting appears to be the majormechanism for instilling professional identity, how itoccurs or what exactly is supposed to occur remainsunclear. Pharmacy students have more confidence and feelbetter prepared as professionals following an internshipthan before (Nuessle and Levine 1982). Despite such find-ings, some advocate that the process could be improved bythe better integration of attitudinal objectives with knowl-edge and skill objectives (Kahn et al. 1981).

In contrast with architecture, law, engineering,,and busi-ness, the helping professions (nursing, social work, medi-cine, pharmacy) attach far more importance to professionalidentity (see table 12) and more frequently seem to bestruggling for the better integration of attitudes and valuesinto their practice world. Even so, the specific outcomesrelated to professional identity are seldom identified in theliterature. Rather, it is assumed that professional identitywill be developed through practice.

Closely related to the issue of professional identity is theappropriate model for preparation in the various fields. Theself-examinations underway in nearly all professional fieldsquestion what models (including structure, curriculum vol-ume, and time frame) facilitate professional competence(Anderson, Kimberlin, and Hodsall 1979; Boatsman 1983;Kunkel and Dearmin 1981; Leighninger and Leighninger1980; Merrill 1980; Rodenberger 1981). As these broaderissues are resolved, the concepts of professional identitymay be clarified.

TM-ofessiona1 Ethicsearly every writer on professionalism discusses the need

for practitioners to internalize the code of ethics agreed

The self-examinationsunderway innearly allprofessionalfields questionwhat modelsfacilitateprofessionalcompetence.


76

upon by the profession. Existence of such a code, sponsor-ing and supporting professional norms, is considered oneof the hallmarks of professionalism. The code of ethics isbelieved to be isomorphic with a sense of social responsi-bility that enables the professional to apply moral judg-ments to prnfessional behaviors and decision making(Anderson 1970).

While advances in knowledge and technology haveextended or improved the quality of life for many, thesesame issues have raised complicated ethical questions towhich professionals and clients must respond. In additionto individualized choices the professional must make inpractice, the ethics of power exercised by professionalsacting as social collectives is an issue (Larson 1977). Someauthors suggest that, in contrast to the spirit of altruism orservice commonly attributed to professional status, profes-sionals are becoming exploiters rather than enablers insociety as they expend more effort in seeking rewardsrather than in expending services (Reeck 1982). As a con-sequence of these trends and complexities, interest in ethi-cal and moral issues has been revived in professionalfields. Concurrently, the teaching of ethics and valuesin professional study programs is assumed to deserve acentral place in curricular discussions in all fields (Calla-han 1977).

In spite of the discussions about the need for such con-tent (Engelhardt and Callahan 1980) and the apparent highvalue placed on professional ethics by educators in severalfields (see table 13), some studies suggest that most profes-sional schools offer little systematic coursework or contentin ethics. In this survey of professional educators, a veryhigh percentage of faculty in certain fields report activitiesto teach professional ethics, while other fields report fewactivities. Other data from the survey provide some clues.When asked to judge for their own field the truth of thestatement, "The professional field has reached consensuson standards of ethical conduct," 48 percent of profes-sional educators believe (to varying degrees) that consen-sus exists, 42 percent that it does not. Belief that consen-sus exists is strongest among professional faculty in socialwork (74 percent) and nursing (67 percent) but weakest inbusiness administration (27 percent), law (31 percent), andjournalism (33 percent). These results are congruent with

62

'YAK& 13

PROFESRONAL ETHICS


Journal Articles

High

Importaxic, ofProfessional Outt ;sue

High


HighNo data Social work 7 7% Law 91%

Nursing 'i ;% Nursing 89%Journalism 67% Social work 85%

Low Low LowNo data Business 44% Engineering 49%

Architecture O% Itarmacy 48%Engineering 38Vi) J3siness 43%

faculty views of how much attention prepatation programspay to ethics as an outcome. In business, engineering, andpharmacy, over 50 percent of faculty say ttHr programshave no activity designed to teach professional ethics.

The limited literature in professional education journalsaddresses the issue of ethics from two perspectives: (1)outcomesthe need for professional practitioners to con-front and act on major ethical dilemmas in their work; and(2) processesthe teaching of ethics, including moraldevelopment, methods, and content.

Ethics as an outcomeEthical behavior as a specifically defined outcome for theprofessionally prepared graduate is discussed only mini-mally, and descriptions of ethical outcomes for graduatesof professional preparation programs are often ambiguousand abstract (Howe and Jones 1984; Martin 1981). Writersin social work and law note the need for students toassume an ethical perspective in contemporary practice(Brooks 1981; Joseph and Conrad 1983). In medicine,recent recommendations focus on "ethical sensitivity"(AAMC 1984). Authors in engineering, business, and lawurge moral reasoning in problem solving (Fielder 1979;Willging and Dunn 1981; Wyer 1984), and nursing, law, andengineering educators describe achievement of moral


78

autonomy (Martin 1981; Munhall 1982; Richards 1981).Additional discussions involve familiarizing students withlegal as well as ethical issues in practice and differentiatingbetween them (Hamner, Scoggin, and White 1981; Jankovicand Green 1981) and guidelines concerning the use of humansubjects in professional research (Jenny 1980). Althoughone general expectation is that graduates will adhere totheir professional codes of ethics, fewer than 10 percentof graduates from professional programs have any workingknowledge of their professional codes (Reeck 1982).

Ethics as a processA few authors in the various professional fields emphasizethe teaching of ethics and debate the specific of contentand methodology (Andrews and Hutchinson 1981; Brooks1981; Hunt 1982; Odom 1982; Sal lady 1981). On the otherhand, a number of authors question whether or not theteaching of ethics actually results in any changes in stu-dents' behavior or perceptions, asserting that the socialenvironment and the nature of practice may have moreimportant effects on the development of values than theprofessional curriculum (Loupe, Meskin, and Mast 1979)and that little connection may exist between the nature ofthe relationship between ethics courses and actual respon-sible behaviors (Martin 1981). Some educators believe thatAudents already know the basic difference between rightand wrong and that programs should therefore teach tech-nical ethics or the critical evaluation of societal implica-tions and consequences (Brown 1983). Serious doubtapparently exists concerning whether hypothetical dilem-mas and texts really can help students deal later with real-life ethics and values (Sal lady 1981).

Some professional educators report attempts to test theoutcomes of particular educational programs. For example,studies in medicine and social work demonstrate that stu-dents taking discrete ethics courses show increased reflec-tiveness about moral and ethical issues, compared withstudents who have ethical content integrated in variouscourses (Joseph and Conrad 1983; Siegler, Rezler, andConnell 1982). Others advocate the use of values explora-tion (Cassidy, Swee, and Stuart 1983; Pignaturo andMcShane 1979), case studies (Mitchell 1981), and discus-sion of the need for independent decision making (Dirsmith

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1983). Although the interest and discussion of the need toinstill ethical competence in the professions are apparent,little is being explicitly described, implemented, or empiri-cally investigated in professional studies.

Scholarly Concern for ImprovementGraduates of professional programs who exhibit scholarlyconcern for improvement support the research necessaryto improve the profession's knowledge base and can adaptpractice to thnse new findings. Graduates who haveadopted this attitude are dynamic rather than static profes-sionals, are aware that professional practice is constantlychanging, and feel a sense of obligation to facilitate thatchange. Such an attitude implies the ability to use basicresearch skills and interpret the results and implications ofresearch for professional practice.

Among the professional educators surveyed (which didnot include medical and dental educators), this attitude isgiven the lowest emphasis of all the competences and atti-tudes among all preservice professional preparation pro-grams. Faculty members in nursing, social work, andlibrary science see this attitude as deserving higher empha-sis than do faculty members in law, business, and engineer-ing. The highest proportion of articles dealing with schol-arly concern for improvement is found in education, engi-neering, and dentistry (see table 14).

Although it may be considered less important than otherattitudes, most professions acknowledge in some way theimportance of transmitting scholarly concern to students atall levels of professional study. The literature indicatessome attempt to do so through preparation for basicresearch. Understanding the scientific method for the pur-poses of critical inquiry, data collection, data analysis, andinterpretation; development of inferences; and evaluationof practice issues are viewed as necessary parts of the edu-cational process (AAMC 1984; Downs and Robertson 1983;Fleming 1980; Loe 1981; Zahcrik 1984). For the most pe-t,students are not expected to be experts in the design aLdimplementation of rigorous research studies. Instead, it isanticipated that they wi" scientific method in dailypractice and demonstrat .ills in critically readingresearch studies.


60

TABLE 14

SCHOLARLY CONCERN FOR IMPROVING THEPROFESSION


Journal Artkles

High


High


HighDentistry Nursing 45% Nursing 92%Education Social work 36% Social work 78%Engineering Library science 34% Library science 72%

Low Low LowToo few Law 12% Education 33%articles Business 12% Business 31%to distinguish Engineering 12% Journalism 29%

Educators in many professional fields are concernedthat, although this professional attitude and its concomitantbase of skills are necessary and vital to professionalism, itsdevelopment is often little emphasized or encouraged. Cli-mates within the professional preparation programs tend tosupport teaching content and practice skills rather than theintegration of scholarly concern for improvement amongindividual students (Cramton 1982; Downs and Robertson1983; Fisher 1981). In some respects, this finding is surpris-ing in view of the history of professionalism that has thrustcertain fields of study into the college and university set-ting where inquiry is highly valued.

This paradox is partially explained by the segmentedapproach to research and scholarly development apparentin the professional education literature. On the one hand,some educators in nursing, law, medicine, education, andsocial work insist that research and scholarly awarenessare integral parts of professional practice and basic prepa-ration (Corrigan 1981; Cramton 1982; Lawson and Berle-man 1982; Riegelman, Povar, and Ott 1983; Rinke 1979).On the other hand, other discussion in dentistry, law, andmedicine focuses on research and scholarly concern as aseparate specialization and career track, even at the levelof basic preparation (Bickel and Morgan 1980; Leleiko

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81

1979; Santangelo 1981). While research study is sometimesrelegated to graduax-level programs, professionals inmany fields practice without pursuing additional formalstudy. The apparent polarity between generating and usingresearch continues to broaden the gap between researchand practice. A key issue in all the fields is how researchcould be integrated into courses focusing on content andtechnical skills. Some professional educators believe thatsuch integration should be part of every course (Castles1984), while others view research as the separate domainof the faculty and of little concern to preservice students(Allen 1983). Graduate professional programs believe thatthe foundation of scholarly concern is built in an appropri-ately intellectual liberal education preceding professionalpreparation (AAMC 1984).

Motivation for Continued LearningMotivation for continued learning is characterized by newgraduates' interest in their own professional developmentand commitment to enhancing and updating their knowl-edge and skills. Such enhancement may take place througha variety of mechanismsattending conferences, acquiringadvanced degrees, and reading professional literature, forexample. Inherent in an awareness that such learning activ-ities will be necessary as well as in a positive attitudetoward them is the recognition that the profession isdynamic rather than static and that the delivery of serviceschanges as new knowledge, skills, and technologiesbecome available.

Professionals' commitment to their own developmentand to maintaining currency in practice has long beenviewed as an integral component of professionalism (Houle1980). Not only do the professions expect members to keepabreast of new developments that improve the quality ofservices provided; clients expect professionals to monitorand adopt new practices that promote their investment inservice. Indeed, the strongest motivation for continuedlearning seems to be professionals' need to update practice,while motivators like approval by peers, mandated atten-c'T.~,ce, and social interaction are secondary (Houle 1980).

spite of the extensive literature that addresses motiva-tkir for continued learning for practitioners and graduates,the inculcation of this attitude at the basic professional


82

TABLE IS

MOTIVATION FOR CONTINUED LEARNING


Journal Ankles

High


High

Propyam HasEducational Activitiesto Achieve Outcome

HighPharmacy Nursing 67% Nursing 68%Law Pharmacy 597c Library science 64%Medicine Social work 56% Pharmacy 63%

1.0w Low LowTho few Architecture 37%articles Law 35% Architecture 43%to distinguish Business 35% Engineering 41%

Engineering 31% Business 38%

preparation level is documented or discussed very little.Occasionally, the need for incorporating the idea of contin-ued learning in the curriculum, for integrating it into asenior capstone-type course (American Dental Association1980; C. Anderson 1983), or for singling out for specialassistance those students who appear to lack inherent moti-vation (AAMC 1984) is referred to in general terms. Study-ing the emphasis on continued learning in pharmacy pro-grams, Walker and Lowenthal (1981) discovered that, al-though students agree it is important, only a very small per-centage have participated in any outside learning activity.

In the journal literature, pharmacy, law, and medicineshow the highest proportion of articles related to motiva-tion for continued learning (see table 15). In this survey offaculty, nursing, pharmacy, and social work educators ratethe importance of this outcome most highly, while facultyin architecture, law, business, and engineering rate it low-est. Nursing, library science, and pharmacy educatorsmost often note the existence of educational activitiesdesigned to achieve this outcome, whereas faculty in archi-tecture, engineering, and business report fewer such activi-ties. The contrast between these two groups in the extentof activities reported, however, is much less sharp than forsome of the other attitudinal outcomes.

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83

The apparent lack of emphasis on promoting continuedprofessional learning at the preservice level may be par-tially explained by the fact that continuing education isviewed as a practitioner's issue. Formalized continuedlearning is mandated for some professional fields, andprofessional norms make it the sina qua non in other fields.In some professions (business, for example), employers arelikely to bear the significant costs of continued learning ofprofessionals, while in others (education, for example),individual practitioners meet such costs wholly or partially.Participation in informal modes of continuing educationmay be deempliasized because it competes or conflictswith professional school program offerings that providecrucial program income. In fact, colleges and universitiesplace much more emphasis on obtaining advanced degreesthan on pursuing other types of continued learning (Walkerand Lowenthal 1981).

Herein lies the complexity of the issue of continuedlearning. Rather than focusing on continued learning as aprofessional attitude to be cultivated, continued learninghas come to be defined as a mechanism for quality control.Debate about mandatory versus voluntary learning hasbecome dominant despite research demonstrating thatprofessionals' inner standards of achievement are moreimportant than mandated continuing education in enhanc-ing knowledge and skills (Crabtree and Geiger 1983; Houle1980; Richards and Cohen 1980; Walker and Lowenthal1981). Clearly, important differences exist between thosefields that have externally imposed requirements for con-tinued learning (education for continuing certification,medicine for a certain number of continued educationhours) and those fields with no such requirements. Per-haps, too, some fields where preparation is already at thepost-baccalaureate level (law and dentistry) may feel thatthey have more time within the initial preparation programto prepare proficient, rather than merely competent, gradu-ates. In medicine, specific recommendations have beenmade to reduce the scheduled time for students and requiremore independent learning that may foster the habit ofindependent inquiry and professional development (AAMC1984). Certainly, the process by which motivation for con-tinued learning is transmitted to students within the profes-sions is an area ripe for further discussion and research.


84

SummaryThe journal literature devotes considerably less attentionto the attitudinal dimensions of education than to otherprofessional competences. Outcomes of professionalsocialization are believed most important in the helpingand informing professions and least important in the enter-prising fields, such as business, architecture, law, and engi-neering. As might be expected in preservice professionalpreparation programs, educators seem more immediatelyconcerned with developing professional identity than withstimulating among students longer-range attitudes, such asconcern for continued individual and collective profes-sional improvement.

70

SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS

Common Themes in Professional PreparationIn all fields of professional preparation, educators are re-examining the way they prepare graduates for entry intoprofessional practice. In several fields (architecture, jour-nalism, law, pharmacy, dentistry, medicine, and socialwork), one or two primary professional journals devoted toeducational issues provide a rich array of articles dealingwith the outcomes expected of professionals. Such journalsappear to provide a forum for faculty discussion aboutissues of professional education. In other fields (education,library science, nursing, and engineering), a number ofjournals, often based upon specialties within the generalfield, deal with different aspects of education. It appearsthat no more than 25 percent of the faculty in each fieldwould find a common forum for discussion of educationalconcerns. One field, business administration, appears tohave no published forum to address concerns of profes-sional education, although faculty keep up with societalinfluences and technical aspects of their field by readingsources like Business Week and The Wall Street Journal.

In discussing outcomes of professional preparation, edu-cators devote the bulk of their time to discussing the con-ceptual knowledge base that students should learn, thetechnical aspects of skill development, and the means ofintegrating concepts and skills through field experiences. Inthose fields of professional study commonly offered in afour-year undergraduate program, considerable concern isapparent about the problem of fitting all of the essential ordesirable experiences into four years. Such concisns areexacerbated by the responsiveness of the professionalpreparation programs to a changing society. Nearly all ofthe fields, but especially those providing health oL informa-tion services, show increased sensitivity to dealing withclients' diverse needs and to accompanying demands forskills in interpersonal communication. Communicationskills needed by new professionals clearly are judged toextend well beyond basic skills of reading and writing toinclude skills in group relations, a capacity for teamwork,empathy, and listening slells. Professional edurators aresensitive as well to the extensive changes that technologyis bringing in professional practice. These three majorissuesthe diversification of clients, a grow:ng conceptualknowledge base, and the, impact of technologyhave

Nearly all ofthe fields . . .

showincreasedsensitivity todealing withclients' diverseneeds and to

skills ininterpIrsonalcommunication.

Responsive Professional Education 718 IS

caused each field to engage in continual self-examination ofthe role and nature of professional preparation. Profes-sional preparation is struggling to keep abreast of changesthat already have significantly affected the competence thatgraduates must exhibit. Thus, educators seem to be devot-ing comparatively little attention or specific activities to"adaptive competence," that is, to explicitly calling stu-dents' attention to the need to think in advance about rapidfuture societal changes.

This review of educational literature in the professionsfound little evidence to support accusations that profes-sional educators are unconcerned about the supporting rolethat liberal education plays in the preparation of profes-sionals. In fact, while struggling with the problem of howmuch material can fit into the curriculum to meet the cur-rent demands of society and of employers for adequatelyprepared beginning professional workers, professional edu-cators are acutely conscious and concerned that studentsunderstand the context in which professional practiceoccurs. Such issues seem likely to receive more, ratherthan less, discussion in professional settings where diverseclients and technology exert heavy impacts. Concern existsas well about how the necessary contextual competenceshould be achieved. Except in those fields like law, wherestudents are already assumed to have completed a liberalarts education, professional educators show widespreaddiscontent about current methods of providing contextuallearning for students. This discontent is focused both onthe seeming detachment of liberal arts courses from thereal-world issues that professional graduates will face andon the contextual foundations courses offered within theprofessional study programs themselves. The challengeappears to be integration of liberal and professional studyin such a way that the student is assisted in making mean-ingful or relevant translations of contextual courses withpotential to undergird decisions in the practice setting.

As the student attempts to integrate conceptual knowl-edge, technical skills, and an awareness of the societal con-text in which professional practice occurs, professionaleducators focus on field experiences as a source of bothstrength and weakness in their programs. In two fields, lawand journalism, active debate concerns more systematic

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provision of integrative field experiences. In engineeringand architecture (and probably in business, although thelack ofjournal literature causes one to speculate), possibili-ties for simulated p ctice experiences (including labora-tory or studio work on practical problems) and cooperativework programs ,.urrently appear to satisfy the need forfield experience. In fields like education, nursing, socialwork, medicine, and dentistry, where field or clinical expe-riences are an established part of the educational program,attention focuses more closely on the design of that experi-ence, the assessment of its actual outcomes, and improvinglinks between field settings and supervisors. The balance oftheory and practice seems to be less an issue than how tointegrate the two.

A review of the literature in professional journals givesone the sense that socialization of students is somewhatless important than teaching them conceptual or technicalskills. For most professional programs, especially those inthe helping and informing fields, much of the socializationprocess is assumed to take place during field experience.Yet discussions focusing on the various attitudinal compe-tences that can be viewed as products of the socializationexperience lack clarity. Several structures of the educa-tional setting influence socialization: (1) the selection ofstudents, (2) the isolation of students from outside influ-ences, (3) the consistency of institutional or program goals,(4) the explicitness of values and role models, (5) the provi-sions of opportunities for practicing responst.s, and (6) theprovision of both positive and negative sanctions as feed-back to students (Bragg 1976, p. 14). Of these elements,the greatest attention seems to focus on provision ofopportunities for practice. Problem areas connected withplacing the major burden of professional attitude develop-ment on field experience include lack of consistency in pro-gram goals and lack of consistency in the feedback pro-vided to students. Relationships with supervising practi-tioners appear to need strengthening to model appropriatebehaviors for students. In this sense, debates aboutwhether professional ethics can be taught in the classroompale in relation to the seeming lack of consensus in somefields between and among educators and practitionersabout what ethical standards should be.


88

Usefulness of the Professional PreparationOutcome FrameworkDrawing on previous work concerned with professions andprofessional preparation, this work began with a frame-work that envisioned the outcomes of professional prepara-tion as being comprised of six aspects of competence andfive aspects of attitude. This framework served as a guidefor the examination of the professional education literature.Simultaneously, the authors were interested in determiningthe usefulness of the framework to facilitate discussions ofinstructional collaboration and assumed that such collabo-ration might be enhanced by examining dimensions ofpro-fessional preparation in more detail than the simple dichot-omy of "theory and practice," which tends to ignore theintegrative and socialization aspects of professional study.

By pilot testing a survey instrument, the authors foundthat faculty could distinguish the 11 professional prepara-tion outcomes when expressed in the form of competencestatements for graduates. This ability to see the outcomedimensions as distinct was sustained in a survey across 10professional fields, the details of which are forthcoming. Inreviewing literature, the authors were able to categorizereliably most articles as dealing primarily with one or twoof the outcomes. While the outcomes may be separable forsome purposes, however, the literature review clearlyshows that the outcomes are integrally linked in the think-ing of professional education faculty. Furthermore, mostprofessional fields have not articulated a relationshipbetween specific outcomes and specific educational activi-ties. For example, one type of educational activitythefield experience, clinical experience, or internshipcarriesmore than the burden of assisting the student to combineconceptual knowledge and technical skills. It also isassumed that during this experience the student will drawon contextual background, visualize the possible adapta-tions the profession may need to make to future societalchanges, and develop attitudes like a professional identity,professional ethics, and motivation to continue personaland professional development. Even so, those fields with-out systematic provisions for internships (law and journal-ism, for example) express concern that inappropriate useof these activities will weaken the preparation program andsteer it in the direction of trade education.

7489

Based on a lip:ralure review alone, the framework wouldneed to be rzconstructed to recognize more fully the over-laps and links aniong the various outcomes of professionalpreparation. Om could spec lite, for example, that forsome professional 6.elds the attitudes called "professionalidentity," "professional ethics," and "motivation for con-tinued learning" cannot exist separately from "integrativecompetence" because it is the integrative field experiencethat primarily nurtures such attitudes. Yet some educatorsin fields of professional study that do not incorporate afield experience as a regular part of the program wouldinsist that their students nonetheless develop the socializedattitudes to professional practice considered appropriate.In retrospect, the a titudinal outcome termed "career mar-ketability" may be better seen as a process, namely careerguidance. Such a process is receiving increasing attentionin some professional fields.

While common themes and trends have been uncoveredacross the professional study fields on which collaborationconceivably can be built, one can envision that overlaps ofthe different outcomes of professional preparation may bedistinctive for different fields. It is clear that the variousrelationships among outcomes for different fields maydepend highly upon other aspects of the environment inwhich professional preparation exists. Such factors associetal influences, university support and interrelation-ships, and internal differences in programs appear relatedto the amount of discussion about outcomes and the direc-tion that discussion may take at various times. Such issuesare worthy of further exploration.

Implications for Faculty, Administrators, and lir _earchersThe uniqueness of the conceptual knowledge base and theeven greater specificity of the technical skills taught in thevarious professional areas make these competence areasappear to be unfertile ground for beginning most discus-sions of collaboration across fields. Faculty membersacross professional programs may not be aware, however,that changing trends in society (to which they are respond-ing in conceptual, technical, and communication courses intheir programs) reflect new educational foci also relevantto their colleagues in quite different professional fields.Some opportunities for interdisciplinary teamwork among


professional fields and with liberal arts faculty in contex-tual areas are readily identified. To some extent, the con-cept of teamwork within the health professions has encom-passed such interdisciplinary efforts, but the collaborativenet could be stretched much more widely. An infinite num-ber of such opportunities exist, but this discussion is lim-ited to three such possibilities, in addition to the obviouspotential for collaboration in the arca of developing tech-nology.

The issue of paying more specific attention to diverseclients pervades all fields. To take one example only, allprofessional study fieldsfrom social work to architectureand businessrecognize the aging of the American popula-tion. Courses arc being introduced separately into eachprofessional study program to review the basic problemsthat face the elderly before dealing with specific profes-sional problems. It is not difficult to imagiliz the challengeand curricular coherence of an interdisciplinary course,perhaps called "Professional Challenges of an Aging Popu-lation," with a general core of concepts drawn from themedical, behavioral, and social sciences. Such a generalcore could be supplemented by discussion groups to focusissues for students in variou3 professional programs.Undoubtedly, such courses are already in developmentalstages, representing an alternative to liberal arts coursesconsidered too abstract by professional faculty.

While developing competence in interpersonal communi-cation, one can envision a similar interdisciplinary ventureamong virtually all professional fields and faculty membersin English or communications, where interviewing clientsbecomes an important professional skill The issue of whatone conveys to the client by various verbal and nonverbalgestures and by listening behaviors involves the enterpris-ing professions that wish to retain the confidence of fee-paying clients as well as the helping and informing profes-sions, where establishing empathy or rapport is essential toserving or treating clients.

Finally, and at a slightly different level, benefits wouldaccrue from discussion across professional preparationfields and with social and behavioral faculty from the artsand sciences about all aspects of student socialization.Despite the differences in settings, what can be learnedabout the development of simulated and real practice set-

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tings, the role modeling of desirable behavior, the provi-sion of feedback to students, and the establishment ofappropriate relationships with field supervisors? Such con-cerns about field experiences and their role in inculcatingattitudes considered desirable to advancement of theprofessional fields are pervasive, even in those fields whcrcintegration of theory and practice is left to students'initiative.

Administrators, of course, must develop some sense ofthe common threads to cultivate among professional fac-ulty a sense of freedom to experiment with collaborationthat may be educationally effective as well as cost effec-tive. Additionally, however, for the purposes of programreview and consolidation, administrators need to be awareand sympathetic to the particular struggles to improve theirprograms that professional faculty experience. One fre-quently hears speculative accusations directed at variousprofessional educators regarding the expansion of curricu-lar content. Engineering faculty, for example, sometimesare accused of seeking to deflect their students from con-textual courses in favor of technical preparation; concernsof education faculty for a five-year program have beenattributed to a quest for more credit hours (and ultimatelymaintenance of faculty positions) in a time of decliningenrollments. Such broad-scale accusations reflect a lack ofunderstanding of the struggles of faculty in professionalpreparation with the problem of curricular volume, theirdesire to build a sense of commitment to the professionalfield, and, most important, their concern for the completeand liberal education of professionals. For administratorsand the public to view these struggles as a sign of weak-ness or self-serving behavior is erroneous. As "a profes-sion is a sociocultural construct whose contours are con-stantly shifting . . ." (Geison 1983, p. 8), turbulence inprofessional education is in fact a sign of strength.

Administrators have a responsibility as well to listencarefully to professional educators when developing pro-gram review criteria so that they can select appropriatemeasures of quality. Examples of possible errors that couldresult from lack of discuson are particularly obvious inthe area of job placement statistics. As presently con-ceived, jouinalism educators are least likely of all theprofessional fields to consider their programs as prepara-

Administrators. must

develop somesense of thecommonthreads tocultivateamongprofessionalfaculty a senseof freedom toexperimentwithcollaboration.


92

tion for a specific vocation. Given the emphasis of theiraccrediting agency on restricting rather than expandingprofessional courses and the fact that many employersselect individuals without specific training for journalismpositions, it might be quite inappropriate to judge a journal-ism program by its record of plocing graduates in tradi-tional communication posts. Similarly, nursing attempts,more than most other fields, to pive undergraduate stu-dents a strong sense of what research can do to improvethe profession, provides many opportunities for specificcontinuing education, and has few programs for doctoral-level degrees. It would be patently unfair to judge a nursingprogram on the basis of how many students immediatelyenter graduate school. Adjusting program review criteria toreflect the varying needs and orientation of professionalfields is a time-consuming task requiring a sincere effort byadministrators and faculty review committees to under-stand a professional field different from their own. Givenits potential for relieving some current university tensions,however, it is a worthwhile effort.

As mentioned earlier, most of the articles concerning theoutcomes of professional preparation are exhortativerather than empirically based, which is surprising, becauseprofessional preparation is typically in a better pnsition todemonstrate that students achieve concrete outcomes thanare general or liberal education programs. A substantialnumber of followup studies of graduates, exploring nearlyevery dimension of competence and attitudes, have beenconducted in the health professions, particularly medicineand dentistry. One may assume that such active researchprograms are the result of federal support of evaluativeactivities within the context of various grants for medicaleducation.

The evaluation studies in the health professions, whichwould merit treatment in a separate research report, pro-vide a model that other professional fields have not fol-lowed. In most other fields, the studies were parochial andidiosyncratic and typically the effort of one or two inter-ested faculty members or a doctoral student.

The literature contains little evidence that professionalpreparation has accepted the challenge of defining studentoutcomes and designing research to verify their achieve-ment. Nor, would it seem, have college and university

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administrators been likely to fund research and develop-ment that would enable use of a common outcome and datacollection framework across professional fieldswithappropriate modifications for the special aspects of thatfield. Despite the fact that over 50 percent of college stu-dents generally are pursuing professional programs, mostdiscussions of outcomes, even in large universities, seemto focus on the outcomes of the first year or two of liberalor general education presumed to be common to all stu-dents. In professional preparation, few studies encompassbroad enough samples of students, graduates, or programsto begin to build models.

Professional schools may be assumed to pay more atten-tion to outcomes because of accreditation and licensing orcertification procedures. A review of the accreditationguidelines for the professional fields indicates that the out-comes discussed here are made explicit only in the field ofarchitecture (Hagerty and Stark 1986). This finding causesone to question the common assumption that accreditorsare rapidly introducing specifications or measures foroutcomes.

Articulation of the desired outcomes is a necessary pre-cursor to measurement. The framework used here for cate-gorizing educational outcomes has helped to clarify thatmany assumptions about the extent to which graduatespossess "desirable" outcomes are untested. The issue ofwhether educational processes assumed to foster the out-comes actually do so is even more ambiguous. Research isneeded to assess the major work being conducted in col-leges and universities, namely, the education of graduatesprepared for occupations commonly thought of as profes-sional. Several steps are necessary: (1) specification of thecorvetences and attitudes to be developed among profes-sior41 graduates, generally and specifically, for eachprofessional field; (2) assessment of the extent to whichgraduates achieve the outcomes; (3) identification of linksamong specific educational processes and specific out-comes; and (4) better understanding of the extent to whichthe outcome is actually useful and important in profes-sional practice.

Respgnsive Professional Education 79

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APPENDIX A

METHODOLOGY FOR THE STUDY

Review of Journal ArticlesProfessional preparation fields to examine were chosen largely onpragmatic grounds: The objective was to view 12 fields commonlyreferred to as "professional programs" offered at both public andprivate collegiate institutions, ft which relevant educationaljournals could be located at the researchers' university library.This pragmatic criterion eliminated such fields as theology (sel-dom offered at public universities) as well as agriculture and vet-erinary medicine (because library resources were not available).Fields such as art and music were not included because, althoughcareers in the arts certainly may be viewed as professional, theseprograms are seldom referred to on campuses as being among theprofessional programs.

An initial list of 30 journals potentially containing articles perti-nent to educational issues in the 12 fields was constructed byexamining the frequency of indexing in the ERIC data base andby consulting with professional colleagues and librarians. Mem-bers of the research team examined all of the potential journalsfor a particular field. Next, they defended to the team the ratio-nale for including one or two journals devoted to the educationalissues included in the broader theoretical framework guiding theresearch (see Stark et al. 1986). Twelve journals representing 11fields were selected for further study. For the field of businessadministration, the team located no currently publishedjournalthat devotes substantial space to educational issues but didreview occasional articles in the Journal of Accounting dealingwith issues broader than specific classroom procedures.

Using a decision tree coding scheme, four members of theresearch team coded all articles published during 1979 in theselected journals to represent their primary and secondarythrusts: professional preparation outcomes; external, internal, or"within university" influences; or specific curricular recommen-dations and studies. Within each of these general categories, theyalso coded articles for designated subcategories. Thus, for articlesdealing with outcomes, the coder selected one or more of 10professional outcomes discussed in this report. (At that time, thetheoretical framework grouped professional ethics and profes-sional identity as one category.) Based on recoding a randomselection of 30 articles by other members of the team, intercoderreliability was found to be over 90 percent. The need for revisionand clarification of some categories was noted and implemented.

Using the revised coding scheme, all articles in the same jour-nals published from January 1980 through December 1984 werethen coded. Because highly reliable coding was not essential tothe purpose of identifying issues and trends in professional prepa-


95

82

ration, individual members of the team exclusively read and clas-sified two or more related fields of professional preparation asclosely allied as possible to their own academic backgrounds(information-providing professions, helping professions, andenterprising professions). This procedure undoubtedly sacrificedobjectivity but allowed team members to become familiar withtermirology unique to the particular professions, to identifytrends and issues in potentially similar professional fields, and toconcentrate reading from other related sources in a few fields.The number of articles coded is shown in table A-1.

A computer sorting program was used to calculate frequenciesof articles' occurrence by professional field as well as the selec-tion of subsets of coded articles. The percent of articles dealingwith professional preparation outcomes and, more specifically,with professional competences and professional attitudes was cal-culated for each field. Despite early evidence of intercoder reli-ability, these percentages are not reported, lest they imply greaterprecision in classifying the articles than is warranted. Rather, theinterquartile deviation (semi-interquartile range) of the percent-ages of articles focusing on each professional preparation out-come was calculated (the deviation around the median percent-age). The tables :n this report show those professional fieldswhere the percent of articles devoted to an outcome was "high"(above the third quartile of percentages) or "low" (below the firstquartile of percentages).

Some outcomes of professional preparation (for example, tech-nical competence) showed substantial differences in the percent-a3e ofjournal articles devoted to the discussion in differentprofessional fields. Other cases showed little diversity, typicallybecause discussion of the outcome was not common in the jour-nals of any field. The interquartile deviations and percentageranges for each outcome of professional preparation are given intable A-2.

Following discussion of the coding results, team membersreturned to articles they had coded to annotate each article andclassify it as A (very important), B (important), C (some possiblevalue), or W (worthless), according to how directly it addressedone of the categories and subcategories in the theoretical frame-work of professional preparation. Articles classified as worthlesswere generally detailed, methodological, or technical articles (forexample, "how to prepare slides for a laboratory experiment,""how to evaluate student journals fairly"), articles that dealt withoutcomes of graduate, postservice, or continuing education (ex-cluded from the study by prior agreement), or articles reporting onprofessional preparation in countries other than the United States.

The principal investigator then reviewed the entire file of 2,933

96

TABLE A.1

ARTICLES REVIEWED BY FIELD'

Year of PablkationField 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 Total

Architecture 18 30 24 23 9 - 104Business administration'

26Dentistry 87 85 83 54 33 24 366Education54 56 57 47 48 20 282Engineering 50 47 31 36 23 6 193Journalism19 35 31 29 33 15 162Law17 15 30 27 24 9 122Library science27 13 14 16 16 4 90Medicine 76 158 142 155 142 46 719Nursing81 91 83 76 86 46 463Phannacy 43 50 59 44 55 - 241Social work38 38 16 31 26 16 165

Total

2,933

'It was possible for an article to be classified as dealing with both outcomes and some other topic, for example, influences of external forces onthe professional preparation field.

'A few pertinent articles from the Journal of Accounting Education were reviewed.

a

TABLE A-2

INTERQUARTILE DEVIATIONS AND PERCENT OFJOURNAL ARTICLES ACROSS ELEVEN FIELDS FOR EACH

PROFESSIONAL PREPARATION OUTCOME

QuartileDeviation

Range of Percentof Articles

MedianPercent

ofArticles

Professional Competences 8.5 10-62 26Conceptual competence 4.5 8-38 22

Technical competence 14.0 8-68 38

Contextual competence 6.5 1-50 17

Interpersonalcommunicationcompetence 4.5 1-35 14

Integrative competence 8.5 1-33 17

Adaptive competence 2.0 1-20 6

Professional Attitudes 2.0 0-25 9Career marketability 2.0 0-15 2

Professional identity' 4.0 5-35 12

Scholarly concern forimprovement 2.0 0-12 5

Motivation for continuedlearning 3.0 0-12 4

'Includes professional ethics.

bibliographic entries, including annotations and codewords, and,to be inclusive rather than exclusive, restored to the outcome filethose articles that might merit reexamination. In particular,restored articles focused on curricular studies and recommenda-tions that appeared to have potential to illuminate articles dealingmore explicitly with outcomes. The classification of articles atthis point is given in table A-3.

Subsequently, it became clear that the space limitations of thisreview would not allow even cursory treatment of all 986 poten-tially useful, outcome-related articles. The purposes of thisreview seemed best served by reviewing in detail only those arti-cles classified as A or B in terms of relevance to issues andtrends. Although the mview is based on those 660 articles, not allof them are cited in the discussion.

Survey DataData are reported representing faculty views of the ideal empha-sis on various professional outcomes and the extent to which

84

98

TABLE 1.3

ARTICLE CLASSIFICATION

Year of PublicationCategory 179 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 Total

Outcome Related

A 20 43 48 38 47 15 211B sit 105 91 66 71 32 449C 57 54 70 65 53 27 326W 93 118 93 86 57 23 470

Nonoutcome

Related 242 285 251 279 320 100 1,477

Total 496 605 553 534 548 197 2,933

their programs sponsor educational activities to achieve the out-comes. These data come from a 1985 survey of a national popula-tion of faculty in the 540 most comprehensive colleges and uni-versities that offer programs of professional study (Carnegie clas-sifications "research univerelties," "doctoral universities," and"comprehensive colleges and universities I"). Ten fields wereincluded in the study: architecture, business administration, edu-cation, engineering, journalism, law, graduate library science,nursing, pharmacy, and social work (bachelor's and master's pro-grams surveyed separately). Upon finishing this review, analysisof the full survey was not complete.

The sampling unit was the program, and the populationincluded 1,814 programs whose existence was confirmed by col-lege registrars after a mail inquiry and one followup. Although noprecise data base identifies all accredited and nonaccredited pro-grams in each field, it is estimated that this survey populationincluded approximately 76 percent of all existing programs in the10 fields (see table 3 in the text).

The survey sample was selected from separate sampling framesfor each field with programs stratified by Carnegie classification,type of control (public or independent), and expected enrollmentdecline in the state where the institution is located. For fields withfewer than 125 programs in the confirmed national population, allconfirmed programs were surveyed; for the more commonlyoffered programs, a 50 percent random sample was drawn fromeach stratification cell. Surveys were distributed through programadministrators (deans or department chairs), who were asked torespond to the survey and to request responses from faculty who,in their judgment, were most closely involved in and knowledge-able about the preservice professional preparation program. Thenumber of full-time faculty responses requested was proportionalto the annual number of program graduates supplied by the col-lege registrar. As student/faculty ratios varied dramatically withinfields, different ratios were used for different fields to result inapproximately 4.65 responses for the program of mean size ineach study field.

A total of 2,230 timely faculty responses from 732 programs in346 different colleges were obtained after two followups, repre-senting an overall response rate of 69.8 percent of the programsfrom which response was requested and of 46 percent of thedesired faculty sample. The program response rate varied from 56percent for architecture to over 95 percent for library science andsocial work. Faculty response rates varied from 31 percent forarchitecture to 62 percent in nursing and library science. Therespondent sample was unbiased with respect to the characteris-tics of the population surveyed and the stratification parameters(see table A-4).

86

1 0

ft?

TABLE AAIA

'a

SUMMARY OF SURVEY RESPONSES

oat,%%

ProgramsFaculty

Mean MeanProfessional

RespondingResponding

Institutional Number of

oiki Field

Enrollment Graduates

ti41

N % N %a

./1. Architecture36 56.3 90 30,8 18,490 89

ttla. Business administration

102 57.6 268 34.6 12,368 376

t2 Education

144 81,8 441 53,9 13,019 233Engineering

60 61.9 222 46,6 20,365 436

4Journalism

66 70.2 207 48.5 20,904 123Law

59 56.7 185 36,3 18,706 225Library science

43 95.6 145 62.2 23,069 61Nursing

96 85,0 356 62,5 14,857 98Pharmacy

31 73.8 96 50.8 21,491 94Social work-B.S.W.69 63.9 145 38.9 15,564 38Social work-M.S.W.26 993 62 49.2 22,838 116

Total732 69.8 2,217 46.1

Within the more extensive survey, faculty respondents were

asked to provide, on a seven-point Likert-type scale, their view

of the emphasis each of the professional outcomes ideally should

receive in their field. The fields with highest and lowest percent-

ages of faculty selecting a rating of "7" on the scale are reported

in tables 5 through 15 in the text. In a separate question, faculty

were asked to describe briefly specific formal or informal learning

experiences directed at various outcomes their program spon-

sored. The fields in which the highest and lowest percentages of

faculty reported such experiences are reported in tables 7 through

15 in the text.In the survey, faculty also were asked to name one or two jour-

nals a faculty member in that profession would be likely to read

to be informed about the field's educational practice issues

(teaching methods, cunticular emphasis, competencies expected

of new professionals, and so on). Although a tally of this question

was available only after the literature review was completed, the

data in table 4 show that for most fields the authors had correctly

identified the most widely read journals.A more complete report of the survey results is available from

the authors.

88 1 2

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Shuck, Peter H. 1983. "Organization Theory and the Teachingof Administrative Law." Journal of Legal Education 33 (1):13-32.

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108

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Specdie, Stuart M. 1980 "A Computer Literacy Course for Phar-macy Students." Anterkan Journal of Pharmaceutical Educa-tion 44 (2): 158-60.

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123

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125

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112

1 26

INDEX

A

Accountingcommunication skills, 39new fields/techniques, 55, 56

Accreditation guidelines, 79Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass

Communication, 44Adaptive competence, 48-52, 71Administrator role, 77Admissions criteria: medicine, 32Advanced degrees vs. continuing education, 69Aged (see Elderly clients)American Bar Association, 2American Pharmaceutical Association, 2Architecture

as enterprising profession, 7career marketability, 54clientele, 76competence as outcome, 19, 21, 28contextual competence, 31continuing education, 68creative skills, 30curricular criticism, 24field experiences, 45, 47, 73integrative competence, 42interpersonal communication skills, 39outcomes made explicit, 79judgment skills, 41professional attitudes, 53professional identity, 60, 61professional journals, 71teaching modes, 50

Art, 7Articulation: goals/outcomes, 1, 79Assertiveness training, 38, 39Association of American Medical Colleges, 2, 7, 49Attitudes

as desired outcome, 12, 22, 74"becoming professional," 53career marketability, 53-57caregivers, 38faculty views, 28liberal arts/professional education, 33motivation for continued learning, 67-69professional ethics, 61-65professional identity, 57-61


12 7

role of field experience, 46scholarly concern for improvement, 65-67student prerequisites, 26-27

Baccalaureate education: trends, 2Behavioral theory, 26Business administration

as enterprising profession, 7as professional field, 4, 5attitude toward research, 65career marketability, 54clientele, 76competence as outcome, 19, 21contextual competence, 31continuing education, 68graduate vs. undergraduate level, 6integrative competence, 42, 73interpersonal communication skills, 36, 39knowledge base, 20professional attitudes, 53professional ethics, 62, 63professional identity, 58, 61professional journals: absence of, 15, 71sense of need for future change, 51

Business Week, 71

Career guidance, 54, 56-57Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 5Certification examinations, 29Change: need for in future, 51Chemistry, 40Chiropody, 7Clerkships, 43Client diversity, 29, 35-36, 71, 76Clinical experience (see Field experience)Clinical reasoning, 41, 46Codes of ethics, 61-62, 63Cognitive skills, 27, 30Collaboration (see Interdisciplinary approach)Communication skills, 29, 36-40, 71, 76Community clients, 36Competence

adaptive, 48-51, 71as desired outcome, 12, 19, 74

114

128

conceptual, 19-27, 71contextual, 30-36integrative, 40-48, 75interpersonal communication, 36-40technical, 27-30, 71

Computer science: as professional field, 5, 7Conceptual competence, 19-27, 71Consulting, 56Contextual competence, 30-36Continuing education, 67-69, 75, 78Course value/role, 24-25Creative skills, 22, 30Critical thinking skills, 22Curriculum (see also Interdisciplinary approach)

content/length, 6continuing education component, 68electives, 35expansion, 76, 77field experience, 42internships for credit, 44research methodology component, 67social diversity, 35-36social environmental content, 34-35societal/technological changes, 49-50technical skills, 29theoretical foundations, 24-26

Decision making, 62Degrees granted, 7-10Dentistry

as first professional degree, 5as helping profession, 7attitude toward research, 65, 66career guidance, 57continuing education, 69curricular reform, 21field experience, 45, 73interpersonal communication skills, 37, 38literature availability, 14outcomes measurement, 78professional identity, 57, 58, 59, 60professional journals, 71sense of need for future change, 51student preparation/characteristics, 6, 60teaching modes, 50technical skills, 29


129

Disabled clients, 29, 36, 38Diversity

client, 29, 35-36, 71, 76professional study, Isocial, 35, 36

Education (see Teacher education)Elderly clients, 29, 36, 38, 76Elective courses, 35"Enablers," 7, 62Engineering

as enterprising profession, 7as professional field, 4attitude toward research, 65bachelor's degree, 33career survival, 56competence as outcome, 19, 21, 28contextual competence, 31, 32, 33continuing education, 68creative skills, 30curricular reform, 21, 77field experience, 45, 47, 73integrative competence, 42interpersonal communication skills, 36, 39judgment skills, 41knowledge base, 20professional attitudes, 53professional ethics, 63professional identity, 61professional journals, 71sense of need for future change, 51student development, 26-27

Enrollment trends, 1, 7-10Enterprising professions, 7, 58Entry-level characteristics, 22, 53, 54Environmental context, 30-36Ethics/ethics courses, 61-65, 73, 74, 75Ethnic group clients, 36Expectation variance, 19"Exploiters," 7, 62

Facultydevelopment, 35integrative competence, 42

116

130

views on outcomes emphasis, 16-17, 28Federation of Schools of Accounting, 39Field experience, 42, 43-48, 61, 71, 72, 73, 74, 76First professional degrees

definition, 5degrees granted, 9

Forestry, 7

Graduate follow-up studies, 78Graduate vs. undergraduate professional preparation, 6, 34

Handicapped (see Disabled clients)Health-related fields

as first professional degrees, 5interpersonal communication skills, 37client diversity, 71, 76

HEGIS (see Higher Education General Information Survey)Helping professions, 7, 58, 61Higher Education General Information Survey (HEGIS), 5, 10Historical approach, 24, 35, 50Humanities: contextual competence, 31, 32

1

Informing professions, 7, 58, 71Integration of theory and practice (see Theory and practice)Integrative competence, 40-48, 75Integrity in the College Curriculum, 3

Interdisciplinary approach, 25, 35, 50, 51, 75, 76International involvement/competitiveness, 51, 56Internships, 39, 44, 45, 47, 74Interpersonal competence

communication, 36-40skills, 2 )

Job counseling (see Career guidance)Journal of Education for Social Work, 15Journal of Medical Education, 15

Journalismas informing profession, 7as professional field, 4bachelor's degree, 33career marketability, 54competence as outcome, 19, 28


131

contextual competence, 31, 32creative skills, 30curricular status, 24, 34, 77, 78degrees granted, 10field experience, 43, 44, 72, 74integrative competence, 42interpersonal skills, 29, 36professional ethics, 62professional identity, 58, 59professional journals, 71sense of need for future change, 51student development goals, 27technological advances, 49

Journals in professions, 14-17, 71Judgment, 40, 41, 46, 62

K

Knowledge base (see Conceptual competence)

L

Lawas enterprising profession, 7as first professional degree, 5attitude toward research, 65, 66communication skills, 40competence as outcome, 19, 20, 28contextual competence, 31, 32continuing education, 68, 69curriculum/structure, 23field experience, 43-44, 72, 74integrative competence, 42interpersonal skills, 29professional attitudes, 53professional ethics, 62, 63profcssional identity, 58, 61professional journals, 71sense of need for future change, 51socialization, 27student preparation, 6

Legal education (see Law)Liberal arts

contextual competence, 31, 32-34cooperation/collaboration with professional studies, 1, 3, 72enrollment trends, 1foundation for scholarly concern, 67lack of focus criticism, 35

118

132

outcomes measurement, 78professional program inclusions, 5relationship to professional development, 7

Library Scienceas informing profession, 7attitude toward research, 65career marketability, 54competence as outcome, 19, 21, 28contextual competence, 31continuing education, 68curricular skills, 29field experience, 45graduate vs. undergraduate programs, 6interpersonal communication skills, 36, 38professional identity, 58, 60professional journals, 71sense of need for future change, 51socialization need, 55student development goals, 27technological impact, 49, 55

Licensing examinations, 29

M

Management: judgment skills, 41Marketability, 53-57, 75Medicine

as first professional degree, 5as helping profession, 7attitude toward research, 66career marketability, 54contextual competence, 32continuing education, 68, 69curriculum, 6, 7, 25faculty development, 35field experiences, 45, 73interpersonal communication skills, 37literature availability, 14, 20outcomes measurement, 78professional ethics, 63professional identity, 58, 61professional journals, 71student attitudes/development goals, 27, 60technological advances, 49

Millis Commission, 38Minority clients, 29, 36Music, 7


133

N

National Board of Medical Examiners, 25National Institute of Education (N1E), 1, 5National reports, 1, 3NIE (see National Institute of Education)Nursing

as helping profession, 7as professional field, 4attitude toward research, 65, 66bachelor's degree, 33career marketability, 54compuence as outcome, 19, 21, 28contextual competence, 31continuing education, 68, 78field experience, 45, 73integrative competence, 42interpersonal communication skills, 37professional ethics, 62, 63professional identity, 58, 59, 61professional journals, 71sense of need for future change, 51teaching modes, 50technical skills, 29

0Objectives of professions, 22Optometry, 7Osteopathy, 7Outcomes

ethics, 63-64faculty views on emphasis, 16-17focus, 1, 79framework for professional preparation, 74-75identification, 11-12, 13measurement of, 78reported in professional journals, 71

P

Patient relationship: training for, 37, 39Perry scheme, 26Personality as factor, 60Pharmacy

as first professional degree, 5as helping profession, 7competence as outcome, 19, 21, 28contextual competence, 31

120

134

continuing education, 68curricular expansion, 60field experience, 45integrative competence issues, 46interpersonal communication skills, 36, 37, 38professional ethics, 63professional identity, 58, 61professional journals, 14, 71program content/length, 6, 23role expansion, 38teaching modes, 50technical skills, 29technological advances, 49

Philosophical foundations' courses, 24Podiatry, 7Practice teaching, 46, 47Practice/theory integration (see Theory and practice)Practicums, 46, 61Practitioner roles, 26Premedical education: curricular changes, 6Problem-solving skills, 22, 41, 47, 48, 63Production professions. 7Professional development, 7, 67, 69, 74Professional education

cooperation/collaboration with liberal ar! 4, 32-34definition, 4-7, 17program selection frequency, 10-11

Professional identity, 45, 57-61, 70, 74, 75"Professional judgment", 40"Professional science", 19Programs

closure, 3length, 33, 34review, 3, 77, 78validity, 23

Psychomotor skills, 29Psychotherapy, 41Public health: as a discipline, 7Public relations, 7

Quality control via continuing education, 69

"Reflection-in-action," 41Religion, 7


135

Research, 7Research need appreciation, 65-67Residencies, 61Resources in Education, 13Retrenchment: relation to program cooperation, 3Role modeling, 77Role playing as training technique, 38, 39

Sciences, 7Scientific method appreciation, 65Self-study reports (professions), 2Service professions, 7Sex equity in social work, 57Simulation as training technique, 39, 47Skill development, 27-29Social diversity, 35-36Social science content, 25-26Social work

as professional field, 5as helping profession, 7attitude toward research, 65, 66bachelor's degree, 33career marketability, 54, 57clientele, 76competence as outcome, 19, 20, 21, 28contextual competence, 31continuing education, 68field experience, 45, 46, 47, 73graduate vs. undergraduate prcgrams, 6, 10, 34integrative competence, 42interpersonal communication skills, 36, 39professional ethics, 62, 63professional identity, 59, 60, 61professional journals, 71societal changes, 49teaching modes, 50technical skills, 29

Social/environmental content, 34, 60Socialization, 27, 42, 55, 57-61, 70, 73, 76Societal changes, 39, 49-50"Solution finding" approach, 50Specialty areas, 26Students

attitudes/values, 60career marketability, 53-54development, 26-27

122

136

prerequisite characteristics, 23. 26socialization, 27. 42. 55. 57-6l . 70. 73. 76writing skills. 36

Study Group on the Conditions of Excellence in American HigherEducation. I. 5

TTeacher education

as informing profession. 7as prokssional field. 5attitude toward research. 65, 66bachelor's degree. 33career marketability. 54competence as outcome. 19contextual competence, 31continuing education. 69cutTicular criticism. 24-25, 77expanding settings, 55field experience. 45, 46. 47. 73integrative competence, 42interpersonal communication skills. 39liberal arts coursework, 33-34professional identity, 59, 61professional journals. 14. 71program length. 6teaching modes. 50

Teaching modes. 50-51Technical competence, 27-30, 71Technology: impact on professions. 49-50, 51, 55Theology: as first professional degree, 5Theoretical foundations, 19. 24-26Theory and practice

as form of competence. 40dichotomy, 43. 44. 46. 74need for. 2technology use to fill pp, 47-48

Time factor. 33Town planning. 41

U

U.S. competitiveness in engineering, 56U.S. Department of Education: definition of professional. 5Undergraduate vs. graduate professional preparation. 6

V

Values. 22, 26. 60, 64Veterinary medicine, 7

Respontive Preicsiional Education123

137

Wall Street hatrnal, 71Women

equity in social work, 57service to, 36

Work experience (see also Field experience; Internships), 41Writing skills, 36, 39

124

138

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I. Post-tenure Faculty Evaluation: Threat or Opportunity?Christine M. Licata

2. Blue Ribbon Commissions and Higher Education: Changing Academefrom the Outside

Janet R. Johnson and Laurence R. Marcus

3. Responsive Professional Education: Balancing Outcomes andOpportunities

Joan S. Stark, Malcolm A. Lowther, and Bonnie M.K. Hagerty


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139

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Carol E. Floyd


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K. Patricia Cross and Anne-Marie McCartan

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3. Part-time Faculty: Higher Education at a CrossroadsJudith M. Gappa

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and UniversitiesBarbara B. Moran

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Harold E. Yuker


I. The Path to Excellence: Quality Assurance in Higher EducationLaurence R. Marcus, Anita 0. Leone, and Edward D. Goldberg

2. Faculty Recruitment, Retention, and Fair Employment: Obligations

and OpportunitiesJohn S. Waggaman

126

3. Meeting the Challenges: Developing Faculty CareersMichael C. T. Brookes and Katherine L. German

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Jean L. Preer

7. Public Service in Higher Education: Practices and PrioritiesPatricia H. Crosson

8. Academic Employment and Retrenchment: Judicial Review andAdministrative Action

Robert M. Hendrickson and Barbara A. Lee

9. Burnout: The New Academic DiseaseWinifred Albizu Melendez and Rafael M. de Guzman

10. Academic Workplace: New Demands, Heightened TensionsAnn E. Austin and Zelda F . Gamson


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Association for the Study of HigherEducationThe George Washington UniversityOne Dupont Circle, Suits IA Dept, E

Wohingtok D.C6 20031

Phone', (202) 2104511

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Association for the Study of Higher EducationOne Dupont Circle, Suite 630, Dept. E

Washington, DC 20036

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JOAN S. STARK is professor of higher and adult continuingeducation at The University of Michigan, a research fac-ulty member in the Center for the Study of Higher andPostsecondary Education, and director of the NationalCenter for Research to Improve Postsecondary Teachingand Learning. Originally a chemistry teacher, she has beendean of education at The University of Michigan, chair ofhigher education at Syracuse University, and associatedean at Goucher College. An author of several books andarticles, her current areas of research concern curricularissues in higher education, particularly comparative studiesof professional preparation and the integration of liberaland professional education. She is immediate past presi-dent of the Association for the Study of Higher Educationand a consulting editor for several higher education jour-nals.

MALCOLM A. LOWTHER is professor in the higher and adultcontinuing education, and curriculum, teaching, and psy-chological studies programs at The University of Michigan.He is also affiliated as a research associate with the Centerfor the Study of Higher and Postsecondary Education andthe National Center for Research to Improve Postsecond-ary Learning and Teaching and has served as chair of thecurriculum and instruction program and as assistant deanfor instruction. His recent journal articles and conferencepresentations have focused on professional career patternsand transitions, job satisfaction of professionals and per-sons in other occupations, and professional education pro-grams and faculty members.

BONNIE M. K. HAGERTY is an interdisciplinary doctoral can-didate in higher education and nursing at The University ofMichigan. She has held a variety of positions in nursingpractice, nursing education, and nursing administration.Her several publications include a book, PsychiatricMental Health Nursing. She is currently a research assis-tant at the Center for the Study of Higher and Postsecond-ary Education at The University of Michigan.

ISBNO-913317-30-6»*10.00

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