Places of RemembranceAntisemitic Legislation During the Third Reich

and its Relevance Today

Places of Remembrance Holocaust MemorialBerlin, Germany

Contents

I. Welcome 3II. Tips for Beginning a Unit on the Holocaust 4III. Guidelines for Teaching about the Holocaust 5IV. About Places of Remembrance (Orte des Erinnerens) 8V. Places of Remembrance Activity 10VI. Places of Remembrance Vocabulary 13VII. Follow-Up/Conclusion Conversation Starters 14VIII. Glossary of Holocaust Vocabulary 15IX. Anti-Jewish Decrees, Listed by Date 22X. Anti-Jewish Decrees, Printable Cards 25XI. Printable Years for Timeline 31XII.

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Dear Educator,

Thank you for using this educational resource, provided by the Oregon Jewish Museum and Center for Holocaust Education.

This packet contains an activity useful in teaching Holocaust history that is based on a Holocaust memorial called Places of Remembrance (Orte des Erinnerns) in the Schöneberg neighborhood of Berlin, Germany. This activity is specifically geared toward classes that seek to learn more about the legislative processes that legalized, normalized, and enforced discrimination, harm, and murder under the Third Reich. Studying these processes helps students understand that the violence of the Holocaust did not happen immediately after the Nazi rise to power, but rather was the consequence of the slow and incremental dehumanization of Jews and others, and their removal from German and German-occupied society.

Although this activity can be done in as little as one 50-minute period, it is recommended that the educator leave 90 minutes to allow time for student questions and discussion on laws as they are read aloud. (See p. 12 for how to differentiate for time.) This activity fits into Holocaust history and literature units, and is recommended to serve as an introduction for classes who are preparing for a trip to the Oregon Holocaust Memorial.

Everything you need to complete this activity is included in this packet. If you have any questions, please contact the Oregon Jewish Museum and Center for Holocaust Education’s Holocaust Educator at education@ojmche.org.

Sincerely,

Amanda SolomonManager of Museum and Holocaust Education

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Tips for Beginning a Unit on the Holocaust

Beginning a unit on Holocaust history can be overwhelming: there is a great deal of content, context, and numerous perspectives to consider in often a short period of time. The content is emotionally challenging and historically complex. To allow for both the greatest breadth and nuance in the classroom, it is important to introduce students to the fullest extent of this historical period as soon as possible. Creating a participatory timeline is a good way to encompass this history in a visually engaging way, as is a participatory map. Consider some of these tips to enhance the content you cover with students.

Create a Timeline

Historians agree that the Holocaust took place during the years 1933-1945, although tension in Germany was on the rise well before then. Start your unit by creating a timeline on an available wall in your classroom or school with these years. Print any laws, biographical dates, major events, photographs, journal entries, newspaper articles, artworks, or other items (some of which can be found in this packet) you come across in your unit. Ask students to add these to the timeline throughout the course of the unit. Consider asking students to add their thoughts, questions or artwork to the timeline as a response to historical content.

Use a Journal

Keep track of students’ questions, thoughts, and comprehension by asking them to write responses to classroom prompts (like ones found in this guide), reading summaries and reflections, and ongoing questions in journals. If time permits, create journals with students in the classroom. Consider pairing this activity with an introduction to Anne Frank, a young Holocaust victim whose journal provided much insight on the daily lives of eight people hiding from the Nazis for two years in Amsterdam. You may choose not to grade journals, to grade them as you see fit, or ask students to critically assess their own journaling at the end of the unit.

Make a Map

The Holocaust took place throughout Europe. With that being said, each village, city, and country experienced the war in its own unique way. Create a map of Europe, or use a ready-made map to post on a wall in your classroom. Identify the locations of major events, concentration and killing centers, individuals’ birth places, etc. on the map as you come across them in your unit. Allow comparative analysis of the map to prompt critical thinking about Holocaust history.

Read a Book

The Oregon Jewish Museum and Center for Holocaust Education has student literature, primary source compendia, books on pedagogy, and other options available for educators to lend. OJMCHE is currently developing curated book lists for middle school and high school classrooms. This resource will be available on our website for the 2019-2020 school year.

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Guidelines for Teaching about the Holocaust

The text that follows is adapted from the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, D.C.

Teaching Holocaust history demands a high level of sensitivity and keen awareness of the complexity of the subject matter. The following guidelines, while reflecting approaches appropriate for effective teaching in general, are particularly relevant to Holocaust education.

1. Define the term “Holocaust”The Holocaust was the systematic, bureaucratic, state-sponsored persecution and murder of approximately six million Jews by the Nazi regime and its collaborators. During the era of the Holocaust, German authorities also targeted other groups because of their perceived “racial inferiority”: Roma (Gypsies), the disabled, and some of the Slavic peoples (Poles, Russians, and others). Other groups were persecuted on political, ideological, and behavioral grounds, among them Communists, Socialists, Jehovah’s Witnesses, and gay men and women.

2. Do not teach or imply that the Holocaust was inevitable Just because a historical event took place, and it is documented in textbooks and on film, does not mean that it had to happen. This seemingly obvious concept is often overlooked by students and teachers alike. The Holocaust took place because individuals, groups, and nations made decisions to act or not to act. Focusing on those decisions leads to insights into history and human nature and can help your students to become better critical thinkers. At OJMCHE we learn about the Holocaust to study ourselves: toe examine our responsibility in an interconnected world where injustice persists on a grand scale. We study the Holocaust to examine our connected to each other.

3. Avoid simple answers to complex questionsThe history of the Holocaust raises difficult questions about human behavior and the context within which individual decisions are made. Be wary of simplification. Seek instead to convey the nuances of this history. Allow students to think about the many factors and events that contributed to the Holocaust and that often made decision making difficult and uncertain.

4. Strive for precision of languageAny study of the Holocaust touches upon nuances of human behavior. Because of the complexity of the history, there is a temptation to generalize and, thus, to distort the facts (e.g., “all concentration camps were killing centers” or “all Germans were collaborators”). Avoid this by helping your students clarify the information presented and encourage them to distinguish, for example, the differences between prejudice and discrimination, armed and spiritual resistance, direct and assumed orders, concentration camps and killing centers, and guilt and responsibility.

Words that describe human behavior often have multiple meanings. Resistance, for example, usually refers to a physical act of armed revolt. During the Holocaust, it also encompassed partisan activity; the smuggling of messages, food, and weapons; sabotage; and actual military engagement. Resistance may also be thought of as willful disobedience, such as continuing to practice religious and cultural traditions in defiance of the rules or creating fine art, music, and poetry inside ghettos and concentration camps. For many, simply maintaining the will to live in the face of abject brutality was an act of spiritual resistance.

Try to avoid stereotypical descriptions. Though all Jews were targeted for destruction by the Nazis, the experiences of all Jews were not the same. Remind your students that, although members of a group may share common experiences and beliefs, generalizations about them without benefit of modifying or 5

qualifying terms (e.g., “sometimes,” “usually,” “in many cases but not all”) tend to stereotype group behavior and distort historical reality. Thus, all Germans cannot be characterized as Nazis, nor should any nationality be reduced to a singular or one-dimensional description.

Be mindful and critical of the language you read and use as it may uphold perpetrator vocabulary. The terms exterminate or extermination implies killing bugs, insects, or a pestilent species. In this manner, the Nazis used the word to dehumanize Jews and convey their unworthiness of life.

5. Strive for balance in establishing whose perspective informs your study of the HolocaustMost students express empathy for victims of mass murder. However, it is not uncommon for students to assume that the victims may have done something to justify the actions against them and for students to thus place inappropriate blame on the victims themselves.

As with any topic, students should make careful distinctions about sources of information. Students should be encouraged to consider why a particular text was written, who wrote it, who the intended audience was, whether any biases were inherent in the information, whether any gaps occurred in discussion, whether omissions in certain passages were inadvertent or not, and how the information has been used to interpret various events. Because scholars often base their research on different bodies of information, varying interpretations of history can emerge. Consequently, all interpretations are subject to analytical evaluation. Strongly encourage your students to investigate carefully the origin and authorship of all material, particularly anything found on the Internet.

6. Avoid comparisons of painA study of the Holocaust should always highlight the different policies carried out by the Nazi regime toward various groups of people; however, these distinctions should not be presented as a basis for comparison of the level of suffering between those groups during the Holocaust. One cannot presume that the horror of an individual, family, or community destroyed by the Nazis was any greater than that experienced by victims of other genocides. Avoid generalizations that suggest exclusivity such as “The victims of the Holocaust suffered the most cruelty ever faced by a people in the history of humanity.”

7. Do not romanticize historyPeople who risked their lives to rescue victims of Nazi oppression provide useful, important, and compelling role models for students. But given that only a small fraction of non-Jews under Nazi occupation helped rescue Jews, an overemphasis on heroic actions in a unit on the Holocaust can result in an inaccurate and unbalanced account of the history. Similarly, in exposing students to the worst aspects of human nature as revealed in the history of the Holocaust, you run the risk of fostering cynicism in your students. Accuracy of fact, together with a balanced perspective on the history, must be a priority.

8. Contextualize the historyEvents of the Holocaust, and particularly how individuals and organizations behaved at that time, should be placed in historical context. The Holocaust must be studied in the context of European history as a whole to give students a perspective on the precedents and circumstances that may have contributed to it.

Similarly, the Holocaust should be studied within its contemporaneous context so students can begin to comprehend the circumstances that encouraged or discouraged particular actions or events. For example, when thinking about resistance, consider when and where an act took place; the immediate consequences of one’s actions to self and family; the degree of control the Nazis had on a country or local population; the cultural attitudes of particular native populations toward different victim groups historically; and the availability and risk of potential hiding places.6

Encourage your students not to categorize groups of people only on the basis of their experiences during the Holocaust; contextualization is critical so that victims are not perceived only as victims. By exposing students to some of the cultural contributions and achievements of 2,000 years of European Jewish life, for example, you help them to balance their perception of Jews as victims and to appreciate more fully the traumatic disruption in Jewish history caused by the Holocaust.

9. Translate statistics into peopleIn any study of the Holocaust, the sheer number of victims challenges easy comprehension. Show that individual people—grandparents, parents, and children—are behind the statistics and emphasize the diversity of personal experiences within the larger historical narrative. Precisely because they portray people in the fullness of their lives and not just as victims, first-person accounts and memoir literature add individual voices to a collective experience and help students make meaning out of the statistics.

10. Make responsible methodological choicesOne of the primary concerns of educators teaching the history of the Holocaust is how to present horrific, historical images in a sensitive and appropriate manner. Graphic material should be used judiciously and only to the extent necessary to achieve the lesson objective. Try to select images and texts that do not exploit the students’ emotional vulnerability or that might be construed as disrespectful to the victims themselves as many did not give consent for their photos to be taken. Do not skip any of the suggested topics because the visual images are too graphic; instead, use other approaches to address the material.

In studying complex human behavior, many teachers rely upon simulation exercises meant to help students “experience” unfamiliar situations. Even when great care is taken to prepare a class for such an activity, simulating experiences from the Holocaust remains pedagogically unsound. The activity may engage students, but they often forget the purpose of the lesson and, even worse, they are left with the impression that they now know what it was like to suffer or even to participate during the Holocaust. Additionally, asking students “What would you do?” or placing them in the “victim’s shoes” could trigger underlying or unknown trauma. It is best to draw upon numerous primary sources, provide survivor testimony, and refrain from simulation games that lead to a trivialization of the subject matter.

Furthermore, word scrambles, crossword puzzles, counting objects, model building, and other gimmicky exercises tend not to encourage critical analysis but lead instead to low-level types of thinking and, in the case of Holocaust curricula, trivialization of the history. If the effects of a particular activity, even when popular with you and your students, run counter to the rationale for studying the history, then that activity should not be used.

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About Places of Remembrance (Orte des Erinnerns)

This activity is based on a Holocaust Memorial called Places of Remembrance (Orte des Erinnerns in German) that was opened in the neighborhood of Schöneberg in Berlin, Germany, in 1993 and designed by two artists named Renata Stih and Frieder Schnock. The memorial consists of 80 signs hung on lamp posts throughout the neighborhood, each one spelling out laws and rules designed by the Nazi Regime against Jews, ranging from “Jews are not allowed to own pets” to “Jews can only buy food between 4 and 5 o’ clock.” The reverse of each sign features an icon the artists designed to represent the law. Some signs contain multiple decrees, or a statement from a Holocaust survivor or victim, totaling 95 decrees or quotes. Many of the signs are placed strategically in relationship to contemporary structures in the neighborhood; for example, a sign in front of a children’s playground reads, “Aryan and non-Aryan children are forbidden to play together.”

Places of Remembrance does not list all the decrees passed against Jews during the Holocaust. There were well over 400 laws passed against Jews in Germany and German-occupied lands, many from the years 1933-1939, a time period during the Holocaust and before the beginning of the Second World War.

Part of the neighborhood where this memorial stands is called the Bavarian Quarter. Before Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany, it was home to about 16,000 Jews. The area was sometimes referred to as Jewish Switzerland because it was home to many well-known Jewish intellectuals, doctors, businesspeople, lawyers, and artists. Albert Einstein is one of the most well known German Jews who lived in the Bavarian Quarter.

During the Holocaust, many Jews from the Bavarian Quarter were killed. Holocaust historians know the names of over 6,000 Jews from this neighborhood who were forcibly removed from their homes and/or murdered.

The artists who created this memorial wanted to remind people that the Holocaust did not happen immediately after the Nazis came to power. It took many small, discriminatory steps to turn millions of non-Jewish German citizens against Jews and to remove Jews from German society. Each decree was a small step leading to mass murder. Places of Remembrance has been called Berlin’s most unsettling memorial. 

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Jews are no longer allowed to have household pets.February 15, 1942

Places of Remembrance Activity

Oregon Standards Addressed6-8th grades6-8.RH.1 Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of primary and secondary sources.6-8.RH.2 Determine the central ideas or information of a primary or secondary source; provide an accurate summary of the source distinct from prior knowledge or opinions.6-8.RH.6 Identify aspects of a text that reveal an author’s point of view or purpose (e.g., loaded language, inclusion or avoidance of particular facts).6-8.RH.7 Integrate visual information (e.g., in charts, graphs, photographs, videos, or maps) with other information in print and digital texts.6-8.RH.8 Distinguish among fact, opinion, and reasoned judgment in a text.

9-10th grades9-10.RH.1 Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of primary and secondary sources, attending to such features as the date and origin of the information.9-10.RH.2 Determine the central ideas or information of a primary or secondary source; provide an accurate summary of how key events or ideas develop over the course of the text.9-10.RH.3  Analyze in detail a series of events described in a text; determine whether earlier events caused later ones or simply preceded them.9-10.RH.4 Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including vocabulary describing political, social, or economic aspects of history/social studies.9-10.RH.5 Analyze how a text uses structure to emphasize key points or advance an explanation or analysis.

11-12th grades11-12.RH.1 Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of primary and secondary sources, connecting insights gained from specific details to an understanding of the text as a whole.11-12.RH.3 Evaluate various explanations for actions or events and determine which explanation best accords with textual evidence, acknowledging where the text leaves matters uncertain.11-12.RH.4 Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including analyzing how an author uses and refines the meaning of a key term over the course of a text.11-12.RH.5 Analyze in detail how a complex primary source is structured, including how key sentences, paragraphs, and larger portions of the text contribute to the whole.11-12.RH.7 Integrate and evaluate multiple sources of information presented in diverse formats and media (e.g., visually, quantitatively, as well as in words) in order to address a question or solve a problem.11-12.RH.8 Evaluate an author’s premises, claims, and evidence by corroborating or challenging them with other information.

Themes of U.S. HistoryDefining Questions, Theme 4: The Changing Role of America the World- How have the interests, institutions, ideologies, individuals, power, and activities of the United States affected other nations?Period 7: Modern America and the World Wars Theme 1- What were key events in the Second World War (Rise of Nazism)?Period 7: Modern American and the World Wars Theme 2- Why were restrictive immigration policies enacted?  What groups were restricted? 

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Prerequisite Knowledge

Students should have a basic understanding of the definition of the Holocaust, the time period when the Holocaust took place, and major events that both led up to and characterized the Holocaust. They should have been introduced to the concept of anti-Jewish religious persecution prior to the Holocaust and to the concept of antisemitism, a manifestation of anti-Jewish persecution based on racial pseudoscience, which characterized Nazi ideology during the Holocaust.

Guiding Questions

What is the role of a law in society?

What is the process for enacting a law in the United States today? What was the process for enacting a law during the Third Reich?

How do people uphold laws?

What are steps people can take to challenge enacted or proposed laws?

How did the process of enacting a law in Germany change after the beginning of the Nazi Regime?

How did people involved in legislative and judicial processes gain and lose authority in Germany during the Third Reich?

What was the effect of anti-Jewish legislation on Jewish Germans during the Third Reich?

What was the effect of anti-Jewish legislation on non-Jewish Germans during the Third Reich?

What is the difference between fascism and democracy?

Materials 13 signs with years from 1933-1945 (found on p. 31, or you can make your own) posted around a

large roomo If you are using a participatory timeline in your classroom, you may choose to use this

timeline for the activity instead Decree cards (found on p. 25) printed and cut out so each card contains one decree Powerpoint Presentation Microphone for student use (optional) Volunteer, teaching assistant, or another teacher who can help students read

Activity

1. Print 13 signs with years from 1933-1945 (found on p. 31) or make your own (if you are using a participatory timeline in your classroom, you may choose to use this timeline for the activity instead).

2. Print decree cards (found of p. 25) and cut out so each card contains one decree.3. Briefly review/define the Holocaust (found on p. 17). Review key Holocaust history dates and

what characterizes them.11

4. Review the vocabulary words below. Focus especially on Enabling Act of 1933, the Nuremberg Race Laws, fascism, and democracy.

5. Place each sign with a year in chronological order around a large room. Randomly distribute all decree cards among students. It is okay if students have several cards. Students may remain in their seats, or gather in the center of the room. Help students locate the dates on cards, as they will be using them for the exercise.

6. Use the Powerpoint presentation to facilitate the lesson and assist students in understanding Hitler’s rise to power. Before turning to the slide that lists the 1933 laws, call out the year 1933 and instruct all those holding cards with a law from that year shall walk up to that year’s sign. Each student takes a turn reading his or her decree card out loud. Some educators have chosen to use a microphone so all students’ voices can be heard. It is advised that you ask for a volunteer, teaching assistant, or another teacher to help students read their cards. After all students have read their decree cards, facilitate a conversation around some of the prompts provided below. Repeat this for each year until you reach 1945, remembering to call out the year and have students read the decrees aloud prior to switching to the slide that lists the decrees for that year.

o Educators are encouraged to facilitate a conversation using some of the following prompts: How would this law have affected the lives of Jewish people in Germany? How would this law have affected the lives of non-Jewish people in Germany? Why was it important for the Nazi Regime to pass this law? Why were so many/so few laws passed during this year? What other events in Holocaust history took place during this year? What other world events took place during this year?

o Note: you may ask students to sit after their year(s) have been called. However, if you have enough students, it makes a dramatic impact to see that no student will be left in their seat by the end of the exercise.

o Note: If you only have 50 minutes for the workshop, it is recommended that you have students read aloud all the decrees first, then pass out the Anti-Jewish decrees listed by date (found on p.22), and conclude by facilitating a conversation using the prompts.

7. Engage students in concluding or follow up conversation to further process the information in this activity and make a connection to legislative processes in the U.S. today. You may wish to use the prompts on p.14 as a guide. If timing does not allow for an in-depth discussion, you may want to assign one of the prompts as a homework reflection or response.

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Places of Remembrance Vocabulary

You may wish to use the vocabulary matching worksheet found on p.14 as a guide. See additional Holocaust history vocabulary on p.16.

Aryan – Originally, a term for peoples speaking the languages of Europe and India. This term was twisted by Nazis, who claimed that traits of people with a Germanic background were examples of a “superior, Aryan race.” These traits included light skin, blonde hair, and blue eyes.

Civil Servant – A person employed by a government department or agency

Confiscate – To seize by the government or other authority

Democracy – A form of government in which the power is vested in the people and exercised by them through a system of representation by elected officials

Deportation - Forced removal of Jews from their homes in Nazi-occupied lands; under the pretense of resettlement, victims were sent to death and labor camps.

Emigrate – To leave one country or region to settle in another

Enabling Act of 1933 – An amendment to the German Constitution passed on March 24, 1933, stating that laws (including unconstitutional laws) may be enacted by Chancellor and Cabinet member Adolf Hitler, without approval of the president or the parliament. Also known as “The Law to Remedy the Distress of the People and the Reich.” This amendment passed in Germany’s parliament after those opposed to it were imprisoned in Nazi-controlled detention camps by members of the Nazi party.

Eugenics – A set of beliefs and practices that favors certain human traits over others, which encourages or forces those with favored traits to reproduce, and/or discourages or forcibly prevents those with undesired traits from reproducing

Fascism – A way of organizing a society in which a government ruled by a dictator controls the lives of the people and in which people are not allowed to disagree with the government

Immigrate – To settle in a country or region in which one was not born

Nuremberg Race Laws - Laws devised by the Third Reich from racial theories prevalent in Nazi ideology and announced at a Nazi Party rally in Nuremberg, Germany in 1935. This set of laws took away Jews’ citizenship in German and German-occupied places, and prohibited Jews from marrying or having relations with persons of “German or related blood.”

Oblige – To require, through a higher authority that is legal or moral, or through physical force

Pogrom - Organized violence against Jews, often with understood support of legal authorities

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Follow-Up/Conclusion Conversation Guide

What is the first thing you noticed or thought about when you heard these laws read out loud?

The Third Reich was considered a fascist government. The United States today is considered a democracy. Using what you have learned in this activity and your knowledge of these vocabulary words, why do you think this is? How do these systems differ? Are there any ways in which they are similar?

Name and discuss all the types/roles of people involved in passing and enforcing these decrees and their role in German society. Who was affected most by these laws? Who benefitted from these laws?

What was the purpose of the Nazis’ antisemitic laws?

Do any of these laws remind you of other events in history or in the present day?

What are some laws that have been passed in the United States or in your region/city/state recently? Who is most affected by these laws? Who benefits most from these laws?

Name and discuss all the types/roles of people involved in passing laws in the United States or your region/city/state today. Who is affected most by these laws? Who benefits from these laws?

What steps could you take if you knew lawmakers were considering passing a law you disagreed with today?

What steps could you take if lawmakers passed a law that was oppressive, discriminatory, or that you disagreed with today?

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Glossary of Holocaust Vocabulary

Allies Twenty-six nations led by Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union that joined in war against Nazi Germany, Italy, Japan, and their allies, known as the Axis powers.

Annex To take a piece of land into the territory of a different country or state, sometimes forcibly.

Anti-Jewish Decrees Laws passed beginning immediately after the Nazi Party’s rise to power in Germany through the end of the Second World War, which took away Jews’ political rights and economic viability, ostracized Jews from German society and dehumanized them, marking the beginning of the Holocaust.

Antisemitism* Expressed hostility to Jews as individuals, to Judaism as a religion, and to the Jewish people as a group. It manifests itself through social ostracism, economic boycotts, legislative restrictions, physical attacks, exile, and murder.

Aryan Originally, a term for peoples speaking the languages of Europe and India. This term was twisted by Nazis, who claimed that traits of people with a Germanic background were examples of a “superior,” “Aryan race.” These traits included blonde hair and blue eyes.

Auschwitz-BirkenauLargest Nazi camp, located 37 miles west of Cracow, Poland. Established in 1940 as a concentration camp, it included a killing center, at Birkenau, in 1942. Also part of the huge camp complex was I. G. Farben’s slave labor camp, known as Buna-Monowitz.

Belzec Nazi killing center in eastern Poland where an estimated 550,000 Jews were killed between March 1942 and December 1942. Earlier, Belzec functioned as a forced-labor camp.

Bergen-Belsen Located in northern Germany, transformed from a prisoner-exchange camp into a concentration camp in March 1944. Poor sanitary conditions, epidemics, and starvation led to deaths of thousands, including Anne and Margot Frank in March 1945.

Boycott To stop buying from a person or business in order to intentionally do economic harm.

Buchenwald Concentration camp in north-central Germany, established in July 1937. One of the largest concentration camps on German soil, with more than 130 satellite labor camps. It held many political prisoners. More than 65,000 of approximately 250,000 prisoners perished at Buchenwald.

Chancellor Chief (prime) minister of Germany, head of the government.

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Chelmno Nazi killing center in western Poland where at least 150,000 Jews, about 5,000 Roma, and several hundred Poles, as well as Soviet prisoners of war were killed between 1941 and March 1943 and between April and August 1944.

Collaborator Person and/or government that complied and worked with Nazi Germany to carry out the Holocaust.

Crematorium Ovens or furnaces where concentration camp inmates’ gassed bodies were burned to ashes.

Concentration Camps Prison camps constructed to hold Jews, Roma, political and religious opponents,

resisters, gay men and lesbians, and other Germans considered “enemies of the state,” where inmates were subjected to forced labor, extreme brutality, starvation, disease, and murder. Thousands of concentration camps were created across German-occupied Europe during the Second World War.

Dachau First concentration camp, established in March 1933 near Munich, Germany. At first, Dachau held only political opponents, but over time, more and more groups were imprisoned there. Thousands died at Dachau from starvation, maltreatment, and disease.

Death Marches Forced marches of concentration camp prisoners as the Nazis tried to keep ahead of the Allied forces; approximately one third of those in the death marches died as a result of either disease, starvation, overexposure to the elements, or being shot by their guards.

Deportation Forced removal of Jews from their homes in Nazi-occupied lands; under the pretense of resettlement, victims were sent to death centers and labor camps.

Discrimination Harmful and unequal treatment of a person because of a group they belong to

Displaced Person Term generally used for people who survived the concentration camps and were left homeless.

Einsatzgruppen Mobile units of SS and SD (Security Service) which followed German armies into the Soviet Union in June 1941. They were ordered to shoot all Jews, Communist leaders and Roma in newly-occupied territories. At least one million Jews were killed by Einsatzgruppen.

Emigrate To leave one country or region to settle in another.

Enabling Act of 1933 An amendment to the German Constitution passed on March 24, 1933, stating that laws (including unconstitutional laws) may be enacted by Chancellor and Cabinet member Adolf Hitler, without approval of the president or the parliament. Also known as “The Law to Remedy the Distress of the People and the Reich.” This amendment passed in Germany’s parliament after those opposed to it were imprisoned in Nazi-controlled detention camps by members of the Nazi party.

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Eugenics A set of beliefs and practices that favors certain human traits over others, which encourages or forces those with favored traits to reproduce, and/or discourages or forcibly prevents those with undesired traits from reproducing

Euthanasia A euphemistic term for the Nazis’ first mass systematic killing program, whose goal was to kill all mentally and physically disabled people living in Germany and German-occupied territories beginning in 1939. When the public and German clergy found out about the program, they demanded the Nazis’ cease in late 1941, however the program continued in greater secrecy and with the aid of death center facilities until the end of the Second World War. Historians estimate that the "Euthanasia" Program, in all its phases, claimed the lives of 200,000 individuals.

Evian Conference Conference organized by President Franklin Roosevelt and held Evian-les-Bains in France in 1939, to discuss the plight of Jews trying to escape the Nazi persecution; thirty-two nations were represented, but the conference did little to solve the problem.

Killing CenterNazi camps or centers, equipped with gassing facilities, for mass murder of Jews. Located in Poland at Auschwitz-Birkenau, Belzec, Chelmno, Majdanek, Sobibor, and Treblinka. Up to 2,700,000 Jews were murdered at these six centers, as were tens of thousands of Roma, Soviet prisoners of war, Poles, and others.

Final Solution Refers to “the final solution to the Jewish question in Europe.” Nazi code for physical destruction of European Jews.

Gas Chamber A unit or room frequently disguised as a shower, where ventilation was sealed so that death could be induced through the use of poison gas.

Genocide The deliberate and systematic destruction, in whole or in part, of a social, political, cultural or religious group.

Gestapo The secret police organization in Nazi Germany. The Gestapo used terror and torture to subjugate any opposition to the regime and to any of its policies.

Ghetto The walled-off or fenced section of a city to which Jews were restricted. This enabled governments to maintain strict control over all Jewish activities and effectively prevented any from evading Nazi round-ups. Ghettos became a stopping place before deportation to concentration camps and killing centers.

Holocaust (The)** The term refers to the systematic, planned annihilation of six million European Jews by the Nazis during World War II. Around five million non-Jews perished in the Holocaust. The word is derived from the Greek, meaning, “burnt offering.”

Inflation An increase in the amount of money in circulation that triggers a rise in the prices of goods, resulting in the loss of the value of the currency

Immigrate To settle in a country or region to which one is not native.

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Jehovah’s Witnesses Religious sect that originated in the United States and had about 20,000 members in Germany in 1933. Witnesses, whose religious beliefs did not allow them to swear allegiance to any worldly power, were persecuted as “enemies of the state.” About 10,000 Witnesses from Germany and other countries were imprisoned in concentration camps. Of these, about 2,500 died.

Jewish Council In German, Judenrat. Council of Jewish leaders established on Nazi orders in German-occupied towns and cities.

Juden German word for “Jews.”

Kapo A prisoner appointed by the Nazis to oversee labor details in the concentration camps.

Kristallnacht German for “Night of Broken Glass.” Nazi state-sponsored and government-mandated mob violence to destroy Jewish businesses, synagogues, and some private homes in all land under German control on the evening of November 9th-10th, 1938. Over 1,000 synagogues and 7,000 Jewish businesses were destroyed, 91 Jews were killed and about 30,000 were imprisoned in concentration camps where they endured forced labor, extreme brutality, starvation, disease, and murder.

Labor Camp A Nazi concentration camp predominately designed for slave labor.

Liberators Soldiers (mostly Allied) who freed the prisoners of the concentration and death camps.

Majdanek-Lublin Located near Lublin in eastern Poland, at first a labor camp for Poles and prisoner-of-war camps for Soviets, it existed as a concentration camp from April 1943 to July 1944. Tens of thousands perished there from starvation, maltreatment, and shootings. Also a killing center where at least 500,000 Jews were gassed.

Nazi Short term for National Socialist German Workers Party, a Right-wing, nationalistic, and antisemitic political party formed in 1919 and headed by Adolf Hitler from 1921 to 1945.

Nazism The political system in Germany from 1933-1945. It was a totalitarian dictatorship based on the use of political terror as the means of maintaining control.

Nuremberg Race LawsLaws devised by the government of Germany from racial theories prevalent in Nazi ideology and announced at a Nazi Party rally in Nuremberg, Germany in 1935. This set of laws took away Jews’ citizenship in German and German-occupied places, and prohibited Jews from marrying or having relations with persons of “German or related blood.”

Occupation Control of a country taken over by a foreign military power.

Partisans Members of a resistance group operating secretly within enemy lines, using hit-and-run guerilla tactics against occupying forces.

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Persecution Act of causing others to suffer, especially those who differ in background or lifestyle or hold different political or religious beliefs.

Pogrom Russian word for “devastation.” Organized violence against Jews, often with understood support of legal authorities.

Prejudice An attitude toward a person, group of people, or ideas formed without adequate information.

Processing Camp Persons that were considered fit for heavy physical work, but were not assigned to a particular work camp, were sent to a Processing camp for screening and for subsequent distribution to a concentration camp. Gross Rosen is a typical example of one of those processing camps.

Racism Practice of discrimination, segregation, persecution, and domination on the basis of race.

Reich German word for “empire.”

Reichstag Germany’s lawmaking body, its parliament.

Reichsmark Currency used in Germany from 1928 until 1948. The Reichsmark saw extreme inflation during the interwar period, causing unprecedented levels of poverty, unemployment, and political and social unrest

Resistance Opposition to Nazi policies and activities in any of the following forms: armed fighting, aid and rescue of Nazi victims, covert actions by slave laborers to damage Nazi armaments and goods, and attempts to preserve spiritual and communal life under totalitarian Nazi oppression. (See also Partisans.)

Righteous Among the NationsThe term used for non-Jews who risked their lives to save Jews from Nazi persecution without monetary reward. A permanent memorial has been declared by the Israeli Government to honor non-Jews who saved Jews during the Holocaust and is located in Jerusalem at the Yad Vashem, the World Documentation Center for the Holocaust.

Roma and Sinti*** Also referred to as the Romani people or Gypsies, Roma are any of several traditionally traveling clan-based groups whose migratory origins are thought to have stemmed from Northern India. Today Romani people live in many parts of the world including Asia, Europe, North and South America. The Sinti are a distinct Romani people with a unique spoken dialect who traditionally lived in Central European regions that were particularly affected by Nazi control.

Roosevelt, Franklin(1882-1945) Thirty-second president of the United States, serving from 1933-1945

SA In German, Sturmabteilung. Storm troopers. Also called “Brownshirts.” Members of a special armed and uniformed branch of the Nazi party.

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Scapegoat A person, group, or thing that bears false blame for the mistakes or crimes of others. Jews have been scapegoats throughout history. Hitler blamed the Jews for the defeat of World War I and the post-war troubles in Germany.

Shtetl A small Jewish village in Poland.

Sobibor Nazi killing center in eastern Poland where up to 200,000 Jews were killed between May 1942 and November 1943.

Sonderkommando A German word for “special squad.” In the context of killing centers, it refers to units of Jewish prisoners forced to take away bodies of gassed inmates to be cremated and to remove gold fillings and hair.

SS In German, Schutzstaffel. A protection squad with units formed in 1925 as Adolf Hitler’s personal bodyguard. After the Nazi Party’s rise to power the SS was built into a giant organization that provided staff for police, camp guards, and military units serving with the German army.

St. Louis A ship carrying Jewish refugees to Cuba and the United States in June 1939; denied safe harbor, it eventually was forced back to Europe where many of its passengers met their deaths.

Star of David Star with six points, symbol of the Jewish religion.

Stereotype A reputation for an entire group of people based on few distorted characteristics

Swastika An ancient symbol, often used as an ornament or religious sign by Buddhists, Celtics, Greeks, and North and South American Indians. It is the form of a cross with the ends of the arms bent at the right angles in a given direction, usually clockwise. In 1920 it was adopted as the symbol of the National Socialist Party of Germany and came to stand for all the evils associated with the Nazis. It is now banned in Germany.

Synagogue A sanctuary where Jews assemble to worship. The building is also used for educational purposes and social gatherings.

Theresienstadt Nazi ghetto located in Czechoslovakia; frequently called a “Model Ghetto” to show the outside world, including the Red Cross, how well the Jews were being treated; prisoners were kept here briefly before being transported to the death camps.

Third Reich Official name of the Nazi regime; ruled from 1933 to 1945 under the command of Adolf Hitler.

Town Square A plaza or gathering place in the central area of a town (especially in Europe), designed to be a hub of commerce, social interaction, transportation, news and information.

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Treblinka Nazi killing center about 50 miles northeast of Warsaw. Up to 750,000 Jews and at least 2,000 Roma were killed at Treblinka between July 1942 and November 1943.

Underground Organized group acting in secrecy to oppose the government or, during war, to resist occupying enemy forces.

Weimar Republic German Republic (1919-1933), a parliamentary democracy, established after World War I, with its capital in the city of Weimar.

Yiddish A language that combines elements of German and Hebrew, usually written in Hebrew characters and spoken by Jews chiefly in eastern Europe and areas to which eastern Europeans have migrated.

* The term antisemitism is used instead of the hyphenated anti-Semitism because the word antisemitism was invented solely to describe attitudes toward Jews, and not in reference to the Semitic linguistic group. The word antisemitism was first used in the 1870s by the German thinker Friedrich Wilhelm Adolph Marr in his description of anti-Jewish sentiments that were popular at the time. This word quickly gained popularity in many languages because prejudice toward Jews was so pervasive. This word, Antisemitismus in German, never referred to Middle Eastern tribes that make up language group called Semites, but rather to European Jews.

** The Hebrew word Shoah (translated to mean “destruction”) is used by Jews to describe the Jewish experience during the Holocaust.

*** Romani activists use various Roma words to name their experience in the Second World War. Sometimes it is known as the Porajmos (the "Devouring"), Samudaripen ("Mass Killing"), Kalis Tras ("Black Fear") or as the Bersa Bibahtale ("Years of Misfortune"). Descendants of some Roma families living in the Pacific Northwest today include the clan names of Bashaldey, the Boyash, the Kalderasha, the Machwaya, the Romanichal, and the Sa Roma, among others. 

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Anti-Jewish Decrees, Listed by Date

Date Decree

March 18, 1933Jewish lawyers and notaries may no longer have legal responsibilities concerning the City of Berlin.

March 31, 1933 Jewish judges are suspended.

March 31, 1933Costs for treatment by a Jewish doctor after April 1, 1933 will not be reimbursed by the City of Berlin's public insurance company.

April 1, 1933All local government offices in Berlin must immediately suspend Jewish teachers in public schools.

April 7, 1933 Jewish civil servants may no longer serve the State.April 25, 1933 Jews are excluded from sports groups.

June 28, 1933

Only films which have been created in Germany solely by German citizens, who are of German descent, can be acknowledged as a German film.

July 9, 1933 Jewish members of the Greater German Chess Association are expelled.August 16, 1933 Jews are expelled from all choral groups.August 22, 1933 Jews may not use the public beach at Wannsee Lake

September 13, 1933The subjects "Genetic Heredity" and "Race" are examination fields at all schools.

October 1, 1933Jews are not permitted to join the newly-founded Collective German Automobile Club.

March 5, 1934 Employment ban for Jewish actors and actresses.

The year 1935Jewish art and antique dealers are not allowed to practice their profession. Their businesses must be closed within four weeks.

March 1, 1935 Jewish authors are forbidden from all literacy activities in Germany.March 31, 1935 Employment ban for all Jewish musicians.

July 10, 1935Excursions by Jewish youth groups of more than 20 people are forbidden.

September 15, 1935

Citizens of German descent and Jews who enter marriages or extra-marital affairs with members of the other group will be imprisoned. As of today, mixed marriages are not valid.

The year 1936Antisemitic signs in Berlin are being temporarily removed for the 1936 Olympic Games.

January 29, 1936

To avoid giving foreign visitors a negative impression, signs with strong language will be removed. Signs, such as "Jews are unwanted here" will suffice.

April 3, 1936 Jewish veterinarians may not open practices.

April 15, 1936Journalists must prove their and their spouse's Aryan descent as far back as the year 1800.

October 4, 1936Baptism and the conversion of Jews to Christianity have no bearing on the issue of race.

April 15, 1937 Jews may not receive academic degrees.June 8, 1937 Post Office officials married to Jews must retire.The year 1938 Aryan and non-Aryan children are not allowed to play together.January 1, 1938 Jews may not be members of the German Red Cross.March 22, 1938 Only honorable comrades of German blood, or related descent, may

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become allotment-gardeners.

April 26, 1938Jews must declare their incomes and property "to ensure that these assets are used in the best interest of the German economy."

July 25, 1938 Jewish doctors may no longer practice.

July 27, 1938

Streets named after Jews are to be renamed. Haverland Strasse - named after the developer of the Bavarian Quarter - will be renamed Treuchtlinger and Noerdlinger Strasse.

July 31, 1938 Jews may inherit only when the national socialist morals are upheld.

August 17, 1938All Jews must adopt the names of "Israel" for men and "Sara" for women as additional first names.

September 1, 1938Jews are not permitted to leave their apartments after 8 p.m. (9 p.m. during the summer).

October 5, 1938

Passports belonging to Jews must be marked with the letter "J". Passports will be confiscated from Jews who are not allowed to emigrate.

November 9, 1938

During an organized pogrom in November 1938, many Jews are murdered and Jewish shops and synagogues destroyed. Thousands are deported to concentration camps.

November 12, 1938 Jews may no longer work as independent craftsmen.November 12, 1938 Senior Jewish employees can be fired without notice or compensation.

November 12, 1938Attendance at cinemas, theaters, opera houses, and concert halls is forbidden for Jews.

November 12, 1938 Jews may not own or run retail shops or mail order businesses.November 15, 1938 Jewish children are expelled from public schools.

December 1, 1938Jewish publishing houses and bookstores are to be dissolved by the end of the year.

December 3, 1938 Certain parts of Berlin are restricted for Jews.December 3, 1938 Baths and swimming pools in Berlin are closed to Jews.

December 3, 1938Drivers licenses and automobile registrations belonging to Jews are void and must be returned.

December 21, 1938 Jewish women cannot be certified as midwives.

Eye-witness reports, 1939At Bavarian Quarter town square, Jews may sit only on yellow park benches.

January 16, 1939Jewelry and other valuables may not be taken out of the country by emigrants.

January 17, 1939 General employment ban on Jews.

January 17, 1939Employment ban for Jewish dentists, dental technicians, pharmacists homeopathic doctors, and nurses.

February 21, 1939Jewelry, items made of gold, silver, or platinum, and pearls belonging to Jews are to be turned to the State.

March 24, 1939Jewish communities are responsible for clearing the rubble at synagogues that have been destroyed. Reconstruction is forbidden.

April 30, 1939

Rental agreements with Jews can be terminated without reason and without keeping within set legal deadlines. Jews can be sent to so-called "Jew Houses".

September 23, 1939 Radios are confiscated from Jews.December 1, 1939 Jews no longer receive ration cards for clothing.

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July 4, 1940Jews in Berlin are only allowed to buy food between four and five o'clock in the afternoon.

July 29, 1940 Telephone lines to Jewish households will be cut off.March 4, 1941 All Jews are obliged to do hard labor.June 26, 1941 Jews may no longer purchase soap and shaving cream.August 2, 1941 Jews may not use public libraries.

September 1, 1941All Jews over the age of 6 must wear a yellow star with the word "Jew" on it.

September 18, 1941Jews may not use public transportation during peak travel hours. They may sit only when other travelers have been seated.

September 18, 1941 Jews require a police permit to leave their place of residence.October 18, 1941 First mass deportations of Berlin Jews.October 23, 1941 The emigration of Jews is forbidden.December 21, 1941 Use of public telephones is forbidden.January 1, 1942 Confiscation of furs and wool clothing from Jews.

February 14, 1942In bakeries and cafes, signs must be posted stating that Jews and Poles may not purchase cakes.

February 15, 1942 Jews are no longer allowed to have household pets.February 17, 1942 Jews are forbidden from buying newspapers and magazines.

March 24, 1942Jews may only use public transportation if their place of work is more than seven kilometers from their home.

March 24, 1942Jewish children may only use public transportation to go to school if the school is more than five kilometers from their home.

March 26, 1942 Apartments inhabited by Jewish families must display the Jew star.April 24, 1942 Jews completely banned from using public transportation.June 11, 1942 Cigarettes and cigars are no longer sold to Jews.

June 19, 1942Jews must hand over all electrical and optical appliances, bicycles, typewriters, and records.

June 20, 1942 All Jews prohibited from attending school.June 22, 1942 Eggs are no longer sold to Jews.June 26, 1942 Jews banned from using ticket machines for public transportation.July 10, 1942 No fresh milk for Jews.July 11, 1942 First deportations directly to the death camp at Auschwitz.August 7, 1942 Poles and Jews may not be witnesses in court cases against Germans.September 13, 1942 Jews are permitted to use public transportation only to go to work.

September 18, 1942Jews may no longer purchase meat, meat products or other rationed foods.

October 9, 1942 Jews may not purchase books.March 26, 1943 Organized arrests for deportation to take place at Jews' place of work.February 16, 1945 All files dealing with antisemitic activities are to be destroyed.

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DECREE CARDS

Jewish lawyers and notaries may no longer have legal responsibilities concerning the City of Berlin.

March 18, 1933

Jewish judges are suspended.

March 31, 1933

Treatment from Jewish doctors is no longer covered by health insurance.

March 31, 1933

Jewish teachers are fired.

April 1, 1933

Jewish civil servants may no longer work.

April 7, 1933

Jews are excluded from sports groups.

April 25, 1933

Only films which have been created in Germany by non-Jewish German citizens can be acknowledged as a German film.

June 28, 1933

Jewish members of the Greater German Chess Association are expelled.

July 9, 1933

Jews are expelled from all choral groups.

August 16, 1933

Jews may not use the public beach at Wannsee Lake (a popular summer swimming spot)

August 22, 1933

The subjects "Genetic Heredity" and "Race" must be studied in all schools.

September 13, 1933

Jews are not permitted to join the newly-founded Collective German Automobile Club.

October 1, 1933

Jewish actors and actresses may not work.

March 5, 1934

Jewish art and antique dealers are not allowed to work. They must close their businesses.

The year 1935

Jewish authors are forbidden from all book-related activities in Germany.

March 1, 1935

Jewish musicians may not work.

March 31, 1935

Trips by Jewish youth groups of more than 20 people are forbidden.

July 10, 1935

Jewish and non-Jewish people who are married or in relationships with members of the other group will be put in prison. All mixed marriages are ended.

September 15, 1935

Antisemitic signs must be removed for the 1936 Olympic Games.

The year 1936

Jews may not receive inheritances.

July 31, 1938

Jewish veterinarians may not work.

April 3, 1936

Journalists must prove their and their spouse's Aryan heritage as far back as the year 1800.

April 15, 1936

Jewish people cannot become non-Jewish by being baptized or converting to Christianity. They will still be considered “racially Jewish.”

October 4, 1936

Jews may not receive academic degrees.

April 15, 1937

Post Office workers married to Jews must retire.

June 8, 1937

Aryan and non-Aryan children are not allowed to play together.

The year 1938

Jews may not be members of the German Red Cross.

January 1, 1938

Jews may not garden.

March 22, 1938

Jews must report their income and property values. Money and property may be taken away and given to non-Jews.

April 26, 1938

Jewish doctors may no longer work.

July 25, 1938

Streets named after Jews must be renamed.

July 27, 1938

Jewelry and other valuables may not be taken out of the country by emigrants.

January 16, 1939

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All Jews must add the names "Israel" for men and "Sara" for women to their first names.

August 17, 1938

Jews are not allowed to leave their apartments after 8 p.m. (9 p.m. during the summer).

September 1, 1938

Jewish passports must be marked with the letter "J".

October 5, 1938

During an organized pogrom called Kristallnacht, many Jews are murdered. Jewish shops and synagogues are destroyed. Thousands are taken to concentration camps.

November 9-10, 1938

Jews may no longer work in construction.

November 12, 1938

Any Jewish employee can be fired without notice or money.

November 12, 1938

Jews are not allowed to go to movie theatres, plays, or concerts.

November 12, 1938

Jews are not allowed to own stores or businesses.

November 12, 1938

Jewish children are expelled from public schools.

November 15, 1938

Jewish bookstores must be closed.

December 1, 1938

Certain parts of Berlin are off limits for Jews.

December 3, 1938

Jews are not allowed to go to swimming pools or spas.

December 3, 1938

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Jews may not have drivers licenses.

December 3, 1938

Jewish women may not work as midwives.

December 21, 1938

Jews may only sit on yellow park benches.

Eye-witness reports, 1939

First mass deportations of Jews to concentration camps.

October 18, 1941

Many Jews banned from work.

January 17, 1939

Jews may not work in healthcare.

January 17, 1939

Jewish people who own jewelry, or other valuables must give these items to the government.

February 21, 1939

Jewish communities are responsible for cleaning up after the destruction of synagogues. They may not be rebuilt.

March 24, 1939

Jews may be kicked out of apartments without notice. Jews can be sent to so-called "Jew Houses".

April 30, 1939

Jews are not allowed to own radios.

September 23, 1939

Jews may no longer purchase clothing

December 1, 1939

Jews are only allowed to buy food between four and five o'clock in the afternoon.

July 4, 1940

Telephone lines to Jewish houses will be cut off.

July 29, 1940

Jews are forced to do hard labor.

March 4, 1941

Jews may no longer purchase soap and shaving cream.

June 26, 1941

Jews may not use public libraries.

August 2, 1941

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All Jews over the age of 6 must wear a yellow star with the word "Jew" on it.

September 1, 1941

Jews must have a police permit to leave their home.

September 18, 1941

Jews may no longer use public transportation.

April 24, 1942

Jews and Poles may not buy cake.

February 14, 1942

The emigration of Jews is forbidden.

October 23, 1941

Jews may not use public telephones.

December 21, 1941

Jews may not own furs or wool clothing.

January 1, 1942

Jews may not buy eggs.

June 22, 1942

Jews are no longer allowed to have pets.

February 15, 1942

"…my powder-box is a personal reminder for you. Use it often and think of me. With deep sorrow, yours, Else Stern"(card 2 of 2)

Before being deported, January 16, 1942

"The time has come. Tomorrow I will be deported. I am so sad. I will write to you…"(card 1 of 2)

Before being deported, January 16, 1942

Jews are not allowed to buy newspapers or magazines.

February 17, 1942

Jews must display a star in their windows.

March 26, 1942

Jews may no longer use public transportation.

April 24, 1942

Jews may not buy cigarettes or cigars.

June 11, 1942

Jews may not own electronics, bicycles, typewriters, or records.

June 19, 1942

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Jews prohibited from attending school.

June 20, 1942

Jews may not buy milk.

July 10, 1942

First deportations directly to the death camp at Auschwitz.

July 11, 1942

Jews may no longer purchase meat.

September 18, 1942

Jews may not purchase books.

October 9, 1942

"We had a canary, When we received the notice that Jews are forbidden from keeping pets, my husband found it impossible to part from the animal. Every sunny day, he put the bird cage on the window sill. Perhaps someone reported him, because one day he was summoned to the Gestapo. (...) After living in fear for many weeks, the police sent a postcard stating that I must pay a fee of 3 Reichsmarks to pick up my husband's ashes.”Report, 1943

Jews may be arrested and deported at work.

March 26, 1943

All records of antisemitic laws must be destroyed.

February 16, 1945

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