RESEARCH TOOLS and RESEARCH TOOLS and TECHNIQUESTECHNIQUES

Mukut HazarikaMukut HazarikaProfessorProfessor

Department of EducationDepartment of EducationDibrugarh UniversityDibrugarh University

Research Tools and Research Tools and TechniquesTechniques

The major data-gathering tools of The major data-gathering tools of research are:research are:

• Psychological TestsPsychological Tests

• Inquiry FormsInquiry Forms

• ObservationObservation

• InterviewInterview

• Sociometric TechniquesSociometric Techniques

Psychological TestsPsychological Tests

Psychological tests are devised to evaluate Psychological tests are devised to evaluate or measure behaviour in a standardized way or measure behaviour in a standardized way for the purpose of selection, classification, for the purpose of selection, classification, prediction and guidance as well as for the prediction and guidance as well as for the evaluation of educational programmes. evaluation of educational programmes. They are designed to measure general They are designed to measure general mental ability or intelligence, special mental ability or intelligence, special abilities or aptitudes, creativity, abilities or aptitudes, creativity, achievement, personality traits and achievement, personality traits and adjustment, interests and values.adjustment, interests and values.

What are tests ?What are tests ?

• Tests consist of a series of tasks Tests consist of a series of tasks which the subject is required to which the subject is required to perform.perform.

• Cronbach (1964) defines a test as a Cronbach (1964) defines a test as a systematic procedure for comparing systematic procedure for comparing the behaviour of two or more persons the behaviour of two or more persons at a particular time ; or one or more at a particular time ; or one or more persons at different time.persons at different time.

• A psychological (or educational) test A psychological (or educational) test is a standardized procedure to is a standardized procedure to measure quantitatively or measure quantitatively or qualitatively one or more than one qualitatively one or more than one aspects of trait by means of a verbal aspects of trait by means of a verbal or non-verbal behaviour (Singh, or non-verbal behaviour (Singh, 1997).1997).

Standardized Test:Standardized Test:

A standardized test is one that has A standardized test is one that has specific directions for administration specific directions for administration and scoring, a fixed set of test items, and scoring, a fixed set of test items, and has been administered to and has been administered to representative samples taken from representative samples taken from the population for whom the test is the population for whom the test is intended for the purpose of intended for the purpose of establishing norms (Koul, 1997). establishing norms (Koul, 1997).

Classification of TestsClassification of Tests

• On the basis of Time limit in producing On the basis of Time limit in producing the response:the response:

a) Power Testa) Power Test

b) Speed Testb) Speed Test

• On the basis of Administrative On the basis of Administrative conditions:conditions:

a) Group testa) Group test

b) Individual testb) Individual test

• On the basis of Purposes:On the basis of Purposes:

a) The Tests of General mental a) The Tests of General mental ability or Intelligenceability or Intelligence

b) The Tests of Special ability or b) The Tests of Special ability or AptitudesAptitudes

c) The Tests of Creativityc) The Tests of Creativity

d) The Tests of Attainment or d) The Tests of Attainment or AchievementAchievement

e) The Personality measurese) The Personality measures

• On the basis of Standardization:On the basis of Standardization:

a) Standardized Testsa) Standardized Tests

b) Non-Standardized Teacher b) Non-Standardized Teacher made testsmade tests

• On the basis of Nature of Items:On the basis of Nature of Items:

a) Verbal Testa) Verbal Test

b) Nonverbal Testb) Nonverbal Test

c) Performance testc) Performance test

Verbal TestsVerbal Tests::In this type of tests, the instructions are In this type of tests, the instructions are given in words- written, oral or both. The given in words- written, oral or both. The examinees are required to use language, examinees are required to use language, oral or written, for their responses. oral or written, for their responses.

Non-verbal Tests:Non-verbal Tests:A non-verbal test is one where no language A non-verbal test is one where no language is used at all either in instruction or in is used at all either in instruction or in construction of items.construction of items.

Performance Tests:Performance Tests:Performance tests involve the manipulation Performance tests involve the manipulation of objects, with a minimum use of paper of objects, with a minimum use of paper and pencil. The instructions for these type and pencil. The instructions for these type of tests can be given by demonstration, of tests can be given by demonstration, gesture and pantomime, without the use of gesture and pantomime, without the use of oral or written language.oral or written language.

• On the basis of Scoring:On the basis of Scoring:a) Objective Type Testsa) Objective Type Testsb) Essay Type Testsb) Essay Type Tests

Objective Type TestsObjective Type Tests: Objective : Objective type tests are those whose items are type tests are those whose items are scored by competent examiners, or scored by competent examiners, or observers in such a way that no observers in such a way that no scope for subjective judgment or scope for subjective judgment or opinion exists and thus, the scoring opinion exists and thus, the scoring remains unambiguous.remains unambiguous.Essay Type TestsEssay Type Tests: :

• Power TestPower Test::

A power test is one which has a generous A power test is one which has a generous time limit so that most examinees are able time limit so that most examinees are able to attempt every item. They are meant to to attempt every item. They are meant to measure the ability to perform the assigned measure the ability to perform the assigned work.work.

• Speed Test:Speed Test:

A speed test is one which has severe time A speed test is one which has severe time limit so that no examinees are able to limit so that no examinees are able to attempt all items. Speed test measures how attempt all items. Speed test measures how rapidly or with what speed the examinees rapidly or with what speed the examinees can respond within a given time limit.can respond within a given time limit.

Characteristics of TestsCharacteristics of Tests

• ValidityValidity• ReliabilityReliability• NormsNorms• UsabilityUsability

a) Objectivitya) Objectivityb) Economy of Timeb) Economy of Timec) Costc) Costd) Ease of Administrationd) Ease of Administratione) Ease of Scoringe) Ease of Scoringf) Ease of Interpretationf) Ease of Interpretationg) Face validity g) Face validity

ValidityValidity

Meaning: The term ‘Validity’ means Meaning: The term ‘Validity’ means truthfulness or fidelity (faithfulness).truthfulness or fidelity (faithfulness).

Definition:Definition:

• Validity refers to the degree to which Validity refers to the degree to which a test measures what it claims to a test measures what it claims to measure.measure.

• The validity of a test concerns what The validity of a test concerns what the test measures and how well it the test measures and how well it does so (Anastasi, 1988)does so (Anastasi, 1988)

• Validity of a test is defined as the Validity of a test is defined as the accuracy with which it measures that accuracy with which it measures that which is intended to measure or as which is intended to measure or as the degree to which it approaches the degree to which it approaches infallibility in measuring what it infallibility in measuring what it purports to measure (Lindquist, purports to measure (Lindquist, 1951)1951)

Types of Validity:Types of Validity:

• Content ValidityContent Validity

• Criterion-Related ValidityCriterion-Related Validity

a) Concurrent Validitya) Concurrent Validity

b) Predictive Validityb) Predictive Validity

• Construct ValidityConstruct Validity

Content validity:Content validity:

Content validity is the Content validity is the representativeness or sampling representativeness or sampling adequacy of the content – the adequacy of the content – the substance, the matter, the topics – of substance, the matter, the topics – of a measuring instrument. It is a measuring instrument. It is estimated by evaluating the estimated by evaluating the relevance of the test items, in relevance of the test items, in relation to instructional objectives relation to instructional objectives and actual subject matter studied.and actual subject matter studied.

According to Kelley et. al. (1953), According to Kelley et. al. (1953), content validation is based upon:content validation is based upon:

a) an expert analysis of the material a) an expert analysis of the material to be sampled.to be sampled.

b) the use of available statistical b) the use of available statistical procedures to refine the original procedures to refine the original selection of items.selection of items.

Criterion-Related Validity:Criterion-Related Validity:

Criterion related validity is one which Criterion related validity is one which is obtained by comparing (or is obtained by comparing (or correlating) the test scores with correlating) the test scores with scores obtained on a criterion scores obtained on a criterion available at present or to be available at present or to be available in the future.available in the future.

a) Concurrent Validitya) Concurrent Validity::

The degree to which a test The degree to which a test is correlated with a criterion which is is correlated with a criterion which is available at the present time.available at the present time.

b) Predictive Validity:b) Predictive Validity:

The degree to which a test is The degree to which a test is correlated with a criterion which will correlated with a criterion which will be available in the future. It refers to be available in the future. It refers to the association between present the association between present results as indicated by a test and results as indicated by a test and future behaviour.future behaviour.

Construct ValidityConstruct Validity::

The degree to which certain psychological The degree to which certain psychological traits or constructs are actually traits or constructs are actually represented by test performance. Construct represented by test performance. Construct validation is an analysis of the meaning of validation is an analysis of the meaning of test scores in terms of psychological test scores in terms of psychological constructs (Cronbach and Meehl , 1955).constructs (Cronbach and Meehl , 1955).

Example: If a test is designed to measure Example: If a test is designed to measure emotional stability, what kinds of evidence emotional stability, what kinds of evidence are necessary before we can have are necessary before we can have confidence that the information provided confidence that the information provided by the test reflects this factor ?by the test reflects this factor ?

ReliabilityReliability• Reliability refers to the precision or Reliability refers to the precision or

accuracy of the measurement or score.accuracy of the measurement or score.• It refers to the consistency of scores or It refers to the consistency of scores or

measurement which is reflected in the measurement which is reflected in the reproducibility of the scores.reproducibility of the scores.

• Reliability refers to the consistency of Reliability refers to the consistency of scores obtained by the same individuals scores obtained by the same individuals when re-examined with test on different when re-examined with test on different occasions, or with different sets of occasions, or with different sets of equivalent items, or under other equivalent items, or under other variable examining conditions. variable examining conditions.

Methods of Estimating Methods of Estimating ReliabilityReliability

There are four most common There are four most common methods of estimating reliability methods of estimating reliability coefficient. These methods arecoefficient. These methods are

• Test-Retest ReliabilityTest-Retest Reliability

• Internal Consistency ReliabilityInternal Consistency Reliability

• Alternate or Parallel Forms Alternate or Parallel Forms ReliabilityReliability

• Methods of Rational EquivalenceMethods of Rational Equivalence

Test-Retest Reliability:Test-Retest Reliability:In test-retest reliability the single form of In test-retest reliability the single form of the test is administered twice on the same the test is administered twice on the same sample with a reasonable time gap and the sample with a reasonable time gap and the same test yield two independent sets of same test yield two independent sets of scores in two administrations. If the scores in two administrations. If the correlation coefficient between two sets of correlation coefficient between two sets of the test scores is high, then the test is said the test scores is high, then the test is said to be reliable. A high test-retest reliability to be reliable. A high test-retest reliability coefficient indicates that the examinee who coefficient indicates that the examinee who obtain low score on first administration obtain low score on first administration tends to score low on the second tends to score low on the second administration, and the examinee who administration, and the examinee who scores high on first administration, tends to scores high on first administration, tends to score high on second administration.score high on second administration.

Advantages:Advantages:

• It is the most appropriate method of It is the most appropriate method of estimating reliability of both speed estimating reliability of both speed and power tests.and power tests.

• The test-retest method is the most The test-retest method is the most appropriate method of computing appropriate method of computing reliability of heterogeneous test. reliability of heterogeneous test.

Disadvantages:Disadvantages:

• It is a time consuming method.It is a time consuming method.

• This method assumes that the This method assumes that the examinee’s physical and psychological examinee’s physical and psychological set-up remains unchanged in both the set-up remains unchanged in both the situations.situations.

• If the test is administered immediately If the test is administered immediately without a proper time gap, examinees without a proper time gap, examinees may remember much of the questions may remember much of the questions and may devote their time to new and may devote their time to new materials. That would enhance their materials. That would enhance their scores.scores.

Alternate forms reliability:Alternate forms reliability:In alternate forms reliability, two In alternate forms reliability, two forms of the test are required and the forms of the test are required and the two forms of the test are two forms of the test are administered to the same sample administered to the same sample with a time interval. Correlation with a time interval. Correlation Coefficient between two sets of Coefficient between two sets of scores obtained from two equivalent scores obtained from two equivalent forms become the measure of forms become the measure of reliability. It measures the reliability. It measures the consistency of the examinees scores consistency of the examinees scores between two administrations of between two administrations of parallel forms of a single test.parallel forms of a single test.

Internal consistency reliability:Internal consistency reliability:The most common method of estimating reliability The most common method of estimating reliability is the split-half method in which a test is divided is the split-half method in which a test is divided into two equal or nearly equal halves. The into two equal or nearly equal halves. The common method of splitting the test is the odd-common method of splitting the test is the odd-even method. In this method all odd-numbered even method. In this method all odd-numbered items (like 1,2,3,4,----) constitute one part of the items (like 1,2,3,4,----) constitute one part of the test and all even-numbered items constitute test and all even-numbered items constitute another part of the test. Each examinee, thus, another part of the test. Each examinee, thus, receives two scores: the number of correct receives two scores: the number of correct answers on all odd-numbered items constitute one answers on all odd-numbered items constitute one score and the number correct answers on all score and the number correct answers on all even-numbered items constitute another score for even-numbered items constitute another score for the same examinee. The correlation coefficient is the same examinee. The correlation coefficient is calculated between the two sets of scores, which calculated between the two sets of scores, which is the reliability of the half test. The Spearman is the reliability of the half test. The Spearman Brown Prophecy Formula is used for estimating Brown Prophecy Formula is used for estimating the reliability of the whole test.the reliability of the whole test.

Method of Rational Equivalence:Method of Rational Equivalence:This method stresses the inter-This method stresses the inter-correlations of the items in the test correlations of the items in the test and the correlations of the items with and the correlations of the items with the test. Kuder and Richardson did the test. Kuder and Richardson did series of researches to remove some series of researches to remove some of the difficulties of the split-half of the difficulties of the split-half method and devised a formula for method and devised a formula for estimating the internal consistency of estimating the internal consistency of the test. Kuder-Richardson reliability the test. Kuder-Richardson reliability coefficient is actually the mean of all coefficient is actually the mean of all split-half coefficient resulting from split-half coefficient resulting from different splitting.different splitting.

The main requirements for the use of The main requirements for the use of Kuder- Richardson formula are:Kuder- Richardson formula are:

• All items of the test should be All items of the test should be homogenous.homogenous.

• All correct answer should be scored All correct answer should be scored as ‘+1’ and all incorrect answer as ‘+1’ and all incorrect answer should be scored as ‘0’.should be scored as ‘0’.

Norms:Norms:

• Norms are defined as the average Norms are defined as the average performance on a particular test performance on a particular test made by a standardized sample.made by a standardized sample.

• Face ValidityFace Validity: Face validity of a test refers : Face validity of a test refers to what the test appears superficially to to what the test appears superficially to measure.measure.

• Objectivity: Objectivity: Objectivity refers to two Objectivity refers to two aspects of the test-objectivity of items and aspects of the test-objectivity of items and objectivity of the scoring procedure. By objectivity of the scoring procedure. By objectivity of items is meant that the items objectivity of items is meant that the items should be phrased in such a manner that should be phrased in such a manner that they are interpreted in exactly same way by they are interpreted in exactly same way by all those who take the test. By objectivity of all those who take the test. By objectivity of scoring is meant that the scoring method of scoring is meant that the scoring method of the test should be a standard one so that the test should be a standard one so that complete uniformity can be maintained complete uniformity can be maintained when the test is scored by different experts when the test is scored by different experts at different times.at different times.

General Steps of Test General Steps of Test ConstructionConstruction• PlanningPlanning

• Preliminary DraftPreliminary Draft

• The TryoutThe Tryout

• Item Analysis Item Analysis

a) Index of Difficultya) Index of Difficulty

b) Discriminating Power or b) Discriminating Power or Validity Validity Index Index

• Final DraftFinal Draft

• Index of Difficulty:Index of Difficulty:

The index of difficulty of an item is The index of difficulty of an item is defined as the proportion or percentage of defined as the proportion or percentage of the examinees who answer the item the examinees who answer the item correctly.correctly.

• Index of Discrimination:Index of Discrimination:

The index of discrimination is defined The index of discrimination is defined as the degree to which the single item as the degree to which the single item separates the superior from the inferior separates the superior from the inferior individuals in the trait or group of traits individuals in the trait or group of traits being measured (Bean, 1953).being measured (Bean, 1953).

• Positively Discriminating ItemPositively Discriminating Item: A : A positively discriminating item may be defined positively discriminating item may be defined as one in which the proportion or percentage as one in which the proportion or percentage of correct answers is higher in the upper of correct answers is higher in the upper group.group.

• Negatively Discriminating ItemNegatively Discriminating Item: A : A negatively discriminating item may be negatively discriminating item may be defined as one in which the proportion or defined as one in which the proportion or percentage of correct response is lower in percentage of correct response is lower in the upper group.the upper group.

• Non-discrimination Item:Non-discrimination Item: A non- A non-discriminating item is defined as one in discriminating item is defined as one in which the proportion or percentage of correct which the proportion or percentage of correct response is equal or approximately equal in response is equal or approximately equal in both upper and lower group. both upper and lower group.

INQUIRY FORMSINQUIRY FORMS

Inquiry forms are a set of data Inquiry forms are a set of data gathering research tools which make gathering research tools which make use of properly designed proformas use of properly designed proformas for inquiring into and securing for inquiring into and securing information about certain information about certain phenomena under investigation.phenomena under investigation.

The main inquiry forms are:The main inquiry forms are:

• QuestionnaireQuestionnaire

• ScheduleSchedule

• ChecklistChecklist

• Rating scaleRating scale

• Score cardScore card

• Opinionnaire or Attitude scaleOpinionnaire or Attitude scale

QuestionnaireQuestionnaire

• A questionnaire is a device A questionnaire is a device consisting of a series of questions consisting of a series of questions dealing with some psychological, dealing with some psychological, social, educational, etc, topic (s) social, educational, etc, topic (s) sent or given to an individual or sent or given to an individual or group of individuals, with the group of individuals, with the object of obtaining data with object of obtaining data with regard to some problems under regard to some problems under investigation (Koul, 1998) investigation (Koul, 1998)

Construction of Construction of QuestionnaireQuestionnaire

• Purposes of questionnaire:Purposes of questionnaire:

a) It must translate the objectives of an a) It must translate the objectives of an investigation into specific questions, the investigation into specific questions, the answers to which will provide the data answers to which will provide the data necessary to explore the area defined by the necessary to explore the area defined by the objectives.objectives.

b) It must motivate the respondents to b) It must motivate the respondents to communicate the required information. It is communicate the required information. It is essential to include a courteous and carefully essential to include a courteous and carefully constructed covering letter to explain the constructed covering letter to explain the purpose of the study. purpose of the study.

• Language (Best,1977):Language (Best,1977):a) Define or qualify terms that could a) Define or qualify terms that could easily be misinterpretedeasily be misinterpretedb) Be careful in using descriptive b) Be careful in using descriptive adjective and adverbs that have no adjective and adverbs that have no agreed upon meaningagreed upon meaningc) Beware of double negativec) Beware of double negatived) Be careful of inadequate d) Be careful of inadequate alternativesalternativese) Avoid double barreled questionse) Avoid double barreled questions

f) Underline a word if you wish to f) Underline a word if you wish to indicate special emphasisindicate special emphasisg) When asking for rating or comparison g) When asking for rating or comparison a point of reference is necessarya point of reference is necessaryh) Avoid unwarranted assumptionsh) Avoid unwarranted assumptionsi) Phrase questions so that they are i) Phrase questions so that they are appropriate for all respondentsappropriate for all respondentsj) Design questions that will give a j) Design questions that will give a complete responsecomplete responsek) Provide for the systematic k) Provide for the systematic quantification of responsesquantification of responses

l) Consider the possibility of l) Consider the possibility of classifying the responses yourself, classifying the responses yourself, rather than having the respondent rather than having the respondent choose categorieschoose categories

• Information level of the respondentsInformation level of the respondents• Social acceptance of responsesSocial acceptance of responses• Avoid leading questionsAvoid leading questions• Sequence of questionsSequence of questions• The form of questionsThe form of questions• Length of the questionnaireLength of the questionnaire• Experts’ opinionExperts’ opinion

• Preliminary tryout of the Preliminary tryout of the questionnairequestionnaire

• Validation of a questionnaireValidation of a questionnaire

• Reliability of a questionnaireReliability of a questionnaire

• Administration of a questionnaireAdministration of a questionnaire

• Analysing and interpreting Analysing and interpreting questionnaire responses questionnaire responses

Observation Observation Definition:Definition:

Observation refers to watching Observation refers to watching and listening to the behaviour of and listening to the behaviour of other persons over time without other persons over time without manipulating and controlling it and manipulating and controlling it and record findings in ways that allow record findings in ways that allow some degree of analytical some degree of analytical interpretation and discussion. interpretation and discussion.

Contents/Dimensions of Observation:Contents/Dimensions of Observation:• Physical ActionsPhysical Actions, e.g., pattern of , e.g., pattern of

working, watching television, etc.working, watching television, etc.• Verbal BehaviourVerbal Behaviour, e.g., conversation , e.g., conversation

between husband and wife, colleagues, between husband and wife, colleagues, workers, etc.workers, etc.

• Expressive BehaviourExpressive Behaviour, e.g., tone of , e.g., tone of voice, facial expression, etc.voice, facial expression, etc.

• Spatial RelationsSpatial Relations, e.g., physical , e.g., physical distance between workers in a factory.distance between workers in a factory.

• Temporal PatternsTemporal Patterns, e.g., time spent in , e.g., time spent in performing rituals, in shopping, in talking, performing rituals, in shopping, in talking, in watching T.V., etc.in watching T.V., etc.

• Verbal RecordsVerbal Records, e.g., content of , e.g., content of memoranda, slogan shouted, etc.memoranda, slogan shouted, etc.

Characteristics of Observation:Characteristics of Observation:

• Behaviour is observed in natural Behaviour is observed in natural settings.settings.

• It enables understanding significant It enables understanding significant events affecting social relations of the events affecting social relations of the participantsparticipants

• It determines reality from the It determines reality from the perspective of observed person.perspective of observed person.

• It is hypotheses free enquiry.It is hypotheses free enquiry.

• It avoids manipulations in the It avoids manipulations in the independent variables.independent variables.

• Recording is not selective.Recording is not selective.

Process of Observation:Process of Observation:

• Selecting a topicSelecting a topic

• Choosing a research siteChoosing a research site

• Gaining access in settingGaining access in setting

• Taking rolesTaking roles

• Jotting down field notesJotting down field notes

• Formulating analysisFormulating analysis

• Writing ReportsWriting Reports

Advantages of Observation:Advantages of Observation:• It provides a direct procedure for studying It provides a direct procedure for studying

various aspects of human behaviour, which various aspects of human behaviour, which may be the only effective way to gather data may be the only effective way to gather data in a particular situation.in a particular situation.

• It is effective especially for studying social It is effective especially for studying social processes in depth over time.processes in depth over time.

• It is a flexible technique in which research It is a flexible technique in which research design can be modified at any time.design can be modified at any time.

• It is less complicated.It is less complicated.• It offers data when respondents are unable or It offers data when respondents are unable or

unwilling to cooperate for giving information.unwilling to cooperate for giving information.• It approaches reality in its natural setting and It approaches reality in its natural setting and

studies events as they evolve.studies events as they evolve.• It allows collection of wide range of It allows collection of wide range of

information.information.

Limitations of Observation:Limitations of Observation:

• It cannot be employed when It cannot be employed when large groups are to be studied.large groups are to be studied.

• A subject may intentionally A subject may intentionally attempt to exhibit an artificial attempt to exhibit an artificial behaviour when he/she knows behaviour when he/she knows that he is being observed.that he is being observed.

• Observation method is time Observation method is time consuming and sometimes too consuming and sometimes too costly.costly.

Types of ObservationTypes of Observation• On the basis of the ability of observational On the basis of the ability of observational

data to generate useful and researchable data to generate useful and researchable in formation Reiss (1971) divides in formation Reiss (1971) divides observation into the following two types:observation into the following two types:

(a) Systematic Observation(a) Systematic Observation

(b) Unsystematic Observation(b) Unsystematic Observation

• On the basis of role played by the On the basis of role played by the investigator, it is divided into the following investigator, it is divided into the following two types:two types:

(a) Participant Observation (a) Participant Observation

(b) Non-participant Observation(b) Non-participant Observation

• Systematic ObservationSystematic Observation: : Systematic observation refers to Systematic observation refers to those observation in which those observation in which observation is done according to observation is done according to some explicit procedures as well as in some explicit procedures as well as in accordance with logic of scientific accordance with logic of scientific inference.inference.

• Unsystematic Observation: Unsystematic Observation: Unsystematic observation is a type of Unsystematic observation is a type of causal observation made by causal observation made by investigator without specifying any investigator without specifying any explicit and objective inference. explicit and objective inference.

• Participant ObservationParticipant Observation: In participant : In participant observation the investigator actively observation the investigator actively participates in the activities of the group to participates in the activities of the group to be observed. Usually, the identity of the be observed. Usually, the identity of the observer is not known to other members of observer is not known to other members of the group (the group (disguised disguised participant participant observation). Therefore, the other observation). Therefore, the other members of the group take him as an members of the group take him as an ordinary member and interact with him in ordinary member and interact with him in a natural way. But sometimes the a natural way. But sometimes the members who are being observed know members who are being observed know that the observer is present for collecting that the observer is present for collecting information about them (information about them (undisguised undisguised participant observation). The procedure of participant observation). The procedure of observation in participant observation is observation in participant observation is unstructured and the observer has some unstructured and the observer has some flexibility in deciding what to observe, how flexibility in deciding what to observe, how to record it, etc.to record it, etc.

• Non-participant ObservationNon-participant Observation: Non-: Non-participant observation is the participant observation is the observation in which the investigator observation in which the investigator observes the behaviour of other persons observes the behaviour of other persons in a natural setting but does not in a natural setting but does not participate in the activities of the group participate in the activities of the group to be observed. Non-participant to be observed. Non-participant observation is usually structured and observation is usually structured and therefore, the observer preplans the therefore, the observer preplans the likely nature of natural setting, problems likely nature of natural setting, problems associated with the presence of the associated with the presence of the investigator, etc.investigator, etc.

InterviewInterview• The interview is a process of The interview is a process of

interaction or communication in interaction or communication in which the subject or interviewee which the subject or interviewee gives the needed information gives the needed information verbally in a face-to-face situation.verbally in a face-to-face situation.

Characteristics of Interview:Characteristics of Interview:• There is a face-to-face contact, There is a face-to-face contact,

conversational exchange and verbal conversational exchange and verbal interaction between the interviewer interaction between the interviewer and interviewee.and interviewee.

• Questions are asked and responses Questions are asked and responses are received verbally.are received verbally.

• Information is recorded by the Information is recorded by the interviewer.interviewer.

• The format of the interview is The format of the interview is considerably flexible.considerably flexible.

Techniques of Interviewing:Techniques of Interviewing:

• Preparation for the InterviewPreparation for the Interview

• Execution of the InterviewExecution of the Interview

• Recording of the InterviewRecording of the Interview

Rules to be followed during the Rules to be followed during the execution of an Interview execution of an Interview (Turney & Robb, 1971)(Turney & Robb, 1971)• Ask only one question at a time.Ask only one question at a time.• Repeat a question if necessary.Repeat a question if necessary.• Try to make sure that the subject Try to make sure that the subject

understands the question.understands the question.• Listen carefully to the subject’s answers.Listen carefully to the subject’s answers.• Observe the subject’s facial expressions, Observe the subject’s facial expressions,

gestures, and tone of voice.gestures, and tone of voice.

• Allow the subject sufficient time to Allow the subject sufficient time to answer the question, but do not let answer the question, but do not let the interview drag.the interview drag.

• Avoid suggesting answers to the Avoid suggesting answers to the questions.questions.

• Do not show signs of surprise, shock, Do not show signs of surprise, shock, anger, or other emotions if anger, or other emotions if unexpected answers are given.unexpected answers are given.

• Maintain a neutral attitude with Maintain a neutral attitude with respect to controversial issues during respect to controversial issues during the interview.the interview.

• Take note of answers that seem to Take note of answers that seem to be vague, ambiguous, or evasive.be vague, ambiguous, or evasive.

• In the unstructured interview, ask In the unstructured interview, ask additional questions to follow up additional questions to follow up clues or to obtain additional clues or to obtain additional information.information.

• Use tact and skill in getting the Use tact and skill in getting the subject back to an area of inquiry subject back to an area of inquiry when he has stayed too for from the when he has stayed too for from the original question.original question.

Advantages of Interview:Advantages of Interview:• It provides an opportunity to the It provides an opportunity to the

interviewer to question thoroughly interviewer to question thoroughly certain areas of inquiry.certain areas of inquiry.

• It permits greater depth of response.It permits greater depth of response.• It enables the interviewer to get It enables the interviewer to get

information concerning feelings, information concerning feelings, attitudes or emotions in relation to attitudes or emotions in relation to certain questions.certain questions.

• Interview allows greater flexibility in Interview allows greater flexibility in the process of questioning.the process of questioning.

Disadvantages of Interview:Disadvantages of Interview:• It is a time consuming technique.It is a time consuming technique.

• The effectiveness of interview depends The effectiveness of interview depends upon the skill of interviewer.upon the skill of interviewer.

• There is a constant danger of subjectivity There is a constant danger of subjectivity on the part of the interviewer.on the part of the interviewer.

• The interview is most difficult to employ The interview is most difficult to employ successfully, when some interviewees do successfully, when some interviewees do not respond freely, frankly and accurately, not respond freely, frankly and accurately, for even in the presence of a skilled for even in the presence of a skilled interviewer. interviewer.

Achievement Test:Achievement Test:

• Achievement tests are primarily designed to Achievement tests are primarily designed to measure the effects of a specific programme measure the effects of a specific programme of instruction or training (Anastasi,1968).of instruction or training (Anastasi,1968).

• Achievement test, also known as proficiency Achievement test, also known as proficiency test, is one which measures the extent to test, is one which measures the extent to which a person has acquired or achieved which a person has acquired or achieved certain information or proficiency as a certain information or proficiency as a function of instruction or training (Tuckman, function of instruction or training (Tuckman, 1975).1975).

• The purpose of achievement test is to The purpose of achievement test is to evaluate what a person has learned. evaluate what a person has learned.