Research Strategies

Module Two

Starts with Critical Thinking

Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions

0Examines Assumptions0Discerns hidden values0Evaluates evidence0Assesses conclusions

And a scientific attitude

0Three main components1. Curious eagerness2. Skeptically scrutinize competing

ideas3. Open-minded humility before nature

Scientific Method1. Developing a hypothesis

2. Performing a controlled test

3. Gathering objective data

4. Analyzing the result/Survival of Hypothesis (refine hypothesis and retest)

5. Publishing, criticizing and replicating the results

Scientific MethodResearch Process

1. Developing a research question

2. Surveying the literature

3. Hypothesis

4. Identify: Independent variable/Dependent variable/Extraneous variables

5. Controls

6. Sampling/Subjects

7. Procedure

8. Results/Statistics

9. Discussion

10. New Hypothesis

Step One: Developing a hypothesis

0Theory 0 An idea, which hasn’t been disproven0 An explanation using an integrated set of principles

that organizes and predicts observations

0Hypothesis 0 A testable prediction0 Often implied by a theory0 MUST be defined operationally

0CAN BE CONFIRMED OR REFUTED!!

What makes a good theory?

1. Effectively organizes a range of self-reports and observations

2. Implies clear predictions that anyone can use to check the theory

Types of Studies0 Descriptive

0 Observation0Naturalistic0Laboratory

0 Case Study0 Individual0Depth0Problems?

0 Surveys0Random sampling of a

population0Strengths?0Weakness?

0 Correlational0Longitudinal

0 One group over time

0Cross Sectional0 Multiple groups at one time

0Cohort-Sequential

0 Experimental

Descriptive Studies

Case Studies

Advantages Disadvantages

0 In-depth, detailed information about the case

0 Opportunity to study unusual cases

0 Suggests further study

0 Results cannot be generalized

0 Prone to inaccurate reporting from source

0 Cannot be used to establish cause-and-effect relationships

0 Biased researcher?

Ex Post Facto: “After the fact” selection

SurveysAdvantages Disadvantages

0 Large Groups0 Random Sampling0 Easy!

0 Bias in questioning0 Reporting Challenges0 False Consensus Effect

0 (tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors

A Little More on Bias

Expectation Bias

When you allow expectations to affect the outcome of a study

Personal Bias

When you allow personal beliefs to affect the outcome of a study

Naturalistic Observation

Describes, does not explain, behavior

0Used to research

0 Child-rearing practices

0 People’s shopping habits

0 Public courting behaviors

Correlational Studies

Correlational Studies

Advantages Disadvantages

0 Examine, test, reveal, compare or describe relationship between two variables

0 Efficient, collect lots of data

0 Make predictions

0 Dispel illusory correlations

0 Utilize preexisting or archival data

0 Cannot establish cause-and-effect

0 Prone to inaccurate reporting

0 Hard to access the impact of additional variables

0 Do not allow for the active manipulation of variables.

Experimental Studies

Experimentation

The investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe their effect on some behavior or mental process while controlling other relevant factors by random assignment of subjects

Step Two: Setting up the test0 Independent Variable

0 The experimental factor that is manipulated0 Causes something to happen0 The variable whose effect is being studied0 X-Axis

0 Dependent Variable 0 The experimental factor that may change in response to manipulations of

the independent variable 0 In psychology it is usually a behavior or mental process, or test.0 Effect of the independent variable0 Y-Axis

0 Extraneous Variable0 All the other things which may affect the dependent variable

0 Confounding Variable0 Systematically affect the relationship between IV and DV and act like IVs

Experiments and Controls

0 Experimental Group: gets the independent variable0 Control Group: no change

0 Purpose0 Comparison0 Ensure that all groups in the experiment are treated equally except for

the manipulation of the independent variable.

0 Set Up0 Random Assignment0 Double Blind Studies

Experiment Design

Experimental

Advantages Disadvantages

0 Can establish cause-and-effect

0 Operationalization of variables

0 Stresses the control of variables

0 Can implement double-blind or blind procedures

0 High internal validity

0 May be replicated

0Reduce external validity

0Difficult to establish adequate control conditions

0Statistical probability of bias

Step Three: Interpret the Data

More on this to come!

Step Four: Replication0 Can the work withstand the scrutiny of the scientific community?

0 Roughly 2% of the papers submitted to psychological journals get into print without major revisions.

0 Often publish their results in the JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION or the JOURNAL OF FAMILY PSYCHOLOGY et.al.

0 Critics will look for flaws in the research.

0 Then it is repeated

0 Repeating the essence of a research study to see whether the basic finding generalizes to other subjects and circumstances

0 Usually with different subjects in different situations