GLOBAL ISSUE IN DESIGN

2008

MURSHIDABAD SILK

Research Project

By

NOORANI BISWAS

F&T-06, FT0518 ,

NIFT-GANDHINAGAR

2

GLOBAL ISSUE IN DESIGN 2008

SYNOPSIS -MURSHIDABAD SILK

Background of the Topic

Silk is the most beautiful and considered as Queen of all

textiles. It has been originated in China and came to India

through trade (silk route).

India also stated producing silk and export silk and silk fabrics

to other countries. One of the most famous silk centers of that

time is Murshidabad (West Bengal).

Murshidabad is involved in sericulture, processing, weaving

and printing of silk fabrics. E.g. saris scarf, etc.

Objectives for Research

History of silk

Types of silk

Properties of silk

Sericulture

Reeling

Processing

Weaving of silk (handlooms)

Types of silk fabric

Adornment on silk fabric (Printing ,Embroidery, etc)

Methodology for Research

Field visit to Murshidabad.

Visit to Central Sericulture Research and Training Institute. (Berhampore).

Visit to weaving center, market.

Searching online.

References from Books, Documents.

Findings

Current scenario and future prospects of silk

Advanced technologies related to silk.

Care for silk fabrics.

NOORANI BISWAS , F&T-06, FT0518 ,

NIFT-GANDHINAGAR

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History of silk

Silk fabric was first developed in ancient China, possibly as

early as 6000 BC and definitely by 3000 BC. The credit goes to the Chinese queen His-ling-shih or silingchi,

wife of the emperor W’hang, who ruled over china about

2,500 B.C. According to the legend, the empress was moving

in her garden one day, she saw some tiny insects feeding on

mulberry leaves. A few days later, she found the worms had

grown very big and continued watching the process until the

cocoons were spun by the silkworms.

Ancient Chinese

panting depicting

cocoon growing

The 14-yrs old queen carried the cocoons to the palace where

she preserved them until moths emerged. One day she

accidently dropped pierced cocoons into a hot water bath.

When she tried to retrieve them, a shimmering mass of yarns

emerged.

According to another legend silk was discovered earlier by si-

ling-te, the wife of emperor huang-ti. The empress is credited

with the invention of the first loom by 2,640B.C. The deep

devotion of the empress si-ling-te to the development of the

silk industry had such a wide impact on the masses that after

her death, aitars were raised to her memory and she was

worshiped as the “goddess of silkworm”.

Silks were originally reserved for the Kings of China for their

own use and gifts to others, but spread gradually through

Chinese culture both geographically and socially, and then to

many regions of Asia.

Silk warping

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Silk rapidly became a popular luxury fabric in the many

areas accessible to Chinese merchants because of its

texture and luster. Silk was in great demand, and

became a staple of pre-industrial international trade. In

July of 2007, archeologists discovered intricately woven

and dyed silk textiles in a tomb in Jiangxi province, are

dated to the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, roughly 2,500 years

ago. Although historians have suspected a long history

of a formative textile industry in ancient China, this find

of silk textiles employing "complicated techniques" of weaving

and dyeing provides direct and concrete evidence for silks

dating before the Mawangdui-discovery and other silks dating

to the Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD).

Silk route

Fabulous silk from china and India were carried to Europe by

the silk route, passing through Tashkent, Baghdad, Damascus,

and Istanbul. This ancient caravans tract originated at Sian,

followed the great wall of china to the north-west, by passed

the Takla Makan desert, rose over the Pamir’s mountains,

crossed Afghanistan and went on the Levant: from there silk

and spices were shipped across the Mediterranean. Once

closed during the sixth century, the highway was opened

again by the Venetian traveler, Marco polo, who journeyed

through this route in the thirteenth century to reach Asian

lands. This route was known as silk route.

The first evidence of the silk trade is the finding of silk in the

hair of an Egyptian mummy of the 21st dynasty, c.1070 BC.

Ultimately the silk trade reached as far as the Indian

subcontinent, the Middle East, Europe, and North Africa. This

trade was so extensive that the major set of trade routes

between Europe and Asia has become known as the Silk Road.

The Emperors of China strove to keep knowledge of

sericulture secret to maintain the Chinese monopoly.

Nonetheless sericulture reached Korea around 200 BC, about

the first half of the 1st century AD had reached ancient

Khotan, and by AD

300 the practice

had been

established in

India.

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India

In India silk culture is ancient. According t western historians,

mulberry culture spread to India by about 140B.C. from china

through Khotan: the cultivation of silk first began in the areas

flanking the rivers Brahmaputra and ganga. but many Indian

scholars says that domestication of silkworm, bombyx mori

originated somewhere at the foothold of the Himalayas. The

Aryans discovered the silkworm in the sub-Himalayas, beyond

Kashmir.

Even though mulberry culture may have come to India from

china, the reference in old scriptures point out that India had

cultivated some kind of wild silk independently of china. The

ancient scripture Rig-Veda mentions”urna”, generally

translated as a kind of silk. Another sacred law book

manusmriti refers to “cloth made of silk” and the great

ancient Indian epic Mahabharata to garment having a border

embroidered with pearls. There are allusion to the fabric in

the world famous epic Ramayana too. The wedding gifts of the

queen sita included, among other things,” fine silken

vestments of diverse colours”.again , king Yudhisthira

(Mahabharata) received cloths woven from “thread spun by

worms” as a gift from feudatory prices. All these reference

indicate the existence of silk in India in 2000 B.C.

Silk, known as Pattu or Reshmi in southern parts of India and

Resham in Hindi/Urdu (from Persian), has a long history in

India and is widely produced today. Historically silk was used

by the upper classes, while cotton was used by the poorer

classes. Today silk is mainly used in Bhoodhan Pochampally

(also known as Silk City), Kanchipuram, Dharmavaram,

Mysore, etc. in South India and Banaras in the North for

manufacturing garments and Saris.

"Murshidabad silk", famous from historical times, is mainly

produced in Malda and Murshidabad district of West Bengal

and woven with hand looms in Birbhum and Murshidabad

district. Another place famous for production of silk is

Bhagalpur. The silk from Kanchi is particularly well-known for

its classic designs and enduring quality. The silk is traditionally

hand-woven and hand-dyed and usually also has silver threads

woven into the cloth. Most of this silk is used to make saris.

The saris usually are very expensive and vibrant in color.

Garments made from silk form an integral part of Indian

weddings and other celebrations. In the northeastern state of

Assam, three different types of silk are produced, collectively

called Assam silk: Muga, Eri and Pat silk. Muga, the golden silk,

and Eri are produced by silkworms that are native only to

Assam. The heritage of silk rearing and weaving is very old and

continues today especially with the production of Muga and

Pat riha and mekhela chador, the three-piece silk saris woven

with traditional motifs. Mysore Silk Saris, which are known for

their soft texture, last many years if carefully maintained.

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Silk history with Murshidabad

Murshidabad is a district of the Indian state of West Bengal

and also the name of its headquarters. Named after Murshid

Quli Khan ,Diwan of Bengal in 18th century. The city of

Murshidabad, on the Bhagirathi, was once famous as the

metropolis of the Subah Bangala, the eastern Mughal

province, and the usual residence of the nawabs of Bengal in

the eighteenth century. The city was reduced by the end of

the 18th century almost to its present size when first the

treasury and then the administrative headquarters of Bengal

were transferred to Calcutta.

A map of Murshidabad

Hazar Duari in the bank of river Bhagirathi

According to Ghulam Hussein, author of the RIYAZ-US-SALATIN, a

merchant named Makhsus Khan first improved the present

site of Murshidabad. A Makhsus Khan had been mentioned in

the AIN-I-AKBARI as a nobleman who served in Bengal and Bihar

during the last decades of the sixteenth century. He was

probably the brother of Said Khan governor of Bengal during

the reign of AKBAR. He built a rest house and surrounded it

with shops and the place was called after him Makhsudabad.

There is also mention of this place as 'Morasudabad' founded

by a Yavana (Muslim) in the Bhramanda section of the

Bhavisya Purana, which was probably composed in the late

sixteenth century. In Valentyn's map (1658-64) 'Moxudabath'

is shown on an island formed by the two branches of the

Ganges.

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During the 17th century this place became well known for silk

and silk textiles. As early as 1621 English agents reported that

huge quantities of silk could be obtained there. It continued to

grow in importance during the second half of the century and

eventually became a Mughal administrative station. During

the 1660's Murshidabad became a pargana headquarters and

its officers had jurisdiction over the European factories at

Cossimbazar.

Bengal had a nourishing silk industry in the past and

Murshidabad long enjoyed a special reputation in this respect.

The Bengal silk manufactures formed one of the important

exports of the English East India Company to England, and

these were exported also to the markets in the Asiatic

countries. After the establishment of English factories at

Malda and Cossimbazar, the English Company's trade in

Bengal silk manufactures began to increase, and their use

became common among the people in England because of

their good quality and cheapness. In the mid-eighteenth

century the country round about it (Cossimbazar) was very

fertile, and the inhabitants remarkably industrious, being

employed in many useful manufactures. About 1663 AD, the

Dutch in their Cossimbazar factory sometimes employed 700

silk weavers, and the English and the other European nation’s

smaller number. They generally furnished 22,000 bales of silk

a year, each bale weighing 100 Ibs. The Total was equivalent

to 30,078 mounds (1 mound = 40 Kg i.e. 12, 03,120 Kg). The

silk thread was thus distributed: the Dutch took for Japan or

Holland 6,000 to 7,000 bales, the merchants of Tartary and

the Mughal Empire about the same quantity, and the

remainder (about 9,000 bales) was consumed by the people of

the country for manufacturing their own stuff. This silk was

brought to Ahmadabad and Surat and was woven into fabrics.

There was considerable demand for Bengal's raw silk in

England's markets as the Continental System occasioned an

entire cessation of the customary importations of the Italian

raw silk.

After the battle of Palasy and still more after the acquisition of

the Diwani by the EAST INDIA COMPANY in 1765, apart from the

company's policy, the most important cause of the city's

decline was the effect of the Great Famine of 1769-70. A most

destructive calamity over the greater part of north Bengal, the

famine took its greatest toll on the population of Murshidabad

and its manufactures. Those who survived were incapable of

industry for a considerable time. From government inquiries it

could be seen that the silk manufacture of Murshidabad

declined after the famine as the weavers, industrial artisans

and laborers died in large numbers. Even two years after the

famine Murshidabad gave the impression of a deserted city

and had no proper defense against its consequences. This did

not escape the notice of the members of the Committee of

Circuit who visited Murshidabad in the middle of 1772 and it

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greatly influenced their decision for a move of the Khalsa

(treasury) to Calcutta.

At present In Bengal Malda is a mega sericulture district,

second Murshidabad , third Birbhum, other Nadia ,Bakura.

Summery

Mohammedan moors & merchants carried Indian silk & Spices to Europe, Africa and many Asian lands from time immemorial. Indian silk trade began with the east India Company. Cossimbazar in Murshidabad district of West Bengal became the hub of silk industry during earlier to mid 17th century. ‘Diwani ‘ was left to East India Company after “ Great war of Plassey” in 1757. “Traders become the rulers’. While sericulture declined in Bengal, Kashmir and Mysore tried to develop it, ‘Tipu’ sent a native of Tiruchirapally to Bengal to learn “ Sericulture and silk trade” between 1780 and 1790. He introduced Sericulture at Mysore. At the same time, James Anderson, the Physician General of east India company imported silkworm successfully to southern India from Bengal in December 1790.

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Silk The silk fiber is a continuous protein filament produced by the

silkworm. The silkworm extrudes the liquid fiber from the two

excretory canals of sericteries which unite in the spinneret in

its head, each of them termed as brin.

The two brin cemented together in the spinneret by

seicin become a single continuous fiver called bave or

filament. The seric brave is thus made by the union of two

brins held together by sericin.

The length of the continuous filament of the cocoon varies

from 350m-400min multivoltine and 600-1200m in Bivoltine.

The longitudinal structure of silk filament is tapering and

varies from 4-1 denier. The filament from the outer cocoon

shell is of 4 denier and the denier decreases down to 1 denier

in the filaments of inner shell of the cocoon.

Silk filament is triangular in cross-section and so reflects light

like a prism. Layer of protein imparts sheen, making silk a

luxurious sensuous fabric.

Types of Silk India is the only country producing commercially available

four varieties of silk i.e., mulberry, tasar, eri and muga. The

production contribution (1989-90) of these varieties of silk is

as follows:

Mulberry - (10,900 tons) -90.7%

Tasar - (465 tons) -3.9%

Eri - 590 tons -4.9%

Muga - 259 tons -0.5%

Except mulberry, other varieties of silks are generally termed

as non-mulberry silks. India has the unique distinction of

producing all these commercial varieties of silk.

Mulberry: The bulk of the commercial silk produced in the

world comes from this variety and often silk generally refers

to mulberry silk. Mulberry silk comes from the silkworm,

Bombyx mori L. which solely feeds on the leaves of mulberry

plant. These silkworms are completely domesticated and

reared indoors. In India, the major mulberry silk producing

states are Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Tamil

Nadu and Jammu & Kashmir which together accounts for 92 %

of country's total mulberry raw silk production.

Mulberry

silk worm

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Tasar: Tasar (Tussah) is

copperish colour, coarse silk

mainly used for furnishings

and interiors. It is less

lustrous than mulberry silk,

but has its own feel and

appeal. Tasar silk is

generated by the silkworm,

Antheraea mylitta which

mainly thrive on the food

plants Asan and Arjun. Tasar silkworm

The rearings are conducted in nature on the trees in the

open. In India, tasar silk is mainly produced in the states of

Jharkhand, Chattisgarh and Orissa, besides Maharashtra, West

Bengal and Andhra Pradesh. Tasar culture is the main stay for

many a tribal community in India.

Oak Tasar: It is a finer variety of tasar generated by the

silkworm, Antheraea proyeli J. in India which feed on natural

food plants of oak, found in abundance in the sub-Himalayan

belt of India covering the states of Manipur, Himachal

Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya and Jammu &

Kashmir. China is the major producer of oak tasar in the world

and this comes from another silkworm which is known as

Antheraea pernyi.

Eri silk worm

Eri: Also known as Endi or Errandi, Eri is a multivoltine silk

spun from open-ended cocoons, unlike other varieties of silk.

Eri silk is the product of the domesticated silkworm,

Philosamia ricini that feeds mainly on castor leaves. Ericulture

is a household activity practiced mainly for protein rich pupae,

a delicacy for the tribal. Resultantly, the eri cocoons are open-

mouthed and are spun. The silk is used indigenously for

preparation of chaddars (wraps) for own use by these tribals.

In India, this culture is practiced mainly in the north-eastern

states and Assam. It is also found in Bihar, West Bengal and

Orissa.

Muga: This golden yellow colour silk is prerogative of India

and the pride of Assam state. It is obtained from semi-

domesticated multivoltine silkworm, Antheraea assamensis.

These silkworms feed on the aromatic leaves of Som and

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Soalu plants and are reared on trees similar to that of tasar.

Muga culture is specific to the state of Assam and an integral

part of the tradition and culture of that state. The muga silk,

an high value product is used in products like sarees,

mekhalas, chaddars, etc.

Main four silk worms

In murshidabad mainly mulberry is produced, hence we will

concentrate on mulberry silk only.

Mulberry silk

The silk of Bombyx Mori is composed of two protein substance

namely fibroin and sericin. It also contains small quantity of

other matters like fatty, waxy, coloring and minerals. Fibroin

constitutes 70%-80% of the weight; sericin encloses the fibroin

in a continuous sheath, accounting for 20-30% of the weight;

the fatty, waxy, coloring and mineral matters from a very

small part of the silk, not exceeding 2-3%.

Bivoltine is commercially grown in Himalayan foothill (low

temperature). Multivoltine and Multi-Bivoltine are mainly

grown in Murshidabad, and less of Bivoltine.

Bivoltine silkworm yields good quality of silk cocoons, but low

resistance to climatic conditions.

Multi -voltine silkworms can be grown in high temperature

and high humidity. Another traditional silk worm Nistari has

good resistance towards the climatic condition.

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Physical properties of silk

Microscopy of silk fiber

The cross sectional view of a cocoon filament of

Bombyx mori is roughly elliptical, showing the two

triangular brins completely surrounded by sericin

normally facing each other with the flat side of the

triangle. The longitudinal view shows a very irregular

surface structure mostly in the sericin layer, which

consist of traverse fissures, creases, folds and uneven

lumps.

The longitudinal view of the degummed fiber shows a

smooth, structure less, translucent filament with

occasional constrictions as well as swellings or lumps.

Hygroscopic nature

Silk is highly hygroscopic. Silk has a regain of 11% at

65% and 7 C temperatures. Degummed silk is less

hygroscopic, since sericin has a greater power of

absorbing moisture than the fiber proper. The regain

of degummed silk is regarded as about 9.25% at

standard atmospheric condition. A temperature of 1 0

C is adopted for conditioning of silk as it is found to be

difficult to dry the fiber completely at 110 C or 1 0 C.

Tensile strength

The tenacity of mulberry silk is in the range of 3.0-4.5

grams per denier, and has an elongation of 18-22%.

Electrical properties

Silk is a poor conductor of electricity and accumulate

static charge by friction, which at times render it

difficulty to handle in manufacturing process. The

charge can be dissipated by high humidity.

Chemical property of silk

Action of heat

Silk will stand a higher temperature without injury or

danger of decomposi on. It can be heated up to 1 0

C. at 170 C, however it is rapidly disintegrated. On

burning it liberates an odor similar to burning of hair.

Action of acid

Silk readily absorbers diluted acids from solution and in

so doing increases in luster and acquires the ‘scroop’-

which is a characteristic crackling sound emitted when

the fiber is squeezed or pressed. Silk protein like wool,

can be decomposed by strong mineral acids.

Concentrated sulfuric and hydrochloric acids dissolve

silk and nitric acid colors silk yellow.

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Action of alkalis

Silk is not sensitive to dilute alkalis as wool, but the

luster of the fiber is somewhat diminished. When

treated with strong hot caustic alkalis, the silk fiber

dissolves. Ammonia and soaps have no effect on silk

beyond dissolving the sericin, though on long

continued boiling in soap, the fibroin is also attacked.

Effect of organic solvents

Cleaning solvents and spot removing agents like

carbon tetrachloride, Triethanolamine, acetone etc, do

not damage silk.

Effect of sunlight

Sunlight tends to accelerate the decomposition of silk.

It increases oxidation and results in fiber degradation

and destruction.

Washing and drying property of silk

Colored silk are washing in the same way as white silks using

neutral soap in lukewarm water. A small quantity of vinegar or

citric acid should be used in the last rise to revive the

freshness of the color.

Silk with doubtful colors should be steeped from one or two

minutes in cold water with a small quantity of vinegar or a few

drops of acetic acid. Then the material should be washed

quickly in lukewarm water followed by several rinsing in

different water. In case of color bleeding , citric acid or acetic

acid should be used in all the rinsing water, the material

should be partly dried (semi dry) by hanging in shade or

indoors and ironed on wrong side of the material . However,

dry cleaning is advisable for unstable colors.

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Sericulture

Sericulture is an agro-based industry. It involves rearing of

silkworms for the production of raw silk, which is the yarn

obtained out of cocoons spun by certain species of insects.

The major activities of sericulture comprises of food-plant

cultivation to feed the silkworms which spin silk cocoons and

reeling the cocoons for unwinding the silk filament for value

added benefits such as processing and weaving.

The Sericulture is recognized as one of the most promising and

an ideally suited Industry to the rural socio-economies

developments providing employment opportunities with

minimum investment and profitable return within a short

gestation period. Being a labour intensive rural based Industry

it offers a qualitative and quantitative change in the poverty

alleviation with a chain creation of employment from unskilled

farm labourer to skill artisans to all sections especially women

folk. It will generate income for people living below the

poverty line in the rural masses particularly for women.

Mulberry cultivation

One of the important raw materials for silk production is the

leaves of a mulberry plant also known as toot.

Mulberry, the basic diet of the silk caterpillar claims almost 60

percent in silk production cost. An ouce of silkworm eggs

yields 25-30 kgs of cocoons. The metamorphic process from

egg to larva to cocoon needs a ton of mulberry leaves. A

mulberry land hectare can produce 15-40 tons of foliage

depending on agro-climatic condition.

The silkworm diet is prepared through cultivation, harvesting,

cutting and chopping leaves renders sericulture a highly

labour absorbing occupation.

Cut stems are planted for mulberry plant propagation

Mulberry plants ready for harvesting

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Life cycle of Silkworm

In India where the temperature ranges from 160C to

310C, The silkworm Bombyx mori are reared

throughout the year.

The total life span of this silkworm is 50 days, out of

this egg stage is 10 days, larval stage is 25-30 days

and the pupa stage is 10 days. It passes 4 moults

and 5 instars during growth. Moult is the stage

when the silkworm stop eating. At the end of the

larval duration, the silkworm emits silk from its

mouth and constructs a cocoon on scaffolding.

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Grainage

Grainage are establishments where disease-free and quality

eggs are produced on scientific line. These eggs are used for

production of commercial cocoons.

Selection: In order to produce good quality and healthy

eggs the seed cocoons used for the purpose must be of high

quality and in good health, and therefore the seed cocoons

arriving at the grainages are subjected to rigid selection. In

selecting the lots of seed cocoons, past history such as the

source of seed, progress of crop, yield of cocoons and other

qualitative characters are taken into account. Sound and

uniform cocoons are selected and the defected ones are

rejected.

Moth emergence: The selected seed cocoons should be

preserved in well-ventilated room and spread out in thin

layers on cocoons trays arranged on stands. The temperature

and humidity in the room should also be maintained as far as

possible at op mum level ( - 5 C) for uniform development

of the pupae into moths and consequent uniform emergence

of healthy moth from the seed cocoon.

Emergence of moth

Emergence of moth occurs early in the morning, often, to

ensure more uniform and simultaneous emergence of moths,

the rooms housing the seed cocoons are kept dark and

suddenly lights are put on so that moths emerge all at once.

This is done two hour prior to picking of the moths for mating

purpose.

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Moths have a tendency to pair immediately and, therefore,

the female moths required to copulate with the male moths

are allowed their mates for copulation.

Mating and egg laying

The moths lay 400-500eggs in the case of univoltine and

bivoltine races and 300-400 in the case of multivoltine race on

average.

Moth examination

After the eggs are laid the female moth is examined under

microscope to see if the moth is free from disease (pebrin) or

not.

Silkworm egg

Silkworm eggs can en is divided into hibernating and non-

hibernating eggs.

In hibernating eggs the embryo develops only half-way,

undergoes a stage of dormancy called diapauses, and hatches

out the following spring. In non-hibernating eggs, the embryo

develops without undergoing diapauses and hatches out in

the normal way. Under fixed environmental conditions, this

characteristic depend upon the hereditary factor of the

silkworms namely whether the egg produced is hibernating or

not.

Hibernating eggs non hibernating eggs

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Silkworm laying hibernating eggs in spring, which do not hatch

out till the following spring, so producing only one generation

in a year, are called univoltines. When the first generation of

moths lays non-hibernating eggs and the second generation

lays hibernating eggs which hatch out only in the following

spring so that there are two generation in a year, then such

silkworm are known as bivoltines. Silkworms which lay non-

hibernating eggs and so are able to produced many

generations in a year are called multivoltiens.

Generally univoltine silkworms lay only hibernating eggs and

multivoltine races lay only non-hibernating eggs while the

behavior of the egg of the bivoltines is intermediate. Eggs of

multivoltines do not normally hibernate, and hatch in eight to

ten days, while the univoltine and bivoltine races lay

hibernating eggs, which require special treatment to make

them hatch. Thus silkworms are classified as univoltine,

bivoltine, and multivoltine.

Artificial hatching

The common method of acid treatment is to subject the

freshly laid hybrid eggs within 20-24 hours of laying to

hydrochloric acid which stops the eggs from entering into

diapauses. This made the eggs hatch in 10days.

Chilling

If hatching is delayed for more than 30 days, acid treatment

can be carried out only after chilling ( rst in 5 C for 0- 5

hour and then at 5 C for 40-60 days). This is known as acid

treatment after chilling.

Low cost acid treatment bath

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Incubation

Incubation of silkworm eggs aims at uniform development of

the embryo there securing uniform hatching through proper

maintenance of environmental conditions. In addition, the

condition of incubation greatly influence the influence the

voltinism character of egg in the succeeding generation and

also the larval growth and the success of the cocoon crop itself

including cocoon quality. Therefore, the eggs after the

necessary cold preservation treatment and acid treatment for

artificial hatching should be subjected to ideal incubation

conditions.

Egg

card

Optimum humidity in the incubation room is 80-85 %.

Optimum temperature for the incubation of non- hibernating

eggs and eggs after acid treatment for immediate hatching is

- 5 C right from the beginning.

Towards the end of the incubation period at the blue spot or

eye spot stage, the eye are kept in dark boxes or placed so

that their hatching can be more uniform on the next day.

Matured egg

Incubation pot

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Hatching and brushing

Brushing

Hatching of silk worms generally starts in the morning. The

process of transferring the silkworms to rearing trays is called

Brushing. The card with the newly hatched worms are placed

in the rearing trays or boxes and tender mulberry leaves cut

into 0.5 squares are sprinkled over the egg card. Later the egg

card is removed and the worms remain on the tray.

1st instars

2nd instars

3rd instars

Chowki Rearing

Rearing of 1st, 2nd, and 3rd instars silkworms under,

hygienic condition is known as Chowki rearing.

Silk worm’s larva is generally fed in four times per day,

5-6am, 11am, 4pm, 9-10pm.

Leaves of mulberry are harvested only after 50-60 days

from sprouting. And harvested in cooler hours.

Leaves are covered with wet gummy cloth.

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Worms are kept in the paraffin paper in the rearing tray and in

all the four side wet sponge is placed to increase the relative

humidity, if low.

Mulberry leave separation for feeding

Mulberry leave storage

Rearing tray and stand

Rearing house

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4th instars

5th instars

Late age Rearing

The Rearing of 4th & 5th instars larva, under healthy and

hygienic condition is known as Late age Rearing.

Symptoms of spinning

The body of matured worm shrinks and becomes

transparent because of the full development of silk

gland and their litter becomes soft. It is then placed in

Chandraki.

Cocoons should be harvested on 5th day in multivoltine

and 7th-8th day in bivoltine.

Spinning of silk worm

23

Stages of spinning and formation of cocoon

The matured larvae are placed on the

chandraki, where it forms cocoon

24

Physical characteristics of cocoons

Color: Presence of pigment causes color. The color of the

cocoon is not influenced by environment and cultivation.

Commercially, brightness is value because dried cocoon

having been badly stored or of being too old. There are a

variety of shades/tints of cocoon color, for example white,

yellow, yellowish green, golden yellowed.

Multivoltine Bivoltine Multi-Bivoltine

Shape: The common shape of the bombyx mori cocoon is

spherical, oval and dumb bell; pointed cocoons are found

rarely. The dumb bell shaped cocoon has a central

contraction. Pronounced contraction may be a serious

obstacle in reeling the bave. Pointed cocoons may have a

point at one end only or at both ends. If the point is too

accentuated, there is a risk of the cocoon being broken open

during brushing.

Size: The dimensions and consequently the volume of the

cocoon vary very greatly from breed to breed. It is greatly

influenced by the cultivation, climatic condition and amount

of feed available.

Grain: The wrinkling and irregularities of the surface of the

cocoon is termed grain. Grain may be

coarse or fine depending on the

intensity of the wrinkling. These

conditions are greatly influenced by

the cultivation, climatic condition and

the amount of feed available.

Grains in cocoon

Cocoon weight: The cocoon weight shows a continuous

loss of weight from the time of its completion till the

emergence of the moth because of loss of moisture.

The average weight of the cocoon, like most of its other

commercial characteristics, varies considerably in any single

race depending on its cultivation and the condition of rearing.

Uniformity of the cocoon weight is important because it has

impact on the uniform behavior in the process of reeling. The

single cocoon weight of multivoltine cocoon is in the range of

1.1 to 1.4g and that of bivoltine cocoons is in the range of 1.6

to 1.8g.

25

Shell weight: The shell weight is more important than the

cocoon weight since it is the shell that yields the silk for

reeling. Thus, higher the weight of the shell, greater will be

the silk yield from it. In Indian multivoltine hybrid cocoons the

shell weight is in the range of 0.15-0.25g and bivoltine cocoon

shell weighs in the range of 0.3-0.5g.

Shell percentage: It is the ratio between the weight of the

silk shell and the cocoon weight expressed as a percentage.

Shell percentage= (weight of the cocoon shell/weight of the whole cocoon) X 100

Shell percentage fairly indicates the quality of raw silk that can

be reeled from the cocoons and also helps in estimating

renditta and thereby fixing a proper price for the cocoons. The

shell percentage of Indian multivoltine hybrid ranges from 13

to 17% and that of bivoltine hybrid from 18-23%.

Filament length: It is the total length of the reelable silk

bave in the cocoon. In Indian multivoltine hybrid cocoon

contain from 350m to 650m of filament whereas bivoltine

hybrids have filament length of 800m to 1200m.

Non breakable filament length: It is the average length

of filament that can be unwound from the cocoon without

break. Average non-breakable filament length= total filament

length/ 1+no. of breaks

Filament denier: Denier is the weight in grams of 9000m of

yarn/filament. Normally the denier (size) of the bave is higher

at the outer layers of the cocoon filament varies from 1.7 to

2.8

Denier = (weight in gram of filament /length in meter of

filament) X 9000

(Filament length and filament denier are determined during

single cocoon reeling test, by using epprouvette and denier

scale).

Floss percentage: Floss is an entangled loose filament

around the cocoon shell and it is unreelable. Generally floss

percentage (8-12%) as compared to bivoltine cocoon (2-5%).

Raw silk percentage: Percentage of raw silk reeled on

cocoon weight or shell weight is called raw silk percentage.

Raw silk percentage= (weight of raw silk reeled/weight of cocoon or shell) X100

26

Renditta and price fixation of cocoons

Renditta: The number of kilograms of cocoon required to

obtain one kilogram of reeled silk is called renditta. Renditta

of multivoltine and bivoltine cocoons (on fresh weight) is in

the order of 8-14 and 6-8 respectively depend upon the races.

Higher shell percentage results in better renditta/raw silk

percentage and thus cocoon quality is better.

Estimated renditta=constant/Actual shell percentage of

the cocoon lot

From a lot (normally of 50Kg. cocoon) select randomly 100

normal cocoons and assess the percentage of the shell.

Shell percentage= (weight of 100shells/weight of 100cocoons)

X 100

Kakame cost =

price of raw silk+ income from by product – (cost of

manufacture + profit expected)

Cost of cocoon per g . = Kakame cost/ calculated renditta.

Mulberry cocoons

There are two types of mulberry cocoons in India viz.,

multivoltine (91%) and bivoltine (9%). Multivoltine cocoons

are flimsy /flossy with shorter filament length and shell

percentage is lower in the order of 13-17% and raw silk

percentage in the range of 7-10%, whereas bivoltine cocoons

are compact with longer filament and shell percentage is

higher in the order of 18-23% and raw silk percentage in the

range of 11-15%.

Cocoon testing

Cocoon assessment

It is not compulsory but occasionally done. 100g fresh

cocoon (about 50-60 fresh cocoons

0 are randomly taken. Cocoon is cut individually by a

very simple cutting device. There is a circular disc on

which a number of holes are provided to hold

individual cocoon.

Projected cocoon end is cut by the blade which is fixed

to a movable arm and weighment of shell is made for

assessing the shell percentage.

Shell percentage= (shell weight /cocoon weight) X100

27

Cocoon drying

The test samples cocoons so received are subjected to

drying .Batch type drying units are usually used in all

the cocoon testing units. Cocoons are subjected at 110

degrees C for about 4 ½ hours and temperature is

gradually reduced from 110-65 degree C by a

thermostatic control device.

Sorting

Dried cocoons are sorted out for removing defective

cocoon is entered. Percentage of defective cocoons is

worked out on the basis of weight/number.

Various defective cocoons

1. Insect eaten(maggots eaten)

2. Inside stained(melted cocoon)

3. Outside stained(urinated cocoon)

4. Thin ends

5. Flimsy cocoon

6. Scaffolding marks in mounting

7. De shaped(abnormal shaped) or malformed

8. Flossy (shells loose and floss is more, grains are not

developed).

9. Mould attacked cocoon

10. Doubles cocoon

11. Pierced cocoon

Urinated cocoons Double cocoons

Flossy cocoons Uzi cut cocoons

Total defective cocoon percentage is 0.5-1%. There are

standard photographs of various defective cocoons in

each cocoon testing station. On seeing the

photographs, sorters classify the defective cocoons in a

lot. Double and insect eaten cocoons are all completely

eliminated from lest reeling lot.

28

Silkworm disease

Gasari disease (Rosa) in summers – the silkworm

swells.

Maska diseases (chura Kati)-fungal attack –in low

temperature.

Gattine (solpa)

Pebrin –Defect in eggs, moth examination is done. If

infection is found in the eggs then the whole lot is

rejected as it will infect other silkworms in the area.

Process flow chart of mulberry silk reeling:-

Cocoon testing

Stifling/drying -sun drying

-steam drying -hot air drying

Sorting

(To discard defective cocoons which are unfit for Reeling)

Cooking (To soften sericin in plain water)

-open pan/single pan system -Three pan system

-pressurized cocoon boiling

Brushing/deflossing -hand brushing

-mechanical brushing

Reeling (wet) (To produce raw silk thread) -floating system of reeling -sunken system of reeling

Re-reeling (for standard size hank0

Skeinning

Book making and bailing

Testing

Marketing

29

Stifling/Drying

The purpose of stifling is to kill the pupa inside the cocoon to

avoid its emergence as a moth and thereby preserving the

continuity of the filament. Secondly, this operation enables

the cocoons to get dried so that the cocoons can be stored for

a long period. There are different methods of stifling namely,

a) Sun drying

b) Steam stifling

c) Hot air drying

d) Other methods of drying.

Sum drying

In sun, the pupae is killed by prolonged exposure (2-3days

depending upon the intensity of sun light) of freshly harvested

cocoons to hot sun. Though this method is simple and cheap,

it is not advisable to sun dry the cocoon, since the cocoon

shell hardens thereby affecting the reeliblity. It is practiced in

Jammu & Kashmir and west Bengal in India. Sun drying

Steam stifling

In this process, the pupa in the cocoon is killed by exposing

the fresh cocoons to the direct action of steam for a short

time of 25minutes. This method is practiced in south India.

There are two methods of steam stifling

Basket steaming

In small reeling establishments which handle only small

qualities of cocoon at a time, fresh cocoon are stifled by

this method .about 10-15kgs. Fresh cocoon are filled in a

bamboo basket in which, the sides are closely woven but

the bottom is loosely woven. A thick wet cloth is then

tightly wrapped over the top of the basket and tied at the

sides leaving the bottom free. The basket thus filled with

cocoons is placed over the mouth of a vessel in which

water is boiling. Sometimes the reeling basin itself is used

for this purpose. The steam from the vessel below soon

fills the basket and kills the pupa inside the cocoons till it

feels dry. This system is in practice in charkha and cottage

basin establishments.

Chamber steaming

This process makes use of specially designed and

conveniently large sized chambers. These chambers are

internally provided with perforated steam pipes. In some

types, shelves for keeping the fresh cocoons are spread in

30

thin layers and subjected to steam for about 15 minutes.

This system is in practice in big filatures where boiler has

been installed.

Hot air drying chamber

Hot air drying

In this method the fresh cocoon are dried by means of hot air.

Hot air stifling is suitable for good quality cocoons such as

bivoltine and this process facilitates complete drying of

cocoon thus enabling to store the cocoons for a long time.

There are two principle of hot air stifling:

Italian type

The cocoons are first subjected to low temperature

(about 50 degree C) and then gradually, they are

subjected to high temperature (about 100 degree C)

for 3-4 hours.

Japanese type

The cocoons are first subjected to high temperature

(about 100 degree C) and then gradually, they are

subjected to low temperature (about 50 degree C).

Other methods of drying

This includes, use of infrared rays, cold air killing, use of

poisonous gases, etc.

Storage of cocoon

Storage of cocoons is very important especially when the

stifled cocoons have to be stored for a very long time. The

stored racks should be kept in well ventilated room and the

cocoons have to be placed in thin layers on shelves taking care

to see that there is proper aeration. Storage racks have to be

placed above ant wells. Since the dried pupae inside the

cocoons have protenious matter, unless the cocoons are fully

dried and preserved properly, certain dermesitides/insects will

attack the pupae and thereby damage the cocoons. The

humidity of the storage room should not exceed 70% and the

temperature should be about 27 degree C.

31

Cocoons are stored in wooden almiras with proper ventilation

and Ant wells

Cocoon cooking

The object of cocoon cooking is to soften the sericin so that

cocoon shell is loosened enabling the filament to be wound

smoothly. The different methods of cooking are:-

Open pan

Cooking is for 3-5 min. at boiling temperature. This is

done to soften the sericin of the cocoon.

Three pan

It is high -low-high cooking, (90-92)-(60-65)-(90-92)

degree C. This is done for high compact cocoons for

better cooking of the inner shell.

Open-pan

Pressurized cocoon boiling

This is done for penetration of water into the cocoons (bivoltines) for better reeling.

Pressurized cooking

32

The general sequence of conveyor cooking is as

follows:

Pre-treatment (soaking in hot water (1-2 min. 40-60

degree C)

Permeation I (high temp. part) hot water (1-2 min. 70-

80 degree C)

Permeation II (low temp. part) hot water (2-3 min. 60-

75 degree C)

Steam cooking part. (90-95-98-99) pressure of water

head 5-10 mm for 3 min.

Adjustment part hot water (98-95-85-70)

Finishing part hot water (1-2min. 65-55 degree C)

Transporting part hot water (1.5 min. 30-40 degree C)

Transport to reeling section.

Brushing/ Deflossing

The object of brushing is to remove the floss in order to get

the true end of the filament. There are two method of

brushing, namely,

Hand brushing

In hand brushing, the cocoons are

handled with a ladle, which help in sufficiently softening the

cocoon layers. Later, a group of cocoon will be brushed by

means of a stick tied in the form of a broom for end picking.

Mechanical brushing

In mechanical brushing, the brushes are held by brackets.

During cooking of cocoon, the brush is lowered into the basin

which makes fairly brisk clock wise and anti clock wise rotary

movement with ¾ of a turn in each direction alternately. After

a definite of movements, the

brush is lifted either

automatically or manually.

The true end of the cocoons

will be easily drawn out by

this method of brushing.

33

Reeling

Since nature has already spun a long continuous silk filament

(fiber), there is no further spinning to prepare yarn as in the

case of other natural fibers, except that the individual long

filaments are combined together after unwinding them from

the cocoons and winding the resultant yarn on to a convenient

device. This process is called silk reeling. Silk reeling is simply

the unwinding of filaments from a group of cocoons in hot

water bath on to a reel. In silk reeling 6-8 cocoons are taken

and their filaments are combined together to make one yarn.

This yarn can be as long as 300-800m.

Methods of reeling

Silk reeling can be broadly classified under two methods

popularly known as:

Direct reeling method on standard reels.

Indirect method which includes reeling on small sized

reels and transferring the reeled silk directly silk

directly from these reels to standard sized reels on re-

reeling machines.

System of reeling

There are two systems of reeling of cocoons:

Floating system

In floating system, the cocoons are cooked only to the

extent the shell becomes wet, but is still impervious to

water, so that they float in water when the cooked

cocoons are put into the reeling basin. Floating system

is associated with:

1. Reeling of cooked cocoons which float in

reeling basin.

2. High speed reeling

3. High basin temperature

4. Less number of reeling ends.

Sunken system of reeling

In this system, the cooked cocoons sink in water at the

time of reeling. In this system, not only the shell is

cooked but in the process, the cocoon also gets filled

with water inside to the extent of 97-98%, with the

result, the cocoon becomes heavy and sinks in the

reeling water. This system of reeling is associated with:

1. Reeling of cooked cocoons which sink under

water in reeling basin

2. Slow speed reeling

3. Low basin temperature reeling

4. Large number of reeling ends.

This system is suitable for superior quality

cocoons like bivoltine.

34

Croissure

Croissure is a mechanism of inter twining or crossing of two

threads or one thread itself, by twisting the threads in a series

of spirals during its passage from the threader to the reel. The

functions of croissure are:

To squeeze out excess water contained in the filament

passing through it.

To knead the group of filaments passing through the

spiral to form a round, smooth and compact thread

firmly agglutinated with an even coating of sericin.

The thread becomes more cohesive as the filaments

are attached more firmly by the croissure.

Thread becomes cleaner as many defect s are

eliminated. Weak and defective portions can be

discarded when they break under croissure tension.

There are two types of croissure:

Chambon- used in charkha

In chamdon type, the two groups of thread coming out

of the thread guides of the reeling basin are inter

twined over each other in a few spirals and the loose

ends are attached to the reel after being taken through

the distribution guides. This is popular in charkha

reeling. It is a simple technique but suffers from

serious draw backs such as interdependence of threads

drawn from separate ends for croissure effect,

formation of double ends, less tension as compared to

tavellette type and the restriction imposed on the

reeling ends.

Tavellette –used in cottage basin and filature

basin(Italian type)

In the tavellete type, the thread coming out of the

thread guide passes over three small pulleys called

croissure pulleys. This type is adopted in modern

methods of reeling. There is sufficient uniform tension

in this system.

35

Silk reeling

There are two types of silk yarns produced in murshidabad

namely, raw silk or reeled silk comprising major quantity and

spun silk yarn. Raw silk yarns are comparable to filament yarn

and the spun silk yarns are comparable to staple yarn in the

world of synthetic textile. Both types of yarns (raw silk and

spun silk) are produced in mulberry, tasar and muga, whereas

eri cocoon is only meant for spun yarn.

In murshidabad, mainly mulberry silk is produced and less of

tassar silk.

Mulberry silk reeling

Silk reeling is yet to be modernized in India, whereas in

sericulturally advanced countries like Japan, very sophisticated

reeling process is adopted and the reeling units are installed

with automatic reeling machines. In India, there are three

distinct reeling devices in mulberry sector namely

Charkha- a crude system of reeling

Cottage basin system-improved over charkha

Multiend basin system

Automatic reeling technique-suitable for bivoltine.

Charkha

In murshidabad mainly charkha is dominating in silk reeling

industry is that bulk of raw silk produced is used in the

handloom industry wherein the cost factor of the raw material

has to be kept low to enable the rate of the finished product

saleable.

Secondly, the establishment of charkha unit dose not needs

any big investment or special skill. This enables charkha silk to

be sold at a minimum price which is very much wanted by the

handloom industry.

Thirdly, inferior quality multivoltine and defective cocoons

available at lower prices can be reeled more economically on

charkha available at lower price can be reeled more

economically on charkha than on cottage basin or multiend

basins.

The charkha reeling system is an Italian version or floating

system of reeling. This version of reeling will improve the

reelability of inferior and defective cocoons with out

considering the quality of silk.

36

Cottage basin

This reeling device is an improved version over charkha and it

is indigenously designed on the principle of Japanese multiend

reeling machine. Here cocoon cooking is done separately in a

boiling water basin and reeling is done in a hot water basin.

Each basin has 6 ends and each thread is first passed through

a button to clean the slubs,waste etc. later on , it is

independently passed through a tavellette type of croissure,

the thread passes through a traverse guide and finally on to a

small reel.

Re-reeling is done to prepare standard sized hank from small

reels. So, the quality of silk is superior to charkha silk. But,

cottage basin is generally hand driven and alignment of the

basin is not sufficiently perfect. As a result production of

superior quality silk conforming to international standard is

not possible.

Multi end reeling basin

This reeling device is a further improved version over the

cottage basin and it is power driven. Boilers are installed for

cooking and reeling purpose and for cocoon stifling hot air

drying method are used. In multiend basin, there are some

additional attachments such as Jettboute which picks up the

filaments to increase the efficiency of cocoon feeding. This

distribution is further improved so that the over all working

efficiency of the basin is

enhanced. Normally, each

basin consists 10 ends.

Multi end reeling

machine

37

Automatic reeling

Automatic reeling machine

The automatic reeling technique has as its components

pressurized cocoon boiling machine, automatic cocoon feeder

and a mechanical brushing unit. In addition, it is equipped

with automatic denier control denier control device, where in

human error in maintain the uniformity of denier is avoid to a

large extent and thereby ensuring minimum size deviation.

Ghosh basin

Ghosh Basin (CSRTI improved)

This basin is the combination of charkha and cottage basin.

This maintains the basin temperature at boiling point for

cooking and at lower temperature (40 degree C) for reeling.

Reeled silk

38

Re-reeling

Re-reeling is done to transfer the raw silk into standard sized

hanks. The grant reeling helps in finding of broken ends of the

thread and also its knotting. Re-reeling speed is almost double

the reeling speed. So one end re-reeling will be enough to take

the input of two end reeling.

Re-reeling machine

Skeinning

The standard sized hanks are carefully examined for defects if

any. Then it is laced and folded upon itself to form a skein .the

weight of the skeins varies from 50g to more than 100g. The

skeins of raw silk are then made into books and bales to be

marketed later. Skeinning process

39

Skein of reeled silk

A book ready for sale

Doupion silk reeling

Double cocoons are used for the production of doupion silk.

Doupion silk is reeled on charkha and cottage basin at high

temperature, maintaining one to two ends without croissure.

Generally, the denier of doupion silk ranges from 100-300.

Indian doupion has good demand because of distinct slub

effect. Doupion silk is used in dress materials, furnishing

fabrics and upholstery. It has a great potential for export.

Double cocoons

40

Seri plan board winder

Silk testing

Evenness, cleanness and neatness test

Evenness (CV %)

This is a measure for the variations in the yarn cross-section

over lengths up to approximately 20m. The instrument traces

out short term denier deviations (evenness change degree0

which in the routine size test, are not determined.

Evenness board

Cleanness

In this category, thick placed are counted, which, according to

their mass, overstep the normal yarn cross-section by 35

percent or more. A subdivision is made with respect to “short

place” ( to 0mm) and “long places” (more than 30mm

length).

Neatness (neps)

The neatness indicates the frequency of short yarn lengths

(maximum 3mm) which, according to their mass, overstep the

normal yarn cross-section by more than 50 percent. In other

words, neatness refers to faults which, as far the naked eye is

concerned, are considered as neps.

41

Tenacity and elongation test

The unique synthesis of strength and fineness make silk very

useful in certain important sectors, such as surgical field and

fabrication of precision equipments. Silk fiber is also highly

extensible. Therefore, the determination of strength and

elongation of raw silk is an important test. Breaking load i.e.,

Seri graph

The load the thread can withstand just when it breaks, is

expressed in terms of grams per Tex or per denier and is

known as tenacity.

The tenacity and elongation test is carried out on the

serigraph strength tester or the serimeter. The tester works

on the principal of constant rate of traverse, pendulum type of

yarn strength testing machine, graduated in grams and

capable of elongation of the threads. Normally, the tenacity

and elongation percentage of mulberry raw silk are in the

range of 3.5-4.5g/d and 18-22% respectively.

Tenacity shall be expressed in gram per denier per denier as

calculated by the following formula:

Tenacity in g per denier= Z/nXd

Where Z= breaking load in g of test skein, N=number of strands tensioned and D= denier of test skein

Winding Test

The test is established in order to determine the winding

quality of the skein, when the thread is transferred from hank

to the bobbin during the throwing process prior to weaving.

More number of breakages per unit time during winding

means loss of production and more wastage and naturally the

42

quality of the woven product is affected on account of more

numbers of knots in the silk thread.

The standard procedure is to record the number of breakage

occurring in a given period during winding. Winding breakages

might be due to various defects in reeling and re-reeling.

Negligence in attaching cocoon filament in time, gummy and

faulty knots etc., are some of the causes for breakage during

winding. Winding machine

Cohesion test

Composite raw silk thread is on twisted during reeling. The individual filaments are combined mainly by the sericin content in the silk fiber. When the cocoons are cooked in boiling water, the sericin is softened and it will be in softened

Cohesion tester condition during reeling as the reeling is done in hot water. The sericin adhering to the filaments dries after reeling i.e., on exposure to air and causes the filament to agglutinate in the thread. Thus, the raw silk thread is compact and strong enough to withstand friction during the later processes. The degree of agglutination is important. As a matter of fact,

higher the degree of agglutination, better is the cohesive

character. The cohesion is measured by subjecting the raw silk

threads to friction in the duplan cohesion tester and

constituent filaments. This test is not required for coarser raw

silk threads above 34d size.

Ruptured filament

43

Silk conditioning

Silk is highly hygroscopic in nature. Therefore, it absorbs

moisture to the extent of 15-20% during the days of high

humidity like rainy season etc. during dry season; the moisture

content in the silk will be very low. However, at standard

atmospheric conditions i.e., at 27 degree C temperature and

65% relative humidity, silk absorbers about 11% moisture. So,

in order to avoid loss/gain either to the seller or buyer. The

silk is conditioned to have standard moisture content of 11%

in it.

To start with, silk is subjected to heat treatment at 140 degree

C so as to remove all the moisture content and then add 11%

moisture to oven dry weight to find out the conditioned

weight of silk.

The formula is:

Condition weight of silk= W+ (W x 11)/100 where W= oven dry

weight of silk

Conditioning cabinet

44

Waste silk

On an average, about 35 percent of silk waste on the weight

of the raw silk reeled is being produced in the reeling industry,

in both mulberry and non-mulberry sectors. Besides this

reeling waste, pierced and cut cocoons in rearing or grain age

houses are available to a small extent and some quantity of

inferior cocoons which are unsuitable for economic reeling

process is also available. This waste silk is used for the

production of spun silk yarn.

Classification of silk waste

During the process of mulberry silk reeling, the different

qualities of mulberry silk waste obtained as bye-product are:

Waste from cocoons

-floss or blaze

Floss silk, blaze also known as borra is first part of the bave

extruded by the worm for the

frame work of the cocoon. Most

of it is removed from the

cocoons during their collection

and rest while sorting. This can

be used for noil spinning.

The quality recovered from the cocoons on collection is on an

average about 1-1.5% of the cocoons (floss is 2% to 22% of

shell weight in Indian mulberry cocoons)

-Discarded cocoons, pierced, double, stained, etc.

This includes all cocoons found to be unreeling able during

sorting like:

Double cocoons which are jointly formed by combination of

two worms in the same cell and which due to the interlocking

of the continuous filament can not be reeled along with good

cocoons. These cocoons are also used for reeling doupion silk

(double cocoon production is 6-105 in India).

Inferior cocoons-The improperly built cocoons and those

deformed in shape, melted cocoons and other cocoons which

unfit for reeling.

Worm eaten cocoons-Cocoons from which the moth has

emerged. These come from the breeders.

45

Reeling waste

- Cooker’s waste

-Basin waste-The basin waste constitute unreel able cocoons

that were not eliminated during sorting and combined in the

reeling of normal cocoon lots. This forms about2- 3% of silk

handled, but will be higher when cocoons are of inferior

quality.

- eeler’s waste

-basin refuse or boiling off waste.

Thread waste

- Re-reeling, winding or throwster’s waste,

This includes all the thread waste formed during knotting and

cleaning operation in various stages of making the silk thread

(re-reeling, winding, re-winding, throwing etc).

It also includes length of threads which for any fault of

twisting have to be discarded during the throwing process

(Throwster’s waste)

- weaving waste

Degumming

This process is used for eliminating sericin to prepare the fibre

for subsequent mechanical process. There are two methods

Degummed silk

1) Soap and soda boil which is widely used (more than

95%).The silk is degummed by this process because it is

cheaper and quicker.

2) Enzymatic degumming

46

Matka silk

The name Matka came from mouth-cut cocoon or pierced

cocoon from which Matka yarns are made. This was invented

in Bengal. The pierced cocoons are dipped in pulse powder

solution for 24 hrs. This softens the sericin of the cocoons and

then hand spinning of the cocoon is done.

Hand spinning

Hand spinning technique could afford to spin 30s to 40s

(metric) economically. The cost of manufacture of hand spun

yarn is lowest and investment is almost nil.

Takli Takli spinning

Takli spinning

The takli consists of a spindle with disc-like base. The spinner

holds the cocoon “cake” in the left hand, draft and then feeds

the strand with right hand to the spindle. The spindle is

occasionally rotated by the right hand to impart twist after

certain length of yarn is spun. The spinning is discontinued in

order to wind the yarn on the spindle.

47

Hand spinning technique for eri and mulberry waste cocoons

can be advocated in rural areas as a cottage based spinning

process. Paddle spinning

Paddle spinning Wheel

Motorized spinning wheel

Motor Spinning

Waste Opener

48

Amber Charkha (carding)

Amber Charkha

Amber charka, a semi –mechanized hand spinning device is

being used for effective spinning of silk waste. Medium count

yarns can be spun on amber charkha, which has higher

productivity as compared to other hand spinning devices.

Amber Charkha (drawing)

Roving

Amber

Charkha

spinning

49

Noil Yarn

Noil spinning-The short fibre deposited during the dressing

process are not enough to be drafted for spinning into fine

yarn. They are rather used to produce a coarse yarn known as

noil yarn. The short fibres are first opened in a waste opener

and then fed to a breaker card which yields a lap at the other

end. The laps are fed to a tap condenser card from which they

emerge as robings.The robins are spun in to noil yarn on a ring

spinning frame in the range of 7s-22s (metric count)

50

Preparatory process

The series of preliminary preparatory process involved are as

follows:

Winding

The main functions of winding are to put the yarn in a long

continuous length to suit later processes and also to eliminate

imperfections such as slubs, weak places, dirt’s and so on.

Winding is necessary to rewind silk yarn from hank onto

bobbins. Winding machine

generally consists of 50 to

100 bobbin units. Normally

before winding, the hanks

are soaked in neutral soap

and oil solution in tepid

water so as to wet/soften

the hanks for smooth

unwinding. Hanks are

immersed for few hours and

they are semi-dried before

winding. Winding should be

done at 27 degree C

temperature and 65%

relative humidity.

If breaks are less during winding, it indicates that the quality

of silk is good. There is standard breakage rate for different

grade, for example, winding breaks should not be more than

12 for 40 bobbin per hour for A grade silk (20/22d).

Doubling

The object of doubling is to double the individual threads.

Doubling avoids unevenness and the strength of doubled yarn

is correspondingly better than the single thread. Cover factor

of fabric woven out of doubled yarn is better, besides the

fabric being heavier and durable. Before doubling, individual

threads may be

twisted, in which

case the yarn will

be twisted in

reverse direction

after doubling.

Doubling takes

place in two ply,

three ply, four ply

or even more

depending upon

the nature of the

fabric required.

51

Twisting

Silk twisting machine is of up twister principle. There is a

vertical spindle on which doubling bobbin is mounted and

yarn from this is wound on to a perforated bobbin mounted

horizontally and driven by surface contact. Twist is imparted

on account of difference between the speed of the spindle

and the winding drum. Twisting may be done in single thread

or double thread depending upon type of yarn required for

weaving. Certain yarns like crepe and georgettes requires high

rate of twist.

Twisted bobbins are heat set before use to set the twist given

to the thread and uniform distribution of twist on the yarn.

The sericin gets partially softened by this process. When dried,

it makes the spiral of the twist to cement together.

Twisting affects the brilliancy of yarn. Because the roughness

of the threads surface caused by twisting and the ridges of the

spirals causes shadow with loss of reflected light. As the

number of twists increases, the brightness will be subdued

more.

Re-winding Re-winding machine is practically like winding machine.

Bobbins produced on twisting machine are placed on the top

of the machine and the thread is re-wound on to the double

flanged bobbins or

cheese which are

driven by surface

contact.

52

Warping In silk weaving, normally sectional warping is followed

Because of fine denier of silk thread and consequently higher

number of ends required. Warping machine mainly consist of

two parts

1. Warping creel

2. Warping drum

Warping Creel

The creel is used to place the bobbins. The threads from the

bobbin are collected and passed through a reed before

making a section to be wound on the warping drum. After a

required length of the section is wound, a number of such

sections are wound on the drum depend on the total number

of ends required in the fabric. The warp prepared, combining

a number of threads and making into a section or ball and

finally preparing the warp sheet for handloom weaving.

Warping Drum

Prin winding

The handloom prin is smaller thus; hand operatated

charkha is used for preparing the prins.

53

After warping is done, the warp is then spread into a warp

sheet. The warp sheet is then warped on to the warp beam of

the loom.

Yarns for weft are wound in latai from the hanks. And then to

bobbins. Or directly wound into bobbins from the hanks by

using Charkha.

54

Silk Weaving

Silk weaving in India has been totally traditional. It is carried

out to a large extent on handlooms, the power looms taking a

small portion of the total production. There are about

2, 28,000 silk handloom and about 40,000 power looms in

India exclusive for weaving silk. In west Bengal, there are 7700

handlooms in Murshidabad, 3300 handlooms in Birbhum, 900

handlooms in Bakura. Most of the looms are fly shuttle type

and each place has its own tradition of looms.

Types of Handlooms

Pit looms

Frame loom

Looms with jacquard installation.

Pit loom

Hand loom with Jala Technique

Jacquard installation

55

Loom with Jala technique and jacquard installation.

.

Frame loom

56

Latai (the yarns are wound around it)

Nunny (thread cutter)

Shuttle (size of the shuttle varies, shuttle for weft insertion are

large and for pattering shuttles are small)

57

After weaving

After weaving the saris on the hand loom,

The sari is opened from the cloth beam and minor

defects like knots, loops are removed.

Removing defects

Then the sari is brushed with a wooden piece called

Chipi, for polishing.

A paste of puffed rice is applied over the fabric.

Polishing

Paste making

58

Silk Fabrics

In Murshidabad, sari is the biggest item of production on

handlooms as well as on power loom. The Handlooms weave

saris with all types of design, including complex motifs with

the help of Dobby and jacquard and also some designs that

can be performed better only manually. Other than saris,

stoles, scarfs, and dress materials are also made.

Plain sari lengths woven in power looms are taken for printing

and dyeing.

There are variations in plain silk fabrics also, such as

Matka fabric

The fabric is made of 100% matka yarn

Bafta fabric

These fabrics are made with silk warp and matka weft.

Instead of matka weft, cotton wefts can also be used.

Jarna fabric.

In this fabric the weft yarn is first tie-dyed and then

used for weaving. It gives a dash effect.100% silk.

Katari cloth

A hand woven, yarn dyed fabric made with silk warp

and fine count cotton filling.

59

Katia fabric

In this fabric, a hand spun yarn made out of tasar

waste after opening and cleaning is used in the weft.

Balkal fabric

The fabric made from the yarn spun out of tasar

cocoon peduncles, after they are boiled in an alkaline

solution and opened up.

Doupion silk fabric

A plain weave mulberry silk fabric generally produced

on handloom, organzine in warp and doupion silk in

weft. The doupion silk yarn are made from double

cocoons or even from single cocoons, reeled in such a

way as to give an effect of doupion.

Balkal and katia fabric

Saris with design patterns are

Garod

A sari made of 2 ply yarn, Red satin border, and white body

with small motifs in red. These saris are traditionally worn in

festive occasions like in Durga Poona by the Bengali women.

Now days this is made in various colors.

The motifs are made using jamdani technique.

Jacquard designed

These saris are heavily patterned in borders and in the pallus.

Garod sari

60

Baluchar

The Baluchari saris are figured silk sari produced in the town

of Baluchar in Murshidabad district. Baluchar saris essentially

have a silk base with silk brocaded designs with respect to

their colors, where in spite of a rich composition; the Baluchar

bootidars almost avoid strong contrasts. Each pattern is

treated in a color which harmonizes with the ground on which

it is laid. The most popular colors used are red, blue, yellow,

green and scarlet. The Baluchari saris have large floral motifs

interspersed with flowering shrubs. Traditionally the Muslim

community was also known to produce these Baluchars with

figured patterns depicting court scenes, horse with a rider,

women smoking hookah. The Kalka design or the cone motif is

often surrounded with floral borders.

The sari design being traditional, offers

little scope for newer varieties to break

into the market and find a place.

Baluchar sari

61

Processing

The term, processing in silk refers to operation of degumming,

bleaching, dyeing, printing and finishing. Silk is processed in

both yarn and fabric form. In India , the wide range of yarns

includes mainly mulberry raw silk, doupion , tassar, muga and

heavy spun varieties like matka, ghicha, katia etc. the

processing of yarn and the controls used vary often with type

of yarn processed.

As water takes place a major role in processing of silk, it is also

referred as Wet processing.

Degumming of silk

This is a process of removing the sericin or gum from silk yarns

or fabrics by boiling in a nonionic soap solution for 2 hours.

Almost 25% of the total weight of raw silk is removed by this

process. Bleaching of silk fabric

The raw silk obtained after degumming are classified broadly

on the basis of their sericin content into

raw silk( grege) with 25-30% sericin content

Hard silk (ecru)with 24-26% sericin content

Soft silk(souple) 17-18% sericin content

Pure silk (cuite) with no sericin content.

Since all silk do not respond to degumming uniformly, the

exact time required for degumming different silk varies.

Bleaching

The next process is bleaching, done invariably after

degumming. The popular method is to prepare bleaching

liquor by use of hydrogen peroxide, with or without soap,

ammonia or sodium sulphate.The material is boiled for 2

hours followed by a thorough wash.

Washing of fabric

62

Silk whiteness can be improved by bleaching with reducing

agents like, hydrosulphite and rongalite but it tends to

reoxidise and the original color may be restored. Hence

reducing agents should be avoided for bleaching,

Dyeing of silk

Silk has affinity for various classes of dye stuffs. The dye stuffs

recommended for silk includes acid dyes, direct dyes, metal

complex dyes, milling dyes and some of the reactive dyes.

Though basic dyes, vats, solbilised vats, azoic dyes and

mordent dyes can be used for dyeing silk, their use is

restricted because silk may not have ready affinity for some of

these dye stuffs except basic dyes.

Acid dyeing

Though silk has an affinity for acid dyes, the dye shades tend

to be less fast than on wool. However, silk exerts its affinity

for acid dyes at lower temperatures. The dyeing is usually

started at 40 degree C and the temperature allowed to rise to

about 85 degree C. The material: liquor ratio is 1:30. In the

case of neutral dyeing acid dyes, acetic acid is used for better

penetration of dyes.

The fabric is then washed with nonionic soap and water

thoroughly till the washed out water is clear.

The fabric is now semi dried in hydro-extractor and then put in

shade for drying.

Reactive dyes

It is recommended that natural silk should be dyed with

reactive dyes from a weak acidic medium PH -6 in the

presence of a neutral salt.

Printing of silk

Printing is also referred as localized dyeing. The printing

process involves the following factors:

Method of printing

Preparation of printing paste

63

Fixation of prints

Washing

Style of printing silk are:

Direct printing

Discharge printing

Resist printing( Batik)

Methods of printing of silk are mainly

Hand block printing

Wooden blocks are used. The design is carved out of the

wooden surface and positive space is the design to be printed

using dye paste.

Screen printing

Flat screens made of nickel mess are used. The design to be

transferred to the mess is in black and white form. The form of

design is in black color and the space is blank, taken is

transparent sheet.UV light are passed through this

transparent sheet on to the nickel mess coated with

photosensitive emulsion.

Blank spaces of the design get solidify in the nickel mess and

the forms of the design remains porous.

Then dye solution is put on the screen and pressed with a

rubber squeegee. The dye comes out of the porous area of the

mess and the fabric below get design printed on it.

Block, screen and brush combined.

Others are spray and sponges.

Direct style

Dye paste preparation is done. The printing paste is

contains dye solution and binder/thickener.

The fabric is set on the table.

Application of dyes using methods is done.

Then it is dried using heater

Fixation of dyes is done by steaming.

Then the fabric is thoroughly washed off.

Then dried in shade.

Flat screens used for printing

64

The fabric is set on the printing table which is coated with wax

Then the screen is set on the fabric and dye paste is poured

Printing is done

Drying of printed

fabric

65

Discharge printing

It very costly but in demand

Two main elements are involved, use of non -

dischargeable dye and the other is adding discharging

agent.

Discharging agents are reducing agents e.g. shopholite

and monolite, zinc dust, sodium bisulphate, titanium

oxide, zinc oxide.

The fabric is first dyed with dischargeable dyes and

then printed with discharging agents which gives a

white discharge.

In another method non dischargeable dye along with

discharging agent is used for printing.

This discharges color of the dyed fabric and get color of

the non dischargeable dye. This is known as color

discharge.

Batik printing

In this wax (mixture of Bee wax and Paraffin wax) is

used for resist.

Napthol dyes and base salts are used for dyeing.

The fabric is dyed for base color.

Then the molten wax is applied.

After the wax dries, it is crushed.

Then it is re dyed in darker shade, which gives the Batik

effect.

Batik fabric

66

Finishing of silk

Fabric finishing can be broadly divided into:

1. Mechanical finishing

2. Chemical finishing

Mechanical finishing

The objective of mechanical finishing is to impart or improve

certain desirable qualities like drape, fall, stiffness, and

weight etc, most of the mechanical finishes being only

temporary.

Stentering machine

This machine imparts dimensional stability to fabrics.

Calender

The handle and appearance of the fabric are improved

by this machine.

Decatizing machine

Dimensional stability is increased and the fabric is

smoothened by removing the crease.

Kundi process

This process is done to impart luster and softness to

the fabric. It is a traditional process of finishing. The

presence of sericin in fabric makes it difficult for

finishing. To make the surface smother, fabric is

treated with starch, araroot, dencol (adhesive),

glycerin, and softener.

After the fabric are dried, folded and covered with

another piece of cloth and then beaten continuously

with wooden bat. Fabric folding

Beating

67

Chemical finishing

The objective of chemical finishing is to impart or improve

certain desirable effects, such as anti crease and flame

retarded qualities.

Weighting

Weighting is carried out in order to compensate the

loss of weight due to degumming. this original can be

restored or even increased by treatment with chemical

such as iron compounds, tin compounds and tannin.

This imparts a fuller handle and better drapability.

Scrooping

Scrooping with respect to silk is a peculiar cracking

sound produced when fabric is rubbed or squeezed by

hand. It is imparted by dilute acetic acid or tartaric acid

treatment. Lactic acid at 10 gpl for 5-10 min. is also

recommended.

Creases –recovery finishes

Suitable resin precondensates are used to achieve

crease resistant finish. These products are such that

they either react with another or cross-link with fibroin

back bone to form water insoluble products under the

action of heat and catalyst. Many different types of N-

methylol derivatives of nitrogenous compounds are

used for this purpose.

Flame retardants

It is generally established that a reaction product of

polyhalogenated acids having a cyclic nucleus such as

chlorendic acid and thiourea would impart the self

extinguishing properties.

Oil repellent finishes

Water and oil repellent finishes are applied in

conjunction with each other and the conjunction with

each other and the conventional auxiliaries needed for

this effect are, waxs, metal acid salt and oxides.

- Proteins and nitrogenous compounds

- Silicones

- Fluoro chemicals.

68

Embroidery

The saris are also embellished by doing embroidery with

thread and Zari, attaching sequences, stones, and mirrors.

Poor Women of villages earn there living by doing embroidery

on these silk saries.

69

Sericulture -A support to rural India

High employment potential

60 lakh persons are engaged in various sericulture activities in the country

It is estimated that Sericulture can generate employment @ 11 man days per kg of raw silk production (in on-farm and off-farm activities) throughout the year. This potential is par-excellence and no other industry generates this kind of employment, specially in rural areas, hence, sericulture is used as a tool for rural reconstruction.

Provides vibrancy to village economics

About 57 % of the gross value of silk fabrics flows back to the cocoon growers with share of income to different groups as under:-

56.8 % to cocoon grower 6.8% to the reeler 9.1% to the twister 10.7% to the weaver 16.6% to the trade

Thus, large chunk of income goes back to the villages from the cities

Low gestation, high returns

Estimated investments of Rs.12,000 to 15,000 (excluding cost of land and rearing space) is sufficient for undertaking mulberry cultivation and silkworm rearing in one acre of irrigated land.

Mulberry takes only six months to grow for commencement of silkworm rearing. Mulberry once planted will go on supporting silkworm rearing year after year for 15-20 years depending on inputs and management provided.

Five crops can be taken in one year under tropical conditions.

By adopting stipulated package of practices, a farmer can attain net income levels up to Rs.30000 per acre per annum.

Women friendly occupation

Women constitute over 60 % of those employed in down-stream activities of sericulture in the country. This is possible because sericulture activities starting from mulberry garden management, leaf harvesting and silkworm rearing is more effectively taken up by the women folk. Even silk reeling industry including weaving is largely supported by them.

This is contributing towards the women empowerment. Poor women earning their living as a house maid rather preferred this work with dignity.

70

Position of the women in the family improves as they are also an earning member and helps in increasing the family income.

Women now, send their children to schools due to economic growth. Further results to Education and a key to developed India.

Ideal programme for weaker sections of the society

Sericulture can be practiced even with very low land holding.

¾ acre of mulberry garden and silkworm rearing can support a family of three without hiring labour.

Features such as low gestation, high returns make sericulture an ideal programme for weaker sections of the society.

Vast tracts of forest based tasar food plantations available in the country, if judiciously exploited for rearing tasar silkworms, can offer supplementary gainful employment for tribals.

Eco-friendly activity

As a perennial crop with good foliage and root-spread, mulberry contributes to soil conservation and provides green cover.

Waste from silkworm rearing can be recycled as inputs to garden.

Dried mulberry twigs and branches are used as fuel in place of firewood and therefore reduce the pressure on vegetation/forest.

Being a labour intensive and predominantly agro-based activity, involvement of smoke-emitting machinery is minimal.

Developmental programmes initiated for mulberry plantation are mainly in upland areas where un-used cultivable land is made productive.

Mulberry can also be cultivated as intercrop with numerous plantations.

Mulberry being a deep-rooted perennial plant can be raised in vacant lands, hill slopes and watershed areas.

Currently, only about 0.1 % of the arable land in the country is under mulberry cultivation.

Satisfy equity concerns

Benefits of sectoral value-addition primarily accrue to rural households. As the end-product users are mostly from the higher economic groups, the money flows from high end groups to low end groups.

Cases of landless families engaged in cocoon production using mulberry contracted from local farmers are common in some states

All these factors are leading to rural development of India.

71

Efforts made by Government and NGO’s Ministry of textiles has made a huge effort in

establishing Central Silk Board which looks after the

development of the silk industry in different states of

India.

Government organization like Khadi, runs on the

principle of no lose no profit. These organizations are

offering employment to the people

NGO,s like Sevabrota are giving training to the womens

and then giving work.

Chandrakato resham khadi organization

Khadhi bhavan

72

Central sericulture research and training

institute (CSRTI)

CSR & TI, Berhampore is a premier research station

established during early 1943 to provide the research and

development support for promotion of silk industry in the

Eastern and North eastern region. Presently, it functions

under the administrative control of Central Silk Board, a

statutory body under the ministry of textiles, Govt. of India.

Three Central Sericultural Research and Training Institutes

(CSR&TIs) at Mysore (Karnataka), Berhampore (West Bengal ),

and Pampore (Jammu & Kashmir)

The institute is located in the historic district of Murshidabad

in West Bengal, where

the silk industry has

bloomed, flourished

and reached its

pinnacle. The city is

200 km away from

Kolkata and well

connected by both Rail

and Road.

The institute conducts

research in all aspects

of sericulture from soil

to silk. Vested with the mandate to conduct research, it has

made remarkable research break through and outstanding

contributions for the overall development of silk industry in

the region. On the plant side, new mulberry varieties capable

of increasing the productivity and quality of leaf have been

developed together with package of practices. On the insect

side, productive silkworm breeds suitable to the region have

been evolved, and suitable prevention and control measures

have been worked out. Even on the reeling front, improved

cooking and reeling techniques are suggested. To generate

human resources development, tailor made training

programme are conducted apart from the regular course of

Post Graduate Diploma in Sericulture. All these contributions

helped to sustain growth of the industry in this region.

Office building of CSRIT Berhampore (W.B)

73

In the recent years, the institute has embarked on a

‘lab to land’ programme to disseminate the research findings

into successful economic ventures among the rural people.

Achievements

Improved hybrids

New mulberry variety developed by cross breeding for better

foliage in different climatic condition. Hybrids are as follows:

1) S1 irrigated, 2) S1635 irrigated, 3) S799 – irrigated, 4) C1730, non irrigated, 5) BC259 Temperate, 6) Tr-10 Temperate.

CSRTI has made hybrid silkworm by cross breeding,

Multivoltine, Bivoltine and Nistari. For example:

M12W (Multi X Multi),(Multi-Nistari)-good resistance

NB4D2 Multi-Bi, (good resistance with quality).

On the basis of ranking of hybrids (Evaluation index-

Mano et al, 1993) and parents performances (seed

crop), the following three hybrids were

recommended for different seasons.

Maintenance of Germplasm

A total no. of 143 mulberry germplasm resources had been characterized and grouped into 22 clusters.

A total of 24 multivoltine and 24 bivoltine breeds are

being maintained as Germplasm stock in the institute.

Recommended

Season

Type

of

Hybrid

Name of

hybrid

Yield/

100

Dfls

(kg)

Shell

% Renditta

Favourable Seasons:

Chaitra

(Feb.- Mar.)

Multi

x Bi

M12

(W) x

KPG-B

62.0 17.03 8.29

Agrahayani

(Nov-Dec)

Multi

x Bi

M6DP(C)

X

(SK6xSK7)

59.4 17.61 8.59

Unfavourable Seasons:

Shravani

(Jun.- Jul.)

Bhaduri

(August)

Aswina

(Sept.)

Multi x

Multi

M12

(W) x

M6M81

43.0–

45.0

14.2-

14.9 9.8–11.6

74

Equipments for rural rearing

1. Low Cost Incubation Pot 2. Silkworm Egg Box 3. Low Cost Rearing Tray 4. Acid Treatment Bath 5. Lime Duster Mulberry Twig Chopper 6. Low Cost Hygrometer

Improved techniques for quality reeling

The superiority of hot air drying over sun drying in terms of raw silk yield and reeling efficiency has been confirmed. The recovery percentage in the hot

air dried cocoons has excelled as high as 10.46% and recorded less renditta to a magnitude of 1.3 which implies its economical superiority.

A hand operated drying machine has been fabricated which can successfully dry the cocoon without harming the raw silk quality.

Baking chambers of 10 Kgs and 250 Kgs capacity have been fabricated for drying of cocoons.

A low cost reeling machine made of wooden structure and suitable for locally available fuel has been designed and fabricated. The machine was found at par with other cottage basin in terms of productivity but found superior in terms of quality.

75

Current scenario

Silk is a high value but low volume product accounting

for only 0.2 % of world's total textile production. Silk

production is regarded as an important tool for

economic development of a country as it is a labour

intensive and high income generating industry that

churns out value added products of economic

importance. The developing countries rely on it for

employment generation, especially in rural sector and

also as a means to earn the foreign exchange.

Geographically, Asia is the main producer of silk in the

world and produces over 95 % of the total global

output. Though there are over 40 countries on the

world map of silk, bulk of it is produced in China and

India, followed by Japan, Brazil and Korea. China is the

leading supplier of silk to the world with an annual

production of 153942 MT (2006).Out of Which the

Mulberry raw silk product is 115092 MT

India is the second largest producer of silk with 18475

MT (2006-07) and also the largest consumer of silk in

the world. It has a strong tradition and culture bound

domestic market of silk. In India, mulberry silk is

produced mainly in the states of Karnataka, Andhra

Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Jammu & Kashmir and West

Bengal, while the non-mulberry silks are produced in

Jharkhand, Chattisgarh, Orissa and north-eastern states.

Sericulture sector is next to Handloom sector in

generating employment.

Silk is an export oriented product and is exported to

more than 50 countries like USA, U.K., Italy, UAE and

Saudi Arabia. Some European and Asian countries are

main buyers of Indian silk. Exports for 2004-05 touched

an all time record of Rs.2879.56 crore.

Top Ten Cocoons(Reelable) Producers — 2005

Country Production (Int $1000)

Footnote Production (MT)

Footnote

People's Republic of China

978,013 C 290,003 F

India 259,679 C 77,000 F

Uzbekistan 57,332 C 17,000 F

Brazil 37,097 C 11,000 F

Iran 20,235 C 6,000 F

Thailand 16,862 C 5,000 F

Vietnam 10,117 C 3,000 F

Democratic People's Republic of Korea

5,059 C 1,500 F

Romania 3,372 C 1,000 F

Japan 2,023 C 600 F

No symbol = official figure,F = FAO estimate, * = Unofficial figure, C = Calculated figure;

Production in Int $1000 have been calculated based on 1999-2001 international prices

Source: Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic And Social Department:

The Statistical Devision

76

With a broad agriculture base, sericulture is seen as an

effective tool for rural development and reconstruction.

Labour intensive in nature, sericulture is mainly a

cottage industry in India, providing livelihood to more

than 8 lakh families. Approximately around 6 million

people are engaged in sericulture and silk production.

The cultivation of silk is called sericulture. Over

30 countries produce silk, and the major ones are

China (54%), India (14%) and Japan (11%).

Year Mulberry Hectarage

Production of raw silk (Tons) Per Ha.

Productivity of mulberry (In Kg.)

Mulberry Non-Mulberry Total

Cocoon Raw Silk Cocoon Raw Silk

1997-98 282244 127495 14048 1188 15236 451.72 49.77

1998-99 270069 126566 14260 1284 15544 468.64 52.80

1999-00 227151 124531 13944 1270 15214 548.23 61.39

2000-01 215921 124663 14432 1425 15857 577.35 66.84

2001-02 232076 139616 15842 1509 17351 601.60 68.26

2002-03 194463 128181 14617 1702 16319 659.15 75.16

2003-04 185120 117471 13970 1772 15742 634.57 75.46

2004-05 171959 120027 14620 1880 16500 698.00 85.02

2005-06 179065 126261 15445 1860 17305 705.11 86.25

77

Statewise Mulberry and Vanya Rawsilk Production Unit: Metric tonnes

State 2005-06

Mulberry Vanya Silk Total

Tasar Eri Muga

Andhra pradesh 5375 20 27 - 5422

Assam 8 745 104 857

Arunachal Pradesh 1 neg 10 0.24 11

Bihar 3 14 2.8 - 18

Chattisgarh 3 90 2 - 96

Himachal Pradesh 16 - - - 16

Haryana - - - - -

Jammu & Kashmir 95 - - - 95

Jharkhand 1 96 neg - 97

Karnataka 7471 - - - 7471

Kerala 12 - - - 12

Madhya Pradesh 23 16 - - 39

Maharastra 44 6 - - 50

Manipur 48 3 235 0.06 286

Mizoram 6 neg 3.2 0.07 9

Meghalaya 3 - 280 5.4 288

Nagaland 1 neg 130 0.18 131

Orissa 2 21 2 - 25

Punjab 4 - - - 4

Rajasthan 0 - - - -

Sikkim - - - - -

Tamil Nadu 739 - neg - 739

Tripura 4 - - - 4

Uttar Pradesh 19 3 0.5 - 24

Uttaranchal 14 5 neg neg 19

West Bengal 1552 34 4 0.2 1591

Total 15445 308 1442 110 17305

78

The targets for the sector were fixed in terms of production of mulberry and non-mulberry raw silk, creation of employment and enhancement of exports.

Sl. No.

Particulars X Plan target (2002-2007)

Actual

2002-2003 2003-2004 2004-2005

2005-2006

2006-2007 *

1 Area under Mulberry (Lakh hectares)

2.00 1.94 1.85 1.72 1.79 1.90

2 Production of raw silk (MT) A. Mulberry B. Non-Mulberry (a) Tasar (b) Eri (c) Muga

24150

450

1700

150

14617

284

1316

102

3970

315

1352

105

14620

322

1448

110

15445

308

1442

110

16700

323

1514

116

Total 26450 16319 15742 16500 17305 18653

3 Employment (Lakh persons)

60.03 56.00 56.50 58.00 59.50 60.00

4 Exports (Rs. in crores) 3200.00 2294.05 2779.19 2879.56

3194.20

3200.00

79

To enhance sericulture activities and its

marketability as a part of rural industry.

Sustainable employment in rural areas through

sericulture activities .

Quality silk and by-products of silk by adopting latest

innovative package of practices and render necessary

services at village level in order to ensure its

marketability.

Ensure effective management of sericulture activities,

active participation of beneficiaries and stakeholders.

Boost up the value addition activities and its

marketing.

Facilitate backward and forward linkages to the people

(beneficiaries) who are involved in all stages of

sericulture activities.

Promotion and development of silk industry in the

state.

Developing and distributing healthy silkworm seeds.

Technical guidance to farmers and beneficiaries for

improved method of mulberry cultivation, silkworm

rearing, silk reeling and spinning.

Initiating measures of standardization and quality

control of silk and silk products

Rationalization of marketing and stabilization of prices

of silk cocoons and raw silk.

Collection of statistics.

Preparing and furnishing relevant reports relating to

silk industry in the state to the State Government and

Central Silk Board.

80

Silk export

Introduction

Japan, China and India are the leading countries in the production of silk and other silk materials but now a day there is a greater competition between China and India in case of silk production. By knowing the nerves of foreign marketing and factions by India there is increase in exporting of silk during first six months of 2000-01. By comparing last years exports of silk items, it increases from 15 01 to 16 1 and earning $17.43 crore. That means it is increased by 30.5%. There is demand for Indian silk items from America, Japan, Spain, Germany, Italy and east Europe. Indian requirement of silk is 22,000 tonnes while its production is 15,000 tonnes.

Second most important thing is to improve silk quality, which includes soft, strong and continuous thread. Though there is an increase in plantation of Mulberry by 5 times and many schemes implemented successfully for silk production there is shortage of silk. Due to shortage of raw silk there is reduction in spun silk and Kashmiri Carpets. In India 40% production of Mulberry Silk is from Karnataka. While Tasar Silk is from Madhya Pradesh and Orissa and Muga Silk is from eastern parts of India.

Scope for Exporting

There is increasing demand for silk cloths from foreign markets. If we concentrate on this demand there is scope to

increase exporting of silk items up to 1500 crores. Following table shows exporting of silk from India.

The exports of silk goods during the last five years is indicated as under:

Year (Figure in Rs. Crore)*

Million US $

1998-99 1250.55 297.04

1999-2000 1755.55 404.97

2000-2001 2421.98 530.21

2001-2002 2359.56 495.29

2002-2003 2294.05 474.08

2003-2004 2779.19 604.70

2004-05 2879.56 640.90

2005-06 3194.20 721.53

April-July**

2006-07 1046.56 228.91

2005-06 960.34 220.36

* Including silk carpets and silk RMG. ** The silk good exports during the period April-July of 2006-

07 was 1046.56 Crores (US$ 228.91) which was 9% more as

compared to April-July period of 2005-06 which was 960.34

crores (US$ 220.36 million)

81

Future Scope

A scheme "Operation silk wave" is developed by the

Central govt. for the development of quality

"Biovoltaine silk". Under this production of silk will be

increased from 300 to 10,500 tonnes during the period

of 7 years and there is steps taken to reduce the

shortage of silk. This scheme will be implemented in

Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Karnataka

govt. has also implemented "Reshme Sampathu"

scheme along with this scheme.

In Murshidabad, scientists are tying to introduce

bivoltines and it’s hybrids in difficult climate of West

Bengal. This success will be the revolutionary step

towards Quality improvement of silk and revival of the

past glory of Murshidabad silk.