PHASES OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Preparation of the Research Proposal

CONCEPTUAL PHASE DESIGN & PLANNING PHASE EMPIRICAL & ANALYTIC

PHASE DISSEMINATION PHASE

Research begins with a problem: an unanswered question in the mind of the researcher

Research is a Cyclical Process

Research looks for facts directed by the hypotheses and guided by the problem. The facts are collected and organized.

Research sees the goal in a clear statement of the problem

Research subdivides the problem into appropriate sub-problems. Each sub-problem seeks guidance through an appropriate hypothesis

Research interprets the meaning of the facts which leads to a resolution of the problem, thus confirming or rejecting the hypotheses and providing an answer to the question which began the research cycle

Research posts tentative solutions to the problem(s) through appropriate hypotheses. These hypotheses direct the researcher to the facts

WHAT? INTRODUCTION

Background & Rationale

Statement of the Problem

Significance of the Study

Scope and Delimitations

LITERATURE REVIEW Review of Related

Literature Review of Related

Studies Theoretical/

Conceptual Framework

Assumptions/ Hypotheses

The Variables and Other Terms

CONCEPTUAL PHASE

The Research Problem

Is a question concerning the relationship existing between sets of events/variables

Is based on any situation that needs answering

Developing a researchable project implies that not just any problem is researchable, and that it must be developed

Researchable vs. Non-researchable Problem

Is God good? Are children happier when taught by a

teacher of the same gender? Does high school achievement

influence the academic achievement of university students?

What is the best way to teach grammar?

What would schools be like today if World War II had not occurred?

Sources of Problems

Experience These are the problems identified in

your surroundings Nursing Literature

Ideas for research projects often come from reading the nursing literature especially reports of the results of nursing studies

Sources of Problems

Theory Like the middle range theories that

remains to be proven Ideas from External Sources

Like some priority areas for development (the program thrust of the government – DOH – for research to improve the health care delivery system)

Characteristics of a Research Problem

MANAGEABLE OBJECTIVE FEASIBLE SIGNIFICANT GENERALIZES USEFUL

Guidelines for Asking Questions

Simplicity – there are two components to every question. The stem & the topic

Action-oriented – this demands some activity on the researcher to provide the answer. The type of question you ask about the topic is the basis for the design of the research plan

Guidelines for Asking Questions

Ask an active question – this will provide the direction of the study Example:

Mastectomy has an effect on women. What are the reactions of women to

mastectomy?

Statement of the Problem

The problem statement should identify the key study variables which should be amenable to observation or measurement, and the nature of the population of interest

Forms of Problem Statement Declarative

Example: The purpose of the study is to investigate the relationship between the dependency level of renal transplant patients and their rate of recovery.

Interrogative Example: What is the relationship

between the dependency level of renal transplant patients and their nature of recovery?

Exercises Age has an effect on convalescence.

What is the relationship between age and convalescence?

How does age affect convalescence? Black women have smaller babies

than white women. What is the difference in the birth size

of babies of black and white women? What is the association between

ethnicity and the birth size of their babies?

Exercises

Ice water increases heart rate. Smoking increases the probability

of lung cancer.

Note: Questions that begin with “should”, “could”, or “do” are stoppers.

They elicit opinions not facts. Rule of Thumb:

The problem should not be so narrow that it would only allow a single question be asked, nor so broad that it becomes unmanageable.1

Problem Set The study aims to determine the

difference between men and women in functional disability and psycho-social adjustment to burn injury.

This study seeks to determine the preferences of reproductive mothers on the different artificial family planning methods.

The primary objective of the study is to identify the factors leading to the smoking behaviors of adolescents.

Matching Research Purpose and Level of Research Questions

PURPOSE

LEVEL OF

INQUIRY

EXAMPLE

Stem Topic

DescriptionI What is or

What are

● the eating problems of retarded children?● the characteristics of suicidal parents?● the spiritual needs of patients?

Exploration IIWhat is the relationship

● between relaxation and pain in post-op patients?● among prenatal nutrition, age of the mother and the birthweight of newborns?

Matching Research Purpose and Level of Research Questions

PURPOSE

LEVEL OF

INQUIRY

EXAMPLE

Stem Topic

ExplanationIII

Why

● does patient satisfaction increases with positive attitudes toward self-care?● is a decrease in dietary iodine associated with goiter development?

Prediction & Control

IV How

● does relaxation control pain sensation in post-op patients?● does prenatal nutrition affect the birthweight of newborns?

Criteria for Evaluating / Prioritizing a Research Problem

CRITERIA INDICATORSRelevance 1 = not relevant

2 = relevant3 = very relevant

Avoidance of Duplication

1 = sufficient information already available2 = some information available but major issues not covered3 = no sound info available on which to base problem-solving

Feasibility 1 = study not feasible considering available resources2 = study feasible considering available resources3 = study very feasible considering available resources

Political Acceptability

1 = topic not acceptable to high level policy makers2 = topic more or less acceptable to policy makers3 = topic fully acceptable to policy makers

Criteria for Evaluating / Prioritizing a Research Problem

CRITERIA INDICATORSApplicability 1 = no chance of recommendations being implemented

2 = some chance of recommendations being implemented3 = good chance of recommendations being implemented

Urgency 1 = information not urgently needed2 = information could be used immediately but a delay of some months would be acceptable3 = data very urgently needed for decision-making

Ethical Acceptability 1 = major ethical problems2 = minor ethical problems3 = no ethical problems

CONCEPTUAL PHASE

Literature Review Purpose of Literature Review

Sources of Research Ideas Orientation to what is already known Provision of Conceptual Concept Information on Research Approach

Types of Information for Review

Research Findings Theory Methodological Information Opinions and Viewpoints Anecdotes and Clinical

Descriptions

Sources of Literature Review

Primary Source Is a description of an investigation

written by the person who conducted it

Secondary Source Is a description of a study prepared

by someone other than the original researcher

Sources

Bibliographical aids for Nursing Research Problems Indexes; abstracts

Electronic databases CINAHL – Cumulative Index to Nursing

& Allied Health Literature MEDLINE – Medical Literature Online HERDIN – Health Research Database

Information Network

Sources

Books Journals

Nursing Research Journals Research Bulletins

Preparing & Writing A Literature Review Identify potential references Locate/Retrieve references Screen references for relevance Discard irrelevant references Read relevant references & take notes Identify new references Organize references Analyze & Integrate Write review

Steps:1. Abstracting & Recording

notes2. Organizing the review3. Content of the written

review

Criteria of a Good Review of Related Literature Does the review seem thorough – does it

include all or most of the major studies on the topic? Does it include recent research? Are studies from other related disciplines included, if appropriate?

Does the review rely on appropriate materials (e.g. mainly on research reports, using primary sources)?

Is the review merely a summary of existing work, or does it critically appraise and compare key studies? Does the review identify important gaps in the literature?

Is the review well-organized? Is the development of ideas clear?

Criteria of a Good Review of Related Literature Does the review use appropriate language,

suggesting the tentativeness of prior findings? Is the review objective? Does the author paraphrase, or is there an over-reliance on quotes from original sources?

If the review is part of the research report for a new study does the review support the need for the study? If it is a critical integrative review designed to summarize evidence for clinical practice, does the review draw appropriate conclusions about practice implications?

CONCEPTUAL PHASE

Theoretical & Conceptual Frameworks

The Framework for a study is simply an explanation based on the review of literature, of how variables are expected to relate to each other and why.

CONCEPTUAL PHASE

Theoretical & Conceptual Frameworks

The CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK is an explanation based on literature and research about the variables or when the literature does not contain a particular theory that explains the relationship among variables.

CONCEPTUAL PHASE

Theoretical & Conceptual Frameworks

The THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK is a framework where the variables have been studied before and have been found to be related to one another. It provides explanation for the action of variables, or a proposed explanation given by another author to explain the findings of his or her study of the same variables.

LEVELIndependent Variable

Intervening Variable

Dependent Variable

Theoretical

Communication Characteristics Learning

Conceptual

Mass Media Exposure

AgeSexEducationReligion

Political Knowledge

Operational

Number of hours spent in listening to political radio programs

SexEducationReligion

Score in a test on political knowledge

CONCEPTUAL PHASE

The Hypothesis & Assumptions

Hypothesis is Considered the most specific

statement of a problem or objective An educated or intelligent guess or

prediction about the existence, attribute or relationship between variables (characteristics or phenomena) covered by a study

Types of Hypothesis Null Hypothesis is a denial of an

existence, an attribute, a relationship, a difference or an effect.

Alternate Hypothesis tentatively affirms the existence of a phenomenon that the group of people has such and such characteristics, that there is a relationship between variables or a significant difference between variables.

Uses of Hypothesis

They provide guide and direction to the research

They indicate the major independent and dependent variables being considered

They suggest the type of data that must be collected

Uses of Hypothesis

They also suggest the type of analysis that must be made

They indicate the type of statistical measures appropriate to various tests to be conducted

Assumptions Are statements of facts related to

the research problem which are presumed to be true on the basis of observations and experience although not actually verified

Provides foundation from which the study will proceed

Provides basis for validation of variables of interest of study

Do not require testing nor confirmation

Statement of Research Hypothesis Directional – one direction or one-

tailed test Example 1. There is a significant

relationship between the amount of nutritional intake and the degree of complications among pregnant women.

Example 2. Children raised in vegetarian diet have better growth patterns than those children who are not raised in vegetarian diet.

Statement of Research Hypothesis Non-directional – two directions or

two-tailed test Example 1. There is a significant

relationship between the skills competency of nursing students and the amount of practice and supervision provided.

Example 2. There is a significant relationship between the type of preoperative support given to surgical patients and their perception of pain and requests for analgesics.

Type of Statement Hypothesis

Simple Hypothesis expressed an expected relationship between one independent variable & one dependent variable. Example 1: Older nurses are less likely

to express approval of the expanded role of nurses than younger nurses.

Example 2: The greater the sleep deprivation, the higher the anxiety level of intensive care patients

Type of Statement Hypothesis Complex Hypothesis refers to the

prediction of a relationship between two or more independent variables and/or two or more dependent variables. Sometimes referred to as Multivariate Hypothesis because they involve multiple variables Example: There is a relationship

between tactile & auditory stimulation and heart rate response in premature infants.

Relationship of Variables

Direct Relationship – there is a positive relationship. As A increases B increases Example: The more intelligent the

person is, the more adaptable he is to new situations.

Relationship of Variables

Inverse Relationship – as A increases B decreases Example: The more intelligent the

person is, the lesser time he takes to comprehend.

Relationship of Variables

Unrelated – A and B are not related. Example: The taller the person, the

more intelligent he is.

SUMMARYHYPOTHESIS

TYPESVARIABLES

Independent

Dependent

Statement of the Research Hypothesis

Directional

One One

Non-directional

One Two or more

Type of Statement

Simple One One

ComplexOne

Two or moreTwo or more

Two or moreOne

Two or more

SUMMARYHYPOTHESIS

TYPESVARIABLES

Independent

Dependent

Relationship of Variables Direct

Inverse

CONCEPTUAL PHASE

Definition of Terms Two Major Types

Conceptual Definition is what the term variables means in relation to the purpose of the study.

Operational Definition is how you intend to study that definition or how you intend to measure the variable.

Conceptual Definition Example: The purpose of the study

is to explore and describe successful dieting programs. Dieting Programs A fee-for-service

regimen established to assist person to lose weight.

Successful A dieting program that has a high percentage of clients who were able to achieve their goal weight and keep that weight off for one year or more.

Operational Definition Example: The purpose of the study is to

explore and describe successful dieting programs. Dieting Programs A fee-for-service regimen

established to assist persons in losing weight, as listed in the Yellow Pages of the Pacific Telephone Directory of the Northwestern San Fernando Valley.

Successful A dieting program that has a high percentage of clients who were able to achieve their goal weight and keep that weight off for one year or more as measured by the successful dieters questionnaire sent to all program participants in th previous year.

Operational Definition

Successful Dieting Programs A fee-for-service regimen, established to assist persons in losing weight, that has a high percentage of clients who were able to achieve their goal weight and keep that weight off for one year or more as measured by the successful dieters questionnaire sent to all program participants from programs listed in the Yellow Pages of the Pacific Telephone Directory of the Northwestern San Fernando Valley.