Research is a process.Research is a process.

Understand it and you Understand it and you can:can:

Write your thesis, Write your thesis, Publish papers, Publish papers, Apply for grantsApply for grants

Most research students are preoccupied with Most research students are preoccupied with “writing my thesis”. This can be a big mistake.“writing my thesis”. This can be a big mistake.

Being a researcher is NOT about learning to Being a researcher is NOT about learning to WRITE something, it is about learning to DO WRITE something, it is about learning to DO something, namely, to DO research.something, namely, to DO research.

Once you master that PROCESS, you’ll be able Once you master that PROCESS, you’ll be able to do most of the tasks carried out by to do most of the tasks carried out by researchersresearchers

Most importantly, you WILL be able to write Most importantly, you WILL be able to write your thesis AND know that it is worthwhile your thesis AND know that it is worthwhile researchresearch

Research is a processResearch is a process

Nine steps in research:Nine steps in research:

This generic process applies to most research This generic process applies to most research fields fields

1.1. Choose a problem/question Choose a problem/question 2.2. Review the literature Review the literature 3.3. Define the research problem/questionDefine the research problem/question4.4. Develop a hypothesis [or objectives] Develop a hypothesis [or objectives] 5.5. Choose a method – not as big an issue in Choose a method – not as big an issue in

engineering engineering 6.6. Carry out the researchCarry out the research7.7. Analyse your dataAnalyse your data8.8. Write up your results AND conclusionsWrite up your results AND conclusions9.9. Identify significance, limitations & future Identify significance, limitations & future

researchresearch

1. Choose a problem/question1. Choose a problem/question Pick a problem/question you’re interested in Pick a problem/question you’re interested in

and to which you have some access.and to which you have some access.

Many researchers try to study problems / Many researchers try to study problems / questions that are fascinating, but cannot questions that are fascinating, but cannot really be researched due to a variety of really be researched due to a variety of concerns. concerns.

Sometimes equipment expenses are too high, Sometimes equipment expenses are too high, or the researcher cannot gain access to the or the researcher cannot gain access to the materials or resources required e.g. can YOU materials or resources required e.g. can YOU really get weapons grade plutonium?really get weapons grade plutonium?

A broad research area is NOT a research A broad research area is NOT a research questionquestion

E.g. I want to research solar powerE.g. I want to research solar power

Criteria for choosingCriteria for choosing

Access to informationAccess to information Access to resourcesAccess to resources Theoretical backgroundTheoretical background Value of research – does it make a Value of research – does it make a

contributioncontribution ResearcherResearcher’’s skillss skills Is question big enough AND small Is question big enough AND small

enoughenough Overall probability of successful Overall probability of successful

completioncompletion Interest to researcherInterest to researcher

Breadth of the topic.Breadth of the topic.

Pick a topic that is "narrow" enough that your Pick a topic that is "narrow" enough that your research is focused, but not so narrow that it is research is focused, but not so narrow that it is unimportant. unimportant.

E.g. A project on “solar power” would be too E.g. A project on “solar power” would be too broad. If the topic is narrowed to “new materials broad. If the topic is narrowed to “new materials for collecting solar power”, there will be fewer for collecting solar power”, there will be fewer problems, but the topic is still very broad.problems, but the topic is still very broad.

A better choice might be: increasing the A better choice might be: increasing the efficiency of polycrystalline silicon wafers. efficiency of polycrystalline silicon wafers.

Engineering topics tend to be very specificEngineering topics tend to be very specific

Your examiners may question the Your examiners may question the valuevalue of of your projectyour project

2. Review the literature2. Review the literature

Any Any problem/questionproblem/question that is worthwhile that is worthwhile solving has, at least, been thought about by solving has, at least, been thought about by other peopleother people

Read existing research to see if there are Read existing research to see if there are identified problems that you are interested in.identified problems that you are interested in.

Also, there’s no point doing research if Also, there’s no point doing research if someone else has ALREADY done exactly the someone else has ALREADY done exactly the same thing. same thing.

You need to ensure that there is “a gap” in “the You need to ensure that there is “a gap” in “the literature”. A gap may be a problem that has literature”. A gap may be a problem that has not been solved, a question that has not been not been solved, a question that has not been answered etc. answered etc.

Another reason for reading the literature is to Another reason for reading the literature is to learn how they did their research and what they learn how they did their research and what they found. Contemporary researchers utilize the found. Contemporary researchers utilize the knowledge learned by earlier researchers. knowledge learned by earlier researchers.

A great many research problems/questions A great many research problems/questions explore how two or more factors are related.explore how two or more factors are related.

Although it is very time consuming, reviewing Although it is very time consuming, reviewing the literature will help you to decide the literature will help you to decide which factors (i.e. variables) are important, which factors (i.e. variables) are important, how to measure them, and how to measure them, and what findings to expect.what findings to expect.

Literature review (ii)Literature review (ii)

Literature review (iii)Literature review (iii)

Remember, you can "borrow" anything you want Remember, you can "borrow" anything you want from other studies as long as you give the authors from other studies as long as you give the authors proper creditproper credit

In fact, you are expected to use their work to make In fact, you are expected to use their work to make your study better. your study better.

If you don't thoroughly review the current If you don't thoroughly review the current literature, you are missing out on a lot of good literature, you are missing out on a lot of good information and you will be considered "lazy" by information and you will be considered "lazy" by other researchers.other researchers.

Your examiners may question your research Your examiners may question your research if you omit important research in your field if you omit important research in your field or your review is out of dateor your review is out of date

3. Define the research 3. Define the research problem/questionproblem/question

The research problem/question is what you The research problem/question is what you want to solve or answer. The literature review want to solve or answer. The literature review will help you decide which questions are will help you decide which questions are important, especially as you gain familiarity important, especially as you gain familiarity with the topic.with the topic.

For example, you might discover while reading For example, you might discover while reading about solar power that some light frequencies about solar power that some light frequencies are more difficult to collect than others are more difficult to collect than others

Based on this, you might decide to examine Based on this, you might decide to examine whether different array structures are more whether different array structures are more effective at capturing a broad range of effective at capturing a broad range of frequenciesfrequencies

Define the research Define the research problem/question (ii)problem/question (ii)

Defining the research question is important Defining the research question is important because it guides your choice of methods If because it guides your choice of methods If your question was: your question was:

Are different array structures more effective at Are different array structures more effective at capturing a broad range of frequencies. You capturing a broad range of frequencies. You could: could: Find the standard method for measuring the Find the standard method for measuring the

efficiency of current arrays efficiency of current arrays Find or develop a set of benchmarks for current Find or develop a set of benchmarks for current

arraysarrays Develop a series of new array designs and Develop a series of new array designs and Test these against the benchmark valuesTest these against the benchmark values

Your methods must suit Your methods must suit youryour research question. research question.

You MAY replicate or extend an existing research You MAY replicate or extend an existing research study. Usually, replications are done to validate study. Usually, replications are done to validate or generalize the findings from the first study or or generalize the findings from the first study or apply to another setting or environment. apply to another setting or environment.

E.g. the most recent E.g. the most recent academicacademic* study on the * study on the polycrystalline arrays is 3 years old. You question polycrystalline arrays is 3 years old. You question these findings of the recent improvements in these findings of the recent improvements in production methods for polycrystalline arrays production methods for polycrystalline arrays

You decide to replicate an earlier benchmarking You decide to replicate an earlier benchmarking study to see if there has been a changestudy to see if there has been a change

** Note: there may have been a lot of studies by “manufacturers” but Note: there may have been a lot of studies by “manufacturers” but you have no confidence in them, right !you have no confidence in them, right !

Define the research Define the research problem/question (iii)problem/question (iii)

The value of the The value of the problem/questionproblem/question

Academic research, particularly a PhD must “make Academic research, particularly a PhD must “make a significant contribution to the body of a significant contribution to the body of knowledge”.knowledge”.

Your examiners may reject your research if it Your examiners may reject your research if it only makes a small contribution.only makes a small contribution.

If someone else completes the same project as you If someone else completes the same project as you before you do, then your research makes no before you do, then your research makes no contribution.contribution.

If you design something that nobody wants and test If you design something that nobody wants and test it, then you have not made a valid contributionit, then you have not made a valid contribution

Your examiners will reject your research if it makes Your examiners will reject your research if it makes no contributionno contribution

The safest thing is to base your research on The safest thing is to base your research on problems already identified in the literatureproblems already identified in the literature

4. Develop a hypothesis 4. Develop a hypothesis [or [or objectives]objectives]

In engineering/scientific research, this is the next step. In engineering/scientific research, this is the next step.

A hypothesis is: a A hypothesis is: a statementstatement of the relationships among of the relationships among the variables that a researcher intends to study.the variables that a researcher intends to study.

Hypotheses are testable – you should be able to gather Hypotheses are testable – you should be able to gather data that either confirms or rejects the hypothesis. It data that either confirms or rejects the hypothesis. It may not be possible to do this in practicemay not be possible to do this in practice

e.g. H1:an explosion in the earth’s core will rupture the e.g. H1:an explosion in the earth’s core will rupture the planet. planet.

In “exploratory” research, we do not know enough about In “exploratory” research, we do not know enough about the variables involved to formulate a hypothesis. the variables involved to formulate a hypothesis.

In such a case: do NOT state a hypothesis in your In such a case: do NOT state a hypothesis in your research. Once you state a hypothesis, you MUST test it.research. Once you state a hypothesis, you MUST test it.

Hypotheses are formulated Hypotheses are formulated beforebefore we do our we do our research. It's not acceptable to do the research, research. It's not acceptable to do the research, poke around in the data, and then write up a poke around in the data, and then write up a hypothesis that "fits" what we found. hypothesis that "fits" what we found.

Hypotheses should be based on theory and what Hypotheses should be based on theory and what previous researchers have found; they are not just previous researchers have found; they are not just “made up”. Hypotheses are logically reasonable “made up”. Hypotheses are logically reasonable predictions.predictions.

Good hypotheses should be falsifiable:Good hypotheses should be falsifiable:

““All crows are black”, can be falsified by finding a single All crows are black”, can be falsified by finding a single grey crowgrey crow

““Not all crows are black”, cannot be falsified by either a Not all crows are black”, cannot be falsified by either a black or a grey growblack or a grey grow

Develop a hypothesis Develop a hypothesis [or [or objectives] objectives] (ii)(ii)

Develop Develop a hypothesis a hypothesis [or [or objectives] (iii)objectives] (iii)

If you are NOT doing work with clear If you are NOT doing work with clear hypotheses:hypotheses:

Define your objectives:Define your objectives: state all the things you want to find out or state all the things you want to find out or

achieve and describe them clearly and achieve and describe them clearly and unambiguouslyunambiguously To design 10 new polycrystalline arraysTo design 10 new polycrystalline arrays To test these designs with a range of light To test these designs with a range of light

frequencies above the normal range used in frequencies above the normal range used in current array designscurrent array designs

To compare the performance of the new arrays To compare the performance of the new arrays with benchmark results for current arrays in with benchmark results for current arrays in the chosen range of “high” frequenciesthe chosen range of “high” frequencies

5. Choose a method and 5. Choose a method and metricsmetrics

Once you have a clear hypotheses or clear Once you have a clear hypotheses or clear objectives, decide which method(s) will objectives, decide which method(s) will allow you to test the hypotheses or achieve allow you to test the hypotheses or achieve the objectivesthe objectives

Methods include:Methods include: Formal experiments and quasi experimentsFormal experiments and quasi experiments

System, method or model building etc.System, method or model building etc.

Field studiesField studies

Surveys: questionnaires and interviewsSurveys: questionnaires and interviews

Observational studiesObservational studies

Case studiesCase studies

Metrics are how we measure our concepts. In social Metrics are how we measure our concepts. In social science research ,concepts are seldom easy to science research ,concepts are seldom easy to measure. measure.

In engineering, metrics are often some sort of In engineering, metrics are often some sort of performance and performance metrics are usually performance and performance metrics are usually very well definedvery well defined

Read the literature and see what metrics other Read the literature and see what metrics other people used. people used.

If there are standard metrics, you need a very If there are standard metrics, you need a very good reason to use any other metricgood reason to use any other metric

Examiners may reject research if they Examiners may reject research if they think that the methods do not really test think that the methods do not really test the hypotheses or meet objectivesthe hypotheses or meet objectives

Choose a method and metrics Choose a method and metrics (ii)(ii)

6. Carry out the research6. Carry out the research Your method or methodology should say exactly Your method or methodology should say exactly

what you are going to do. Now you have to do it.what you are going to do. Now you have to do it. In our example, you would design some new In our example, you would design some new

arrays based on the literature or some arrays based on the literature or some underlying theoryunderlying theory

You would find a way to generate suitable light You would find a way to generate suitable light frequencies for your test (based on the literature)frequencies for your test (based on the literature)

You would repeatedly test your new arrays with You would repeatedly test your new arrays with suitable frequencies, recording the results suitable frequencies, recording the results carefullycarefully

Your examiners may challenge the validity Your examiners may challenge the validity of your results if you have not followed the of your results if you have not followed the method correctly method correctly

7. Analyse the results7. Analyse the results Most engineering research uses statistical methods Most engineering research uses statistical methods

because you only have a sample all the possible databecause you only have a sample all the possible data In our example, the solar arrays produced results In our example, the solar arrays produced results

that varied slightly from one test to the next. that varied slightly from one test to the next. Statistical methods will tell us if the variation is Statistical methods will tell us if the variation is acceptableacceptable

You must choose statistical methods that suit the You must choose statistical methods that suit the type and quantity of data that you have type and quantity of data that you have

Your examiners will challenge your results if Your examiners will challenge your results if i) you have used the wrong statistical method i) you have used the wrong statistical method ii) you have used the right method but used it ii) you have used the right method but used it wrongly or iii) your data does not meet the wrongly or iii) your data does not meet the underlying assumptions of the methodunderlying assumptions of the method

8. Write up your results and 8. Write up your results and conclusionsconclusions

Once you’ve analysed your results , you need to Once you’ve analysed your results , you need to present those results and any statistical (or present those results and any statistical (or other) analyses you have carried out. other) analyses you have carried out.

These need to be orderly and clearThese need to be orderly and clear From your results you can draw some From your results you can draw some

conclusionsconclusions E.g. Two of the new array designs collected E.g. Two of the new array designs collected

significantly more energy from frequencies significantly more energy from frequencies higher than those used by current arrays. higher than those used by current arrays.

Can we conclude that the new array designs Can we conclude that the new array designs are better ?are better ?

No, because we didn’t test their performance in No, because we didn’t test their performance in the “normal” range. the “normal” range.

9. Significance, 9. Significance, limitations & future limitations & future directionsdirections

So we know that the new arrays will So we know that the new arrays will capture “high” frequencies better. Who capture “high” frequencies better. Who cares? cares?

If the problem/question is based on the If the problem/question is based on the literature, some group of researchers literature, some group of researchers must be interested in these results. must be interested in these results. Perhaps, array manufacturers would be Perhaps, array manufacturers would be interested in these results as well. interested in these results as well.

If nobody will care, your results are If nobody will care, your results are probably have no significance, so you probably have no significance, so you have not made a contributionhave not made a contribution

9. 9. Significance, Significance, limitationslimitations & future & future directionsdirections

Every research project has some limitations Every research project has some limitations intentionally imposed on it, usually as part of intentionally imposed on it, usually as part of the scopethe scope

In our example, we intentionally did not test the In our example, we intentionally did not test the arrays in the “normal” range of frequencies. arrays in the “normal” range of frequencies. We also limited ourselves to 10 new designs. We also limited ourselves to 10 new designs.

These choices limit our conclusions. We cannot These choices limit our conclusions. We cannot conclude that: conclude that:

we have found the best design for “high” we have found the best design for “high” frequencies. frequencies.

the new arrays are better than the current onesthe new arrays are better than the current ones This is NOT a problem unless it reduces the This is NOT a problem unless it reduces the

contribution to a point where it will be rejectedcontribution to a point where it will be rejected

9. 9. Significance, limitations & Significance, limitations & future directionsfuture directions

Every limitation is a source of possible Every limitation is a source of possible future researchfuture research

Other researchers could test the Other researchers could test the performance of the new arrays in the performance of the new arrays in the “normal” range“normal” range

Additional new designs, based on the best Additional new designs, based on the best of the current designs, could be tested in of the current designs, could be tested in the “high range” the “high range”

Hybrid designs could be developed to Hybrid designs could be developed to capture both “high” and “normal” capture both “high” and “normal” frequencies frequencies

The research process is used The research process is used everywhereeverywhere

The process we have just seen is reflected The process we have just seen is reflected very closely in the structure of your thesisvery closely in the structure of your thesis

AbstractAbstract

1.1. Introduction – state the problem/questionIntroduction – state the problem/question

2.2. Literature Review – state the Literature Review – state the hypotheses/objectiveshypotheses/objectives

3.3. MethodsMethods

4.4. ResultsResults

5.5. DiscussionDiscussion

6.6. Conclusions Conclusions

So don’t mess with the So don’t mess with the structurestructure

Abstract Abstract

Write this last. It is an overview of your Write this last. It is an overview of your whole thesis, and is between 200-300 whole thesis, and is between 200-300 words.words.

It tells the whole story of your research so It tells the whole story of your research so a reader can decide if it is worth reading a reader can decide if it is worth reading or notor not

Introduction Introduction

Usually longer than an abstract, and Usually longer than an abstract, and provides the following:provides the following:

background to the topic; background to the topic; brief review of current knowledge (can brief review of current knowledge (can

include the literature review); include the literature review); indicates a gap in knowledge, states the aim indicates a gap in knowledge, states the aim

of your research and how it fits into the gap; of your research and how it fits into the gap; can include hypotheses; can include hypotheses; can include an outline of the following can include an outline of the following

chapters.chapters.

Literature Review Literature Review

Often part of the Introduction, but can be a Often part of the Introduction, but can be a separate section.  separate section. 

It is an evaluation of previous research on your It is an evaluation of previous research on your topic, where you show that there is a gap in topic, where you show that there is a gap in the knowledge that your research will attempt the knowledge that your research will attempt to fill.  to fill. 

The key word here is “evaluation”.The key word here is “evaluation”.

Other authors use the expression “an analysis Other authors use the expression “an analysis and synthesis of the literature”. “Analysis” and synthesis of the literature”. “Analysis” allows you to critically assess the literature in allows you to critically assess the literature in relation to YOUR research. “Synthesis” relation to YOUR research. “Synthesis” organises the literature to make it easy for organises the literature to make it easy for your examiner/readers to understandyour examiner/readers to understand

Methods Methods

Often the easiest part of the thesis to Often the easiest part of the thesis to write.  write. 

It outlines which method you chose and It outlines which method you chose and why (your methodology); why (your methodology);

what, when, where, how and why you did what, when, where, how and why you did what you did to get your results.what you did to get your results.

Results Results

Outlines what you found out in relation to Outlines what you found out in relation to your research questions or hypotheses, your research questions or hypotheses, presented in figures and in written text.  presented in figures and in written text. 

Results contain the facts of your research.  Results contain the facts of your research.  Often you will include a brief comment on Often you will include a brief comment on the significance of key results, with the the significance of key results, with the expectation that more generalised expectation that more generalised comments about results will be made in the comments about results will be made in the Discussion section.  Sometimes Results and Discussion section.  Sometimes Results and Discussion are combined: Discussion are combined:

check with your supervisor and with highly check with your supervisor and with highly rated past theses in your School.rated past theses in your School.

DiscussionDiscussion comments on your results; comments on your results; explains what your results mean; explains what your results mean; interprets your results in a wider context;  interprets your results in a wider context; 

indicates which results were expected or indicates which results were expected or unexpected;unexpected;

provides explanations for unexpected results. provides explanations for unexpected results.  The Discussion should also relate your specific The Discussion should also relate your specific

results to previous research or theory. You results to previous research or theory. You should point out what the limitations were of should point out what the limitations were of your study, and note any questions that remain your study, and note any questions that remain unanswered. The Discussion CAN also include unanswered. The Discussion CAN also include Conclusions/Future Research. Conclusions/Future Research.

Conclusions Conclusions

Very important!  This is where you Very important!  This is where you emphasise that your research emphasise that your research aims/objectives have been achieved.  aims/objectives have been achieved. 

You also emphasise the most significant You also emphasise the most significant results, note the limitations and make results, note the limitations and make suggestions for further research. suggestions for further research. 

Conclusions CAN include Future Conclusions CAN include Future DirectionsDirections

How does this compare to a How does this compare to a “paper”“paper”

In almost every conference or journal paper In almost every conference or journal paper you will be expected to provide:you will be expected to provide:

AbstractAbstract

1.1. Introduction – state the problem/questionIntroduction – state the problem/question

2.2. Literature Review – state the hypotheses/objectivesLiterature Review – state the hypotheses/objectives

3.3. MethodsMethods

4.4. ResultsResults

5.5. DiscussionDiscussion

6.6. Conclusions Conclusions You will only be able to report sub-sections of You will only be able to report sub-sections of

your research because your thesis might be your research because your thesis might be 100 pages but a conference paper might be 8 100 pages but a conference paper might be 8 pages and a journal 12pages and a journal 12

How does this compare to a How does this compare to a “grant” (i)“grant” (i)

In a grant application, you will be expected to In a grant application, you will be expected to provide:provide:

AbstractAbstract

1.1. Introduction – state the problem/questionIntroduction – state the problem/question

2.2. Literature Review – state the Literature Review – state the hypotheses/objectiveshypotheses/objectives

3.3. MethodsMethods

4.4. Track record: publications, grants & completed Track record: publications, grants & completed PhDsPhDs

5.5. BudgetBudget

6.6. Justification for the budgetJustification for the budget

7.7. Output - papers, more grants, PhD completions Output - papers, more grants, PhD completions Parts 4, 5, 6 and 7 are different. Parts 4, 5, 6 and 7 are different.

How does this compare to a How does this compare to a “grant” (ii)“grant” (ii)

You will only receive the grant if part(s):You will only receive the grant if part(s): 1 - 3 show that your research will make a 1 - 3 show that your research will make a

contributioncontribution 4 shows that you are a successful researcher4 shows that you are a successful researcher 7 shows that you will be successful this time, 7 shows that you will be successful this time,

tootoo1.1. Introduction – state the problem/questionIntroduction – state the problem/question

2.2. Literature Review – state the hypotheses/objectivesLiterature Review – state the hypotheses/objectives

3.3. MethodsMethods

4.4. Track record: publications, grants & completed PhDsTrack record: publications, grants & completed PhDs

5.5. BudgetBudget

6.6. Justification for the budgetJustification for the budget

7.7. Output – papers, other grants, PhD completions Output – papers, other grants, PhD completions