research-handouts.docx

8/16/2019 Research-Handouts.docx

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Research: An Introduction• Tradition: accepted as given on the basis of

inherited customs• Authority: comes from people with expertise• Experience

Trial and error IntuitionSources of knowledge

• Logical reasoning: combines, intellectualfaculties and formal system of thought

• Disciplined research: the most sophisticatedmethod of acquiring

knowledge.Definitions

• Research is a systematic, controlled, empiricaland critical investigation of hypotheticalpropositions about the presumed relationsamong natural phenomena.

Kerlinger, 1973

Definitions Systeatic – follows certain steps

!ontrolled – every step of the investigation is planned Epirical – evidence is on hand, there is confidence inthe results

Definitions• Research in its broadest sense is an attempt to

gain solutions to problems. More precisely, it isthe collection of data in a rigorously controlledsituation for the purpose of prediction orexplanation.

Treece and Treece, 1974

Definitions• "ursing research is research for nursing. t

includes the breadth and depth of the disciplineof nursing: the rehabilitative, therapeutic, andpreventive aspects of nursing, as well as thepreparation of

practitioners and personnel• involved in the total nursing• sphere.

Definitions• "ursing research is defined as a scientific

process that validates and refines existingknowledge and generates new knowledge thatdirectly and indirectly influences nursingpractice.

Burns and Grove, 2005

#urposes of Research !. "escribe #. $xplain %. &redict '. (ontrol

• Descri$e ) involves identifying andunderstanding the nature of phenomena and

sometimes the relationship among them.• Explain ) t clarifies the relationships among

phenomena and identifies the reasons whycertain events occur. t could be the basis forconducting research for prediction and control

• #redict ) *hrough prediction, one can estimatethe probability of a specific outcome in a givensituation. +owever, predicting an outcome doesnot necessarily enable one to modify or controlthe outcome.

• !ontrol ) f one can predict the outcome of asituation, the next step is to control or

manipulate the situation to produce the desiredoutcome.

"urses do research $ecause%• ursing is a profession• ursing should contribute to the generation of

new knowledge• *hrough research, nurses could evaluate and

document their contributions to theirclients- health and wellbeing and

to the health care delivery system

Cruz-Earnsa!, 2007 "urses do research $ecause%

• / 0!1% 2ection #3 4e 5states that: t shall be the duty of the nurse to: 4e5 6ndertake nursing and health human resourcedevelopment training and research which shall include, but not limited to the development of advance nursing

practice7!lassifications of Research

• /ccording to level of investigation

!. $xploratory #. "escriptive %. $xperimental

!lassifications of Research• /ccording to approach

!. $xperimental #. on)experimental

!lassifications of Research• /ccording to measurement 8 data analysis

!. 9uantitative #. 9ualitative

!lassifications of Research• /ccording to time frame

!. ongitudinal #. (ross sectional!lassifications of Research

• /ccording to motive or ob;ective !.


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• &uasi)experiental – causal relationshipsbetween two selected variables are examinedthrough manipulation of the independentvariable but without control or randomi?ation.

&uantitati'e Research (ethods• Experiental – it is an ob;ective, systematic,

controlled investigation for the purpose ofpredicting and controlling phenomena.(haracteristics include manipulation, control,and randomi?ation.

&uantitati'e Research (ethods• Ex post facto – the independent variable is not

manipulated, either because it is inherentlyunmanipulable or because it occurred in the past

&ualitati'e Research• &ualitati'e research is the investigation of

phenomena typically in an in)depth and holisticfashion, through the collection of rich narrativematerials using a flexible research design.

&ualitati'e Research (ethods• #henoenological – describes an experience

as they are lived by people

&ualitati'e Research (ethods• *rounded theory – discovers what problems

exist in a social scene and the process personsuse to handle them

&ualitati'e Research (ethods• Ethnographic – it is associated with

anthropology and focuses on the culture of agroup of people, with an effort to understand the

world view of those under study.

&ualitati'e Research (ethods• +istorical – a narrative description or analysis

of events that occurred in the remote or recentpast.

&ualitati'e Research (ethods• #hilosophical in,uiry – involves using

intellectual analysis to clarify meanings, makesvalues manifest, identify ethics, and study thenature of knowledge

&ualitati'e Research (ethods• !ase study – involves a thorough, in)depth

analysis of an individual, a group, or aninstitution or other social units.

&ualitati'e Research (ethods• !ritical theory – an approach to viewing the

world that involves a critique of society, with thegoal of envisioning new possibilities andeffecting social change

&ualitati'e Research (ethods• -einist research – seeks to understand,

typically through qualitative approaches, howgender and a gendered social order shapewomen-s lives and their consciousness.

(ixed (ethods Research• TRIA"*.LATI/" – the use of multiple methods

to collect and interpret data about aphenomenon, so as to converge on an accuraterepresentation of reality

Steps in the Research #rocess• dentification of problem• eview of related literature• (onstruction of a framework• =ormulate the hypothesis• 2elect the research design

• 2elect the sample• (ollect the data• /naly?e and interpret the data• @rite the research report• (ommunicate the research report

Ma;or 2teps: 9uantitative 2tudy• #hase I: The !onceptual #hase

2tep !: =ormulating and delimiting the problem2tep #: eviewing the related research literature2tep %: 6ndertaking clinical fieldwork2tep ': "efining the framework and conceptualdefinitions2tep A: =ormulating the hypothesis

• #hase II: The Design and #lanning #hase2tep B: 2electing a research design2tep 1: "eveloping protocols for intervention2tep 3: dentifying the population to be studied2tep 0: "esigning the sampling plan2tep !C: 2pecifying methods to measure variables2tep !!: "eveloping methods to protect human>animalrights2tep !#: =inali?ing and reviewing the research plan

#hase III: The Epirical #hase2tep !%: (ollecting the data2tep !': &reparing data for analysis

#hase I0: The Analytic #hase2tep !A: /naly?ing the data2tep !B: nterpreting the results

• #hase 0: The Disseination #hase2tep !1: (ommunicating the findings2tep !3: 6tili?ing research evidence in practice

/ctivities: 9ualitative 2tudy

!onceptuali1ing and planning a ,ualitati'e study• Identifying a research pro$le• Doing a literature re'iew• Selecting and gaining entr2e into research

sites

Designing ,ualitati'e studies Addressing ethical issues

/ctivities: 9ualitative 2tudy!onducting a ,ualitati'e study

• Dbtaining and analy?ing qualitative data

Disseinating ,ualitati'e findings• @riting qualitative research

Thank you for your attention

*he &roblem@hat is a research problemE

• / problem is a condition requiring a solution.• n research, a problem statement is an

expression of a dilemma or a

disturbing situation that needs investigation.2ources of research problems

• &ersonal experiences and observations• eadings• (onversations with peers, experts, clients

/ttendance in conferences, lectures $veryday occurrences

2ocial and political issues affecting health(haracteristics of a researchable problem

• nterest


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• 6sefulness• ovelty

=easibility of time and resources $thical /vailability of data /bility of the researcher2ituations manifesting a problem

• /bsence of information• ncomplete information• (onflicting information

/ fact exists and you intend your studyto explain it.

*here is a gap in knowledge*he research question

• *he problem is specifically stated in the form ofa research question.

• *he research question should be clear,concise, and stated in measurable terms

specifically in quantitative research.*he research question

• $xample @hat is the level of creativity among senior

student nurses of a center of excellencecollege in Manila in terms of

originality and flexibilityE

*he title• =unctions of a title

!. t draws in summary form, the content of the entire investigation. #. t serves as a frame of reference for the whole thesis. %. t enables the researcher to

claim the title as his own. '. t helps the other researchers

refer to the work.*he title

• *itles should be clear and specific.• t should include variables, relationships,

target population, and setting. deally, it should have a maximum of #C substantive words, with function words not included in

in the counting.*he title

• $xample *he $ffects of +ome Fisits of &ublic +ealth

urses on the "ietary (ompliance of /dult

"iabetic &atients in *wo


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Deception can involve either withholding informationabout the study or providing sub;ects with falseinformation.

3asic Rights#lace$o is a medically harmless, ineffective substancethat is usually used in testing a new drug when it is givento a control group. t is done to rule out any possiblebiases of sub;ects and investigators.

3asic Rights*here are two variations in the use of placebo

• Single $lind test design: it is one in which theevaluations of the results of a treatment are keptfrom the sub;ects who have received it.

3asic Rights#. Dou$le $lind test design: it is one in which theinvestigators and the sub;ects involved in the study arekept ignorant about the process – that is, they are notsuppose to know who are receiving the treatment andwho are not

3asic Rightsight to self determination means that the prospectivesub;ects have the right to voluntarily decide whether ornot to participate in a study, without the risk of imposingany penalties or pre;udicial treatment.3asic Rightst includes the right to decide at any point to terminatetheir participation, to refuse to give information, or to askfor clarification about the purpose of the study or specificstudy procedures#RI"!I#LE: espect for human dignity

3asic Rights

0ulnera$le su$4ects or persons with diminishedautonomy are those who are less advantaged becauseof legal or mental incompetence, terminal illness, orconfinement to an institution.3asic Rights*he right to full disclosure and the right to selfdetermination are the two ma;or elements on whichinformed consent is based

3asic RightsInfored consent means that the sub;ects haveadequate information regarding the research7 arecapable of comprehending the information7 and have thepower of free choice, enabling them to voluntarilyconsent to participate or decline participation in theresearch study.

3asic Rightsnformed consent involves the disclosure of the followinginformation: sub;ect status, study purpose, type ofinformation to be obtained, nature of the commitment,sponsorship, sub;ect selection, procedures, potentialrisks, costs, and benefits, confidentiality pledge,voluntary consent, right to withdraw, alternatives, andcontact information.

3asic Rights• nformed consent for children is called assent.

*he study must be explained within the child-slevel of comprehension. Most assent areaccompanied by parental consent.

3asic Rights• ight to fair treatment means that the sub;ects

receive equitable treatment before, during, andafter their participation in the study.

#RI"!I#LE: Hustice

3asic Rights• ight to privacy means that researchers need to

ensure that their research is not more intrusivethan it needs to be and that the sub;ect-s privacyis maintained throughout the study

#RI"!I#LE: Hustice

3asic RightsAnonyity occurs when even the researcher can notlink a sub;ect with the information for that sub;ect. *hesub;ects remain unknown.

3asic Rights / promise of confidentiality to the sub;ects is aguarantee that any information that the sub;ects providewill not be publicly reported or made accessible toparties other than those involved in the research.

The IR3IR3 stands for Institutional Re'iew 3oard5 This is aforal coittee in ost uni'ersities and hospitals

where researches are conducted5 They re'iewproposals for its adherence to ethical standards53asis for Ethical Standards

• "ure$erg !ode• D2claration of +elsinki• !I/(S 6!ouncil for International

/rgani1ations of (edical Research7• 3elont Report• #rofessional !ode of Ethics for "urses

uremberg (ode• *his ethical code of conduct contains rules that

were developed to guide investigators inconducting research ethically w>c are:

!. voluntary consent #. withdrawal of sub;ects from studies %. protection of sub;ects from physical and mentalsuffering, in;ury, disability, death '. balance of benefits and risk"eclaration of +elsinki

• "ifferentiated therapeutic from nontherapeuticresearch

• *herapeutic research gives the patient theopportunity to receive an experimental treatmentthat might have beneficial results

• ontherapeutic research is conducted togenerate knowledge for a discipline. esults ofthe study might benefit future patients but willprobably not benefit those acting as researchsub;ects.

(DM2• *he !I/(S *uidelines, formally known as

"n#erna#ional E#ical Guidelines $or Bio%edical&esearc "nvolving 'u%an (u)*ec#s, is a set ofethical principles regarding humanexperimentation.

• (reated in !00% by the (ouncil for nternationalDrgani?ations of Medical 2ciences 4(DM25 andupdated in #CC#, these #! guidelines 4!A in theoriginal report5 address issues includinginformed consent, standards for external review,

recruitment of participants, and more. *heIuidelines are general instructions andprinciples of ethical biomedical research


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human sub;ects and to develop guidelines whichshould be followed to assure that such researchis conducted in accordance with thoseprinciples.


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our way through the social landscapesurrounding us.

• *hey are extremely encompassing in contentand pervasive in adherence.

• *hey are composed of beliefs, belief systemsand social values associated with them.

*erminologies• / concept is a term that abstractly describes

and names an ob;ect, a phenomenon, or anidea, thus providing it with a separate identity ormeaning.

• !onstructs are concepts at very high level ofabstraction and have general meaning

• 0aria$les are more concrete and are narrow intheir definition.

*erminologies• (onstruct $motional /bstract

esponses

(oncept /nxiety

Fariable &almar (oncrete 2weating

*erminologies• / conceptual ap is a strategy for expressing a

framework. t diagrams the interrelationships ofthe concepts and statements.

/ conceptual map

+ypothesis

Definitions

• *he hypothesis is a tentative, declarativestatement about the relationship between two ormore variables.

• t is a tentative explanation for certain behaviors,phenomena or events

which have occurred or will occur.• t is an educated guess which needs

to be tested.!haracteristics

• t should be reasonable.

• t should state in definite terms, the relationshipbetween variables.

• t should be testable.Sources

• Dbservations of phenomena• eal life experiences• May be generated from relationships expressed

in theories.• iterature review• esults of previous researches

Types• "ull hypothesis 4+o5 is a statement of a no

relationship, no difference, no effect or nointeraction. t is tested with statistics.

• $xample

*here is no relationship between nursing admissiontest results and board examination ratings among thegraduates of nursing schools in Manila.

Types• Alternati'e or research hypothesis 4+!5 is the

expectation based on theory. *his could eitherbe:

• Directional – specifies the direction of therelationship.

• "on)directional – only specifies that there is arelationship.

Types• $xamples• "irectional

*he higher the nursing admission test results, thehigher is the board examination ratings.

• on)directional *here is a relationship between nursing admission testresults and board examination ratings among the

graduates of nursing schools in Manila.

Types• Siple hypothesis has one independent and

one dependent variable.• $xample

*here is no relationship between nursing admissiontest results and board examination ratings among thegraduates of nursing schools

in Manila.

Types• !oplex hypothesis has two or more

independent and dependent variables• $xample

*here is no relationship between nursing admissiontest results and grade point average to boardexamination ratings and (I=2 results among thegraduates of nursing schools in Manila.

8ording the hypothesis• +ypothesis should specify the independent and

dependent variables and the relationshipbetween them.

• +ypothesis should be worded in the present tense

• +ypothesis should be stated declaratively.Ree$er

• +ypotheses are never proved throughhypothesis testing rather they are accepted orsupported or re;ected. =indings are alwaystentative. f results are replicated in numerousinvestigations, greater confidence

can be placed in the conclusions. +ypotheses come to be supported with mountingevidences.

Research Designs

"efinitions• Research design is the plan, structure, and

strategy of an investigation.• Research ethod is the totality of how the

study is carried out. t includes the design,sample, setting, instruments,

interventions, procedures, and data analysis.

nterrelationship: "esign, &roblem, iterature eview,=ramework, and +ypothesis9uantitative "esigns

• / descripti'e design is used to identify aphenomenon of interest, identify variables withinthe phenomenon, event or group in real lifesituations for the purpose of discovering newmeaning, describing what

exists, determining the frequency with which something occurs, and


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categori?ing information.

9uantitative "escriptive• Sur'ey designs are employed to measure the

existing phenomenon without inquiring into whyit exists. *he main intention is to use the data for problem solving rather than for hypothesistesting.

9uantitative "escriptive• !orrelational designs help one determine the

extent to which different variables are related toeach other in the population of interest. *hecritical distinguishing characteristic is the effortto estimate a

relationship as distinguished from simple description.

9uantitative "escriptive• !oparati'e designs examine and describe

differences in variables in two or more groupsthat occur naturally in the setting. "escriptiveand inferential statistical analyses are used to

examine differences between or among groups.

9uantitative "escriptive• Tie diensional designs were developed

within the discipline of epidemiology where theoccurrence and distribution of disease amongpopulations are studied. *hese designs examine

sequences and patterns of change, growth or change over time. *he dimension of tie $ecoes an iportant factor5

9uantitative "escriptive• Longitudinal designs examine changes in the

same sub;ects over an extended period.• !ross sectional designs are used to examine

groups of sub;ects in various stages ofdevelopment simultaneously with

the intent to describe changes in the phenomenon across stages.

9uantitative "escriptive• 9 #riary longitudinal designs

5 Trend studies: the general population is studiedat different points o'er a long period of tie5#articipants are not the sae at each period $ut theyare representati'e of the population at

that tie59uantitative "escriptive ;5 !ohort studies: focus on the sae specificpopulation each tie data are collected< saplesay $e coposed of different su$4ects $ut withsiilar characteristics5 95 #anel studies: use the sae

respondents for each progressi'etie period that the data arecollected5

(haracteristics of a *rue $xperiment

• (anipulation: the researcher manipulates i.e.provides intervention or treatment in theexperimental group. *he independent variable ismanipulated to assess its effect on thedependent variable.

(haracteristics of a *rue $xperiment• !ontrol: imposing of rules by the researcher to

decrease the possibility of error and increase theprobability that the study-s findings are anaccurate reflection of reality.

(haracteristics of a *rue $xperiment• @ays of control:

!. +oogenecity: the researcher limits the sub;ectsto only one level of extraneous variable to reduce theimpact on study findings

(haracteristics of a *rue $xperiment#. 3locking: including the extraneous variable as part of the design%. (atching: it is used when a sub;ect in theexperimental group is randomly selected and then asub;ect similar in relation to important extraneous variables is randomly selected for the control group.

(haracteristics of a *rue $xperiment• Randoi1ation: each individual in the

population should have a greater than ?eroopportunity to be selected for the sample.andom assignment is the assignment ofsub;ects to treatment conditions in a mannerdetermined by chance.

9uantitative $xperimental• #re)experiental design is a research design

that does not include mechanisms tocompensate for the absence of eitherrandomi?ation or a control group. "one as apreliminary study.

"esigns: &re)experimental• /ne shot case study• "otation

= /• @here:

– *reatment>intervention

D ) &osttest

"esigns: &re)experimental• #osttest only design with coparison group• "otation

$xperimental group = /! (ontrol group /#

"esigns: &re)experimental• /ne)*roup #retest #osttest Design• "otation:

/ = /;

• @here:

D! > &retest ) *reatment>ntervention D# ) &osttest

"esigns: &re)experimental• Static *roup !oparison• "otation:

= / ))))))))))))))))))

/; @here:

– *reatment>ntervention D! – $xperimental posttest

D# – (ontrol posttest )))) ) on)random selection9uantitative $xperimental

• True experiental designs possess thecharacteristics of a true experiment.

*rue $xperimental "esigns• #retest #osttest !ontrol *roup Design or

!lassical Experiental Design• "otation:

R S / = /; ????????????????????


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R ! /9 /@*rue $xperimental "esigns

• @here: – andom assignment D! – $xperimental pretest D# ) $xperimental posttest

D% – (ontrol pretest

D' – (ontrol posttest

) *reatment>ntervention 2 – 2tudy group ( – (ontrol group

*rue $xperimental "esigns• Soloon -our *roup Design• "otation:

R S / = /;R ! /9 /@

R S = / R ! /B

9uantitative $xperimental

• &uasi)experiental designs are studiesinvolving an intervention in which sub;ects arenot randomly assigned to treatment conditionsbut the researcher exercises controls toenhance the study-s internal

validity.9uasi)experimental "esigns

• Tie series experient D! D# D% D' DA DB D1 D3

• "on)e,ui'alent control group design D! D# )))))))))))))))))))))

D% D'

*hreats to $xperimental Falidity• Internal 'alidity: refers to the condition that the

observed differences on the dependent variableare a direct result of the manipulation of theindependent variable, not some other variable

*hreats to $xperimental Falidity• *hreats to internal validity

+istory effect: an event that is not related to theplanned study but occurs during the time of the studyand could influence the responses of sub;ects to the

treatment

*hreats to $xperimental FaliditySelection threat is more likely to occur in studies inwhich randomi?ation is not possible(aturation is defined as growing older, wiser, stronger,hungrier, more tired, or more experienced during the study. 6nplanned and unrecogni?ed changes can influence the findings of the study.

*hreats to $xperimental Falidity(ortality is due to sub;ects who drop out of a studybefore completion

• External 'alidity refers to the condition whereinthe results are generali?able or applicable togroups and environments outside of theexperimental setting

$pidemiological "esigns• *wo broad classifications

!. /$ser'ational studies – examine associationsbetween risk factors and outcomes #. Inter'ention studies – explore the

association between interventions andoutcomes

$pidemiological "esigns• /$ser'ational studies

!. Analytical – determinants and risk of disease #. Descripti'e – patterns and frequency of disease$pidemiological "esigns

• ntervention or experimental studies ) providesthe strongest clinical evidence.

!.5 andomi?ed (ontrolled (linical *rial 4(*5 ) /prospective, analytical, experimental study using primarydata generated in the clinical environment. ndividualssimilar at the beginning are randomly allocated to two ormore treatment groups and the outcomes the groups arecompared after sufficient follow)up time. &roperlyexecuted, the (* is the strongest evidence of theclinical efficacy of preventive and therapeutic proceduresin the clinical setting.

$pidemiological "esigns #. Randoi1ed !ross)/'er !linical Trial ) /prospective, analytical, experimental study using primarydata generated in the clinical environment. ndividuals

with a chronic condition are randomly allocated to one of two treatment groups, and, after a sufficient treatmentperiod and often a washout period, are switched to theother treatment for the same period.$pidemiological "esigns

%. Randoi1ed !ontrolled La$oratory Study ) /prospective, analytical, experimental study using primarydata generated in the laboratory environment.aboratory studies are very powerful tools for doingbasic research because all extraneous factors other thanthose of interest can be controlled or accounted for 4e.g.,age, gender, genetics, nutrition, environment, co)morbidity, strain of infectious agent5

$pidemiological "esignsDbservational studies !. !ohort 6Incidence< Longitudinal Study7 ) /prospective, analytical, observational study, based ondata, usually primary, from a follow)up period of a groupin which some have had, have or will have the exposureof interest, to determine the association between thatexposure and an outcome.$pidemiological "esigns

#. !ase)!ontrol Study ) / retrospective, analytical,observational study often based on secondary data inwhich the proportion of cases with a potential risk factorare compared to the proportion of controls 4individualswithout the disease5 with the same risk factor. *hecommon association measure for a case)control study isthe odds ratio.$pidemiological "esigns %. Ecologic 6Aggregate7 Study ) /n observationalanalytical study based on aggregated secondary data.

/ggregate data on risk factors and disease prevalencefrom different population groups is compared to identifyassociations.$pidemiological "esigns '. !ross)Sectional 6#re'alence Study7 Study ) /descriptive study of the relationship between diseasesand other factors at one point in time 4usually5 in adefined population

$pidemiological "esigns A. !ase Series ) / descriptive, observational study ofa series of cases, typically describing the manifestations,clinical course, and prognosis of a condition.$pidemiological "esigns B. !ase Report ) /necdotal evidence. / description ofa single case, typically describing the manifestations,clinical course, and prognosis of that case.9ualitative "esigns

• &ualitati'e designs uses systematic,interactive approach which is used to describelife experiences and give them meaning.


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9ualitative &henomenology• #henoenological design is used to describe

experiences as they are lived• 3racketing is the suspension of the

researcher-s preconceptions, pre;udices andbeliefs so that they do not interfere

with or influences their description of the respondent-s experience.

9ualitative Irounded *heory• *rounded theory provides a way to transcend

experience – to move it from a description ofwhat is happening to understanding the processby which it happens.

9ualitative $thnographic• Ethnographic design provides a mechanism

for studying our own culture and that of others.

9ualitative +istorical• +istorical design is the systematic collection

and critical evaluation of data relating to past

occurrences. $xternal criticism: authenticity and genuiness of data nternal criticism: worthiness or truthfulness of data

9ualitative &hilosophical nquiry• #hilosophical in,uiry considers an idea or an

issue from all perspectives by extensivelyexploring the literature, examining conceptualmeaning, raising questions, providing answers,and suggesting the implications of thoseanswers.

9ualitative (ritical 2ocial *heory

• !ritical social theory dares to question theunquestioned and uncovers in;ustice andinequity in the society.

9ualitative =eminist esearch• -einist research is based on the premise

that gender is a central construct in a societythat privileges men and marginali?es women. tseeks to equali?e power relations by using abroad range of methodologies.

(ase 2tudy• nvolves an extensive exploration of a single unit

of study, such as a person, family, group,community, or institution, or a very small number of sub;ects who are examined intensively.

t may have both quantitative and qualitative elements. 6sed for rare, interesting, or representative cases

*riangulation• t is the combined use of two or more theories,

methods, data sources, investigators, oranalysis methods in the study of the samephenomenon.

Ree$er The CE in choosing the research design

*he best research design is the one that is mostappropriate for the problem and the purpose of thestudy.

Saple

,a"efinitions• Sapling involves selecting a group of people,

events, behaviors, or other elements with whichto conduct a study.

• Sapling plan defines the process of makingthe selection.

• Saple defines the selected group of people orelements.

• #opulation or target population is the entireset of individuals or elements who meet thesampling criteria.

"efinitions• Sapling criteria list the characteristics

essential for membership in the targetpopulation.

• Accessi$le population is the portion of thetarget population to which the researcher hasreasonable access.

• Eleents are the entities that make up thesample or the population

"efinitions

• Sapling frae is a list of all cases, ob;ects, orgroups of cases in the populations.

• *enerali1ing means that the findings can beapplied to the population.

• Representati'eness means that the samplemust be like the population in as many ways aspossible.

(ategories of 2ampling &lans• #ro$a$ility sapling: a process in which each

element of the population has an equal chanceof being chosen for the sample. *here is

randomi?ation.

• "on)pro$a$ility sampling: elements areselected by non)random methods

2ample 2i?eR.LE: *he larger the sample, the more representativeof the population.

• Minimum acceptable sample si?e !. "escriptive: !C – #CN of the population #. (orrelational: %C sub;ects %. $x post facto: !A sub;ects '. $xperimental: !A – %C sub;ects per group

Ga+ and iel,1992

2ample 2i?e• 2lovin-s =ormula

n O ! P e#

@here: n O sample si?e O population e O desired margin of error 4 C.CA or C.C! 5

&robability *echniques• Siple rando: sampling by chance either by

lottery or by the use of table of random numbers&robability *echniques

• Stratified rando: involves taking certain areasof the population, dividing the areas intosections, and then taking a random sample fromeach section.

&robability *echniques• Systeatic sapling: every nth name from a

roster of names can be taken as sample. J O >n


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@here: J O sampling interval O population n O sample si?e

&robability *echniques• !luster sapling: sampling in groups

&robability *echniques• (ulti)stage sapling: used for extremely large

populations. t proceeds through a set of stagesfrom larger to smaller sampling units.

on)probability *echniques• #urposi'e or 4udgental: sub;ects are hand

picked to be included in the sample, based uponthe researcher-s knowledge of the population.

on)probability *echniques• &uota sapling: researchers identify strata of

the population and then determine how manyparticipants are needed from each stratum tomeet a quota.

on)probability *echniques

• Accidental< con'enience< incidental: utili?esreadily available sub;ects

on)probability *echniques• Snow$all or network: sub;ects act as

informants who identify others for inclusion inthe sample who in turn leads to more samples

2teps in 2ampling• Ieneral outline of procedures

!. dentify the target population #. dentify the accessible population %. "ecide the sample si?e and how the sample will betaken.

'. ecruit sub;ects according to the designated plan. A. Dbtain the sub;ect-s cooperation."535 *he steps may vary from one sampling design toanother

9ualitative sampling• 2ample si?e is not predetermined in qualitative

research

• Saturation: is the point in data gathering whereno new data emerge therefore sampling isstopped. *here is data repetition.

Data !ollection*oal and #urpose

• *oal – to collect data that are meaningful for thepurpose of the study

• (eaningful data depend on the quality of theinstrument employed in the process

• o amount of sophisticated statistics cansalvage a poor set of data gathered throughdefective instruments.

&uestionnaire• &uestionnaire: a paper and pencil instrument

completed by the study sub;ects

• =ormats !. (hecklist #. Multiple (hoice %. ating 2cales: list an ordered series

of categories of a variable assumedto be based on an underlying continuum.

/ numerical value is assigned to eachcategory.

&uestionnaire -orats• (hecklist

• Multiple (hoice• ating 2cale and anking *ype

Inter'iew• Inter'iew involves verbal communication

between the researcher and the sub;ect

• Inter'iew structure is the amount of directionand restriction imposed by the interview situation

Inter'iew Types Structured: the interviewer has a list of

prepared questions in the form of an in#ervie!scedule

.nstructured inter'iew: more like aconversation. *he interviewer uses an in#ervie!guide

Inter'iew Tools/$ser'ation

• /$ser'ation: involves looking at thephenomenon

• 6sed to study human behavior

• +awthorne effect: is the effect on thedependent variable caused by the sub;ect-sawareness that they are participants in a study

Types of /$ser'ation• Structured o$ser'ation is one in which aspects

of the phenomenon to be observed are decidedin advance

• .nstructured o$ser'ation is a nonselectivedescription of the phenomenon to be observed

*ypes of Dbservation• #articipant o$ser'ation is done when the

researcher is involved in the setting with thesub;ect

• "on)participant observation is when theresearcher is merely viewing the situation

Records• Records are prepared and preexisting data• 2elective deposit and selective survival are the

two ma;or sources of bias.• ecords available for use may not constitute

the entire set of all possible data.

#hysiologic (easureent #hysiologic easureents are techniques

used to measure physiologic variables eitherdirectly or indirectly. *his is also called)io.+siologic %easures

• 6sed in clinical nursing studies• *he choice of the physiologic measure is

dependent upon its ability to yield goodinformation.

#hysiologic (easureent (riteria for effective question

• (larity of language• 2pecificity of content and time period• 2ingleness of purpose

• =reedom from assumption• =reedom from suggestion• inguistic completeness• Irammatical consistency

*ypes of questions• !losed ended: respondents answer a number

of alternative responses !. "ichotomous: two response alternative #. Multichotomous: multiple responses


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• /pen ended: respondents are given enoughflexibility to answer questions or specify answersother than those found in the questionnaire

!haracteristics of tools• 0alidity refers to the ability of a data gathering

instrument to measure what it is supposed tomeasure and to obtain data relevant to what isbeing measured.

• Relia$ility refers to the ability to obtainconsistent results when reused.

Data Analysis and InterpretationData Analysis

• Data analysis is the systematic organi?ationand synthesis of research data and, in mostquantitative studies, the testing of thehypotheses using those data.

&uantitati'e Analysis• *he manipulation of numerical data through

statistical procedures for the purpose ofdescribing phenomenon or assessing themagnitude and reliability of relationships amongthem.

&uantitati'e Analysis• &urposes of statistics

2ummari?eDrgani?e

$valuate umeric nterpret nformation (ommunicate

&uantitati'e Analysis• =actors to consider in choosing the appropriate

statistical test !. &urpose of the study #. esearch questions %. umber and measure of variables '. 2ampling technique and sample si?e A./vailability of statistical software B. /bility of the researcher &uantitati'e Analysis

• 0aria$ility• Standard de'iation 42"5 captures the degree

to which the scores deviate from one another.*he 2" tells us how much on the average thescores deviate from the mean. t also tells us thehomogenecity or heterogenecity of the group.

• Range is the highest score minus the lowestscore.


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&.A" > (easureent le'els• "oinal – lowest level7 name categories7

assignment of numbers to simply classifycharacteristics into categories

• /rdinal – attributes are ordered or rankedaccording to some criterion

• Inter'al *he distance between C R C any # numbers on the

• Ratio – +ighest scale are C O C of known and equal si?e&ualitati'e Analysis

• &ualitati'e analysis is the organi?ation andinterpretation of non)numerical data for thepurpose of discovering important underlyingdimensions and patterns of relationships

&ualitati'e Analysis Data analysis coponents&ualitati'e Analysis

• !ategories are underlying regularities,concepts, and clusters of concepts.

• Thees develop within categories of data. *hey

emerge from the data. / theme is an abstractentity that brings meaning and identity toexperiences and its variant manifestations. tcaptures and unifies the nature or basis of theexperience into a meaningful whole.

&ualitati'e Analysis #rocess• !oprehending – making sense of the data

and learning Swhat is going onT and preparing athorough description of the phenomenon.

&ualitati'e Analysis #rocess• Synthesi1ing > involves sifting of the data and

putting pieces together. esearchers get asense of what is typical with regard to thephenomenon and what variation is like.

&ualitati'e Analysis #rocess• Theori1ing – involves a systematic sorting of

the data. esearchers develop alternativeexplanations of the phenomenon and then holdthese explanations up to determine their fit withthe data.

&ualitati'e Analysis #rocess• Recontextuali1ing – involves the further

development of the theory such that itsapplicability to other settings or groups isexplored.

@riting the esearch eport&urpose in writing the report

• *o communicate in writing: the probleminvestigated, the methods used, the findingsgenerated, the interpretation of results, theintegration with the theory, what conclusionshave been drawn at the end, and

how the findings relate to past research.@riting the introduction and problem

• Io directly into what the problem isinvestigating.

• 2tate the rationale.• nclude key previous researches to strengthen

the reason for the investigation.• nclude the significance,

scope and limitations, 8 definition of terms.@riting the literature review

• nclude conflicting viewpoints of various authors.

• 2tate how each literature relates to the topicunder investigation.

• &ut together references saying the same thing.

• earn to choose DU relevant literature.@riting the methodology

• nclude the research design and the ;ustificationof why it was chosen.

• &resent the population and the sampling design,setting, and sample si?e.

• "escribe the tool used together with the validityand reliability testing.

• "iscuss how the data was analy?ed.@riting the results 8 discussion

• &resent results in a logical order with theresearch question as guide.

• 6se tables, figures, and other devises tomaximi?e the lucidity of the presentation.

• *ext should be followed by tables.• (onsistency in style should be followed in

writing the discussion.• $26*2 are data

bound: "2(622D is data based

@riting the summary• *he summary puts together the highlights of the

important findings of the investigation.• ook back at the questions and tie them up with

the main findings.• "o not write everything in the

findings in the summary.@riting the conclusions

• RE(E(3ER: the conclusion is an abstractiondrawn from the summary of findings and is tiedfrom the question investigated.

@riting recommendations• ecommendations should have a logical link

with the data and the conclusions.• ecommendations are geared towards:

education, practice, future research, population or institution if applicable.(haracteristics of scientific writing

• 2implicity• (onciseness•

2traight forwardness• (onsistency in the use of terms• (ontinuity through transitional sentences• /ccuracy• &arsimony

!ounicating Research!ounicating research

• !ounicating research findings, the finalstep in the research process, involvesdeveloping a research report and disseminatingit through presentations and publications to

audiences of nurses, health care professionals,policy makers, and health consumers.Ad'antages

• esearchers are able to advance the knowledgeof a discipline.

• esearchers receive personal recognition andprofessional advancement

• t promotes critique and replication• t helps identify additional problems• &romotes the use of research findings in

practice /venues for communicating research


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• &ublication in ;ournals including on)line ;ournals• Dral presentation in conferences• &oster presentation in conferences• &ublication in conference proceedings• &ublication in other sources e.g.

books, newspapers, maga?ines

$M$M

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