Research Ethics and Research Ethics and

Structuring Inquiry Structuring Inquiry

Ethics and Politics of Ethics and Politics of ResearchResearch

Ethics deals with methods used in research. Ethics deals with methods used in research.

Politics deals with representation of Politics deals with representation of research.research. James Colemen and School Desegregation James Colemen and School Desegregation Eminent sociologist who found little difference in Eminent sociologist who found little difference in

the academic performance of African-Americans the academic performance of African-Americans in integrated vs. segregated schoolsin integrated vs. segregated schools

Instead family and neighborhood mattered most Instead family and neighborhood mattered most Controversy and misrepresentationControversy and misrepresentation

Ethics in Social Ethics in Social ResearchResearch

Voluntary participation.Voluntary participation.

No harm to participants.No harm to participants. Voluntary participation is based on a full Voluntary participation is based on a full

understanding of possible risks.understanding of possible risks.

Anonymity and confidentiality.Anonymity and confidentiality.

Ethics in Social Ethics in Social ResearchResearch

DeceptionDeception Needs to be justified by compelling scientific Needs to be justified by compelling scientific

or administrative concerns.or administrative concerns. Debriefing session or procedureDebriefing session or procedure

Analysis and ReportingAnalysis and Reporting Researchers must be honest about their Researchers must be honest about their

findings and research.findings and research.

Ethics in Social Ethics in Social ResearchResearch

Institutional Review Boards Institutional Review Boards Review research proposals involving humans Review research proposals involving humans

so they can guarantee the rights and interests so they can guarantee the rights and interests are protected.are protected.

Professional Codes of EthicsProfessional Codes of Ethics Most professional associations have formal Most professional associations have formal

codes of conduct that describe acceptable and codes of conduct that describe acceptable and unacceptable professional behavior.unacceptable professional behavior.

Ethical Controversy: Ethical Controversy: TearoomsTearooms

Study of homosexual behavior in Study of homosexual behavior in public restroomspublic restrooms

Lied to participants by telling them Lied to participants by telling them he was a “watchqueen”he was a “watchqueen”

Traced participants to their home and Traced participants to their home and interviewed them under false interviewed them under false pretensespretenses Invasion of privacy?Invasion of privacy? Deception of respondents?Deception of respondents?

Ethical Controversy: Ethical Controversy: MilgramMilgram

Study of human obedience.Study of human obedience.

Subjects had role of "teacher" and Subjects had role of "teacher" and administered a shock to "pupils".administered a shock to "pupils".

Pupils were actually part of the Pupils were actually part of the experiment.experiment. Act out the effects of progressively higher Act out the effects of progressively higher

“shocks”“shocks” Two-third continue to the highest levelTwo-third continue to the highest level ““teachers” express great discomfortteachers” express great discomfort

Group ExerciseGroup Exercise

Would you use research insights gained Would you use research insights gained from research conducted in violation of from research conducted in violation of ethical guidelines? ethical guidelines? Ex., Tuskegee Airman StudiesEx., Tuskegee Airman Studies Ex., Nazi War ExperimentsEx., Nazi War Experiments

Would you conduct a study that did not Would you conduct a study that did not get IRB approval if you thought the get IRB approval if you thought the topic was important?topic was important? Ex. Public responses to major news eventEx. Public responses to major news event Ex. Studying the health effects of an oil spillEx. Studying the health effects of an oil spill

Nature of InquiryNature of Inquiry

What question are you trying to answer?What question are you trying to answer? Pick the appropriate approachPick the appropriate approach

Do you want to explain one case fully or Do you want to explain one case fully or understand a class of cases?understand a class of cases? Different approaches with different goalsDifferent approaches with different goals

Idiographic vs. Idiographic vs. NomotheticNomothetic

Two ends of a continuum of inquiryTwo ends of a continuum of inquiry

The Idiographic OrientationThe Idiographic Orientation Unique characteristics of phenomena:Unique characteristics of phenomena:

Rich description of “idiosyncratic” featuresRich description of “idiosyncratic” features Intention is to explain one case fullyIntention is to explain one case fully

The Nomothetic OrientationThe Nomothetic Orientation Generating generalizable principlesGenerating generalizable principles

Establishing “trans-situational” lawsEstablishing “trans-situational” laws Intention is to explain a class Intention is to explain a class

Inductive ReasoningInductive Reasoning

Moves from the particular to the Moves from the particular to the generalgeneral

Observations lead to generalizationsObservations lead to generalizations

Exploratory investigationExploratory investigation

E.g., Identifying news frames through E.g., Identifying news frames through ethnographic study of newsroom ethnographic study of newsroom culture and news production practicesculture and news production practices Identifying frames as you encounter themIdentifying frames as you encounter them

Deductive ReasoningDeductive Reasoning

Moves from the general to the particularMoves from the general to the particular

General principles lead to expectations for General principles lead to expectations for empirical testingempirical testing

Theory testing investigationTheory testing investigation

E.g., Using theories of news production to:E.g., Using theories of news production to: Predict certain frames will occur more Predict certain frames will occur more

frequentlyfrequently Episodic over thematic framing (Iyengar’s Episodic over thematic framing (Iyengar’s

research)research)

Wallace’s Wheel of Wallace’s Wheel of ScienceScience

Theories

EmpiricalGeneralizations Hypotheses

Observations

INDUCTION DEDUCTION

CONCRETE

ABSTRACT

Creating ExplanationsCreating Explanations

Research often seeks explanations by:Research often seeks explanations by: examining relationships between variablesexamining relationships between variables E.g. Is gender related to party preference?E.g. Is gender related to party preference? E.g. Is education related to prejudice?E.g. Is education related to prejudice? E.g. Is political discussion related to civic E.g. Is political discussion related to civic

participation?participation?

Conditions of Conditions of Causality:Causality:

CovariationCovariation Correspondence between cause and effectCorrespondence between cause and effect Positive or negative covariationPositive or negative covariation

Time-orderTime-order Cause must precede effectCause must precede effect

Absence of third variablesAbsence of third variables Spurious relationshipsSpurious relationships

Spurious RelationshipsSpurious Relationships

Situations where X and Y appear to be Situations where X and Y appear to be related:related: But are really the function of third variable ZBut are really the function of third variable Z

1. Antecedent variable1. Antecedent variable Z causes both X and YZ causes both X and Y

2. Intervening variable2. Intervening variable X causes Z, Z causes XX causes Z, Z causes X

Causation is rarely as simple as X causing YCausation is rarely as simple as X causing Y Multitude of factors cause YMultitude of factors cause Y

Contribute in varying amountsContribute in varying amounts

Necessary & Sufficient Necessary & Sufficient CausesCauses

Necessary Cause:Necessary Cause: For Y to occur, X For Y to occur, X mustmust occur first occur first Just because X occurs, doesn’t mean Y will Just because X occurs, doesn’t mean Y will

occuroccur Other factors may have to occur tooOther factors may have to occur too To pass the test, you must take the testTo pass the test, you must take the test

Sufficient Cause:Sufficient Cause: If X occurs, Y will occurIf X occurs, Y will occur X determines Y, no contingenciesX determines Y, no contingencies Other factors may also have the effectOther factors may also have the effect If you skip an exam, you fail the examIf you skip an exam, you fail the exam