MEANING OF RESEARCH MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGNDESIGN The research design is the master

plan specifying the methods and

procedures for collecting and

analyzing the needed information.

A set of advanced decisions that

make up the master plan

specifying the methods and

procedures for collecting and

analyzing the needed

information.

PURPOSESPURPOSESProvides a specific blueprint for

conducting a study. It provides maximum control over

extraneous variables and other factors that could influence the results and interfere with the validity of the findings.

The design is the end-result of a series of decisions made by the researcher concerning how the study will be implemented

ELEMENTS-RESEARCH ELEMENTS-RESEARCH DESIGNDESIGNIntervention: To test the effect of

phenomena i.e. what to intervene, procedure, for whom, for how long and the content of intervention

Comparisons : various types -Comparison between two groups-Comparison of a single group at two or more points in time-Comparison of a single group under different circumstances

Groups: Each group in a design is given its own line in the design structure. The major types of assignment to a group are

R = Random assignment N = Non equivalent groups C = Assignment by cut off

Tasks involved in research Tasks involved in research designdesign

DEFINE INFORMATION NEEDED

Design the Exploratory, Descriptive, and/or Causal

Phases of the Research

Specify the Measurement and Scaling Procedures

Construct a Questionnaire

Specify the Sampling Process and the Sample

Size

Develop a Plan of Data Analysis

CONCEPTS IMPORTANT TO CONCEPTS IMPORTANT TO DESIGNDESIGN::

CAUSALITYCAUSALITY

This describes a relationship

between two variables in which the

presence or absence of one variable

the cause determines the presence

or absence, or the value, of another

variable the effect.

CAUSALITYCAUSALITYA strong correlation must exist

between the proposed cause and the effect.

The proposed cause must occur before the effect.

The cause must always be present

when the effect occurs.

MULTICAUSALITYMULTICAUSALITYThis perspective acknowledges

that more than one variable can be the cause of an effect.

Characteristics of studies examining multicausality include:

Inclusion of more independent variables

than a study based on causality

Complex hypotheses with two or more

independent variables.

PROBABILITYPROBABILITY

This perspective also addresses

the cause and effect relationship

but looks at it from a relative

versus an absolute standpoint.

BiasBias Bias is a systematic deviation from

the truth that distorts the results of research.

Selection biasIntervention biasFollow up biasMeasurement and information bias

MANIPULATIONMANIPULATIONTo manipulate means to move

around or to control the movement.

Control: Control means having the power to direct or manipulate factors to achieve a desired outcome.

INTERVENTIONINTERVENTION

To test the effect of phenomena

i.e. what to intervene, procedure,

for whom, for how long and the

content of intervention

Independent Independent variablesvariablesIndependent variables are those

variables which the researcher has control over and wishes to manipulate.

Dependent variables are those variables that we have little or no direct control over, yet we have a strong interest in.

Extraneous Extraneous variablesvariablesExtraneous variables are those

variables that may have some effect on a dependent variable yet are not independent variables.

Extraneous variables must be controlled through proper experimental design.

Control for extraneous Control for extraneous variablesvariables Researcher must carefully

consider which extraneous variables need to be controlled . E.g. Age, birth weight, diet etc.

Pretest and PosttestPretest and PosttestPretest refers to the

measurement of the dependent variable taken prior to changing the independent variable.

Posttest refers to measuring the dependent variable after changing the independent variable.

DESIGN - TYPESDESIGN - TYPESQuantitative is anything

objective measurable so like your surveys and statistics (numbers)

Qualitative is subjective not measurable like opinions and ideas (words)

Multimethods data in both forms

QUANTITATIVE & QUANTITATIVE & QUALITATIVEQUALITATIVEQualitative

InterpretiveArtisticExplores

meanings

Words

Quantitative

ExperimentsSurveysGenerates facts

Numbers

DESCRIPTIVEDESCRIPTIVE

TYPICAL

TIME DIMENSI

ONAL LONGITUDINAL

CROSS SECTION

CASE STUDY

TRENDCOMPARATIVE

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCHDESCRIPTIVE RESEARCHDescriptive research is

undertaken to describe answers to questions of who, what, where, when, and how.

Descriptive research is desirable when we wish to project a study’s findings to a larger population, if the study’s sample is representative.

1.TYPICAL DESCRIPTIVEEXAMPLE:

A study to identify the prevalence of cervical cancer

2.TIME DIMENSIONAL: Examines sequences and patterns of change, growth, or trends over time

EXAMPLE:Effect of maternal labor analgesia on

feeding behavior of newbornsMonthly Peer Counselling and the

Juvenile Delinquency

4.Longitudinal: Data collected at more than one point in time over an extended period

Example: To study the changes in professionalism among B.Sc nursing students

5. Cross section: Data collected at one point of time

Example: To study the changes in professionalism among B.Sc nursing students

DESCRIPTIVE CORRELATIVE

MULTIFACTORIAL

PREDICTIVE

MODEL TESTING CORRELATI

ON

8.CORRELATIVE 8.CORRELATIVE DESIGNSDESIGNS A correlation is an interrelationship or

association between two variables. Example:Taller people weigh more than shorter

people.1.Descriptive correlative: Describes

the relationship among variablesExample: Coping with disfigurement and length

of hospitalization after head and neck cancer surgery

2.Predictive correlation: Explores what factors have an influence on another variable

EX: A co relational study to predict intentions to obtain Pap smear among urban and rural women

3.Model testing: Testing a hypothesized causal model

4.Multifactorial correlation: Multiple factors influence an outcome

IIDoes the Investigator Influence an

Outcome?• ObservationWatch and RECORD Information• InterventionIntroduces Some Agent to Impact an

Outcome• Natural ExperimentsCurriculum Reform

RETROSPECTIVE: Study begins with DV and looks backward for cause or antecedent

CASE CONTROL: Comparisons of cases with controls

Ex: Factors influencing hypercholesterolemia among cardiac patients

PROSPECTIVE: Study begins with IV and looks forward for effect

PROSPECTIVEPROSPECTIVE

EXPERIMENTALEXPERIMENTALAn experiment is defined as

manipulating an independent variable to see how it affects a dependent variable, while also controlling the effects of additional extraneous variables.

Experimental Design Experimental Design FeaturesFeaturesRandomizationControl: IV→DV Manipulation

Symbols of Experimental Symbols of Experimental DesignDesign

O = measurement of a dependent variable

X = manipulation, or change, of an independent

variableR = random assignment of

to experimental and control groups

E = experimental effect

EXPERIMENTAL EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNSDESIGNS

PRETEST POSTTEST with control

POSTEST ONLY FACTORI

AL

CROSS OVER

RANDOMIZED BLOCK

SOLOMON 4

GROUP

PRETEST POSTTEST

without control

RCT

1. A pretest-posttest design with an experimental and a control group would look like this:

Experimental group O1X O2

Control group O O2Ex Effectiveness of fenugreek

seeds upon hyperglycemia among diabetic clients

 

2. A pretest-posttest design without an experimental and a control group would look like this:

Experimental group O1X O2

Ex: Effectiveness of laughter therapy upon stress among cancer patients

3. A posttest only design; Data collection at one time after the intervention x o1

x o2

Ex Effectiveness of maternal labor analgesia on feeding behavior of newborns

3. Solomon four group: Data collection before and after intervention for one experimental and one control group, but after only for second experimental and control group

Experimental O1 X O2 O3 control O4 X O5 O6

4.Randomized block : Random assignment to groups within different levels of blocking variable that is not under experimental control

Ex Effect of high fat vs. low fat diet and forced exercise vs. sedentary condition on obesity

5. Cross over: Subjects exposed to all treatments but are randomly assigned to different orderings of treatments ; subjects serve as controls

Ex Effect of music therapy vs. laughter therapy upon stress among cancer patients

6. Factorial design: Experimental manipulation of more than one IV permits a test of main effects for each manipulated variable & interaction effects for combinations of manipulated variables

Ex: Effect of fiber-containing vs. fiber free tube and pectin vs. placebo to reduce diarrhea among critically ill tube fed patients

7. Randomized block design: Random assignment to groups within different levels of a blocking variable not under experimental control ( gender)

QUASI EXPERIMENTAL QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNDESIGN

NON EQUIVALENT

BEFORE AFTER CONTROL GROUP

NON EQUIVALENT

BEFORE AFTER CONTROL GROUP

NON EQUIVALENT CONTROL GROUP

AFTER ONLY

NON EQUIVALENT CONTROL GROUP

AFTER ONLY

TIME SERIESTIME SERIES

QUASI QUASI EXPERIMENTALEXPERIMENTALCHARACTERISTICS

Manipulation of IVIntervention presentLack randomization

QUALITATIVE DESIGNSQUALITATIVE DESIGNS

OTHER TYPESOTHER TYPES

CASE STUDYNARRATIVE ANALYSIS

QUALITATIVE OUTCOME ANALYSIS

METASYNTHESIS

DESCRIPTIVE QUALITATIVE

CRITICAL THEORY

FEMINIST

PARTICIPATORY

ACTION

DIMENSIONS – RESEARCH DIMENSIONS – RESEARCH DESIGNDESIGNOBJECTIVE OF STUDY/NATURE OF QUESTIONI EXPLORATORYNeed More Information to Sharpen

QuestionCan’t Measure VariablesII DESCRIPTIVESeeks to Characterize Sets of VariablesAbout People or PhenomenaIII ANALYTICSeeks to Determine Relationships(ultimately casual) Among Variables

TIMEFRAME UNDER INVESTIGATIONI RETROSPECTIVEExamines Background of ResidentsWho Select Primary CareII CROSS SECTIONALA “one shot” Survey Measuring a

Variables(s) at one point in timeIII PROSPECTIVEBegin in the Present and Follow

Subjects Forward in Time

Does the Investigator Influence an Outcome?

I OBSERVATIONWatch and RECORD InformationII INTERVENTIONIntroduces Some Agent to Impact

anIII OUTCOMENatural ExperimentsCurriculum Reform

DOMAINS – RESEARCH DOMAINS – RESEARCH DESIGNSDESIGNS

If you have two or more groups ................Differences

If you have one group and measure the DV two or more times ..................... Differences

If you have one group, and measure the DV once

.....................Relationship

If you have one group, no IV, and observe the DV

once .................................. Descriptive

Which is the Best Research Which is the Best Research Design Design & Method ?& Method ?It depends on the

◦problem of interest, ◦level of information needed, ◦resources ◦researcher’s experience, etc.

The hardest part of doing research is the plan

The second hardest part of doing research is the time it takes to produce a good plan

4 4 C’S OF DESIGNC’S OF DESIGN

CREATIVITY COMPLEXITYCOMPROMISECHOICE

TRIANGULATIONTRIANGULATION

It is a strategy in which multiple methods

are used in the research design to study

the phenomenon.

There are five types of triangulation

1.Data triangulation: data from several

sources in a study are examined.

2.Investigator triangulation: Several

investigators with differing backgrounds

examine the same variable.

3 Theoretical triangulation :Several framework are used in a study

4 Methodological triangulation: Several methods such as observation, interviews and questionnaire are used to collect data from the same subjects in a study

5 Analysis triangulation : different techniques are used to analyze the same data.

The over all design The over all design should be such that it:should be such that it:1. Provides for the collection of data in

a manner to produce a high degree

of accuracy, reliability, and validity.

2. Involves a minimum amount of bias and subjectivity on the past of both the research and the respondents being contacted ;

3. Provides the maximum financial economy;

4. Is the most practical approach to the study of the problem

5. The components design fit into each other admirably;

6. Aids in fulfilling the objectives of the study.

Features of good designFeatures of good design

Theory-grounded. Good research

design

finds its roots in theories, that is, it

has the power to test the existing

theories as specific theoretical

expectations are incorporated

in the design.

Situational. Good research design reflects the setting of the investigation.

Feasible. Good research design takes reality into account. The design anticipates potential problems in implementation, measurement and if necessary, includes additional groups or measurements.

Redundant. Good research designs duplicate some essential design features.

Efficient. Good research designs also refrain themselves from overdesign.