research article agricultural and forest land use potential for...

Research ArticleAgricultural and Forest Land Use Potential for REDD+ amongSmallholder Land Users in Rural Ghana

Divine O Appiah1 John T Bugri2 Eric K Forkuo3 and Sampson Yamba1

1Department of Geography and Rural Development Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST)Kumasi Ghana2Department of Land Economy Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) Kumasi Ghana3Department of Geomatic Engineering Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) Kumasi Ghana

Correspondence should be addressed to Divine O Appiah dodameappiahgmailcom

Received 21 September 2015 Revised 4 November 2015 Accepted 23 November 2015

Academic Editor Piermaria Corona

Copyright copy 2016 Divine O Appiah et al This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons AttributionLicense which permits unrestricted use distribution and reproduction in any medium provided the original work is properlycited

Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation with other benefits (REDD+)mechanism is supposed to address thereversal of forest-based land degradation conservation of existing carbon stocks and enhancement of carbon sequestration TheBosomtwe District is predominantly agrarian with potentials for climate change mitigation through REDD+ mechanism amongsmallholder farmers The limited knowledge and practices of this strategy among farmers are limiting potentials of mitigatingclimate change This paper assesses the REDD+ potentials among smallholder farmers in the district Using a triangulation ofquantitative and qualitative design 152 farmer-respondents were purposively sampled and interviewed using snowballing methodfrom 12 communities Quantitative data gathered were subjected to the tools of contingency and frequencies analysis embeddedin the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) v16 The qualitative data were analyzed thematically Results indicate thatrespondents have knowledge of REDD+ but not the intended benefit sharing regimes that can accrue to the smallholder farmersFarmersrsquo willingness to practice REDD+ will be based on the motivation and incentive potentials of the strategies The ForestryServices Division should promote the practice of REDD+ among smallholder farmers through education to whip and sustaininterest in the strategy

1 Introduction

Deforestation and forest degradation account for about 17of global greenhouse gas emissions [1] making it third toenergy (26) and industrial (19) sectors globally and alsohigher than the transportation sector [2]The accelerated lossof tropical forests is recognized globally as a major contri-butor to global warming [3] Of the land use and climateinteraction the relationship between agriculture and forestsand reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degra-dation (REDD+) programs is of prime concern [3]

The clearing of tropical forest for agriculture contributessignificantly to greenhouse gas emission which hastens cli-mate change Expanding agricultural lands into forest fron-tiers for most farmers is a cheaper and preferred way ofincreasing crop production to meet ever increasing food

demands [4] Beyond reducing the degradation of forestsREDD+ incorporates conservation and sustainable manage-ment practices [5] Reducing emissions from deforestationand forest degradation with forest conservation andmanage-ment (REDD+) provides the opportunity for host countriesto gain financially by costing the value of standing forestscurbing deforestation and encouraging the conservation andsustainable management of forests Research by the Interna-tional Institute for Environment andDevelopment (IIED) hasshown that REDD+ strategies will be handicapped if theyare not in tandem with national agricultural developmentobjectives focusing on adaptation and mitigation [4]

Communities in forested regions in developing countriesare some of themost important stakeholders because REDD+policies will affect their livelihoods and these stakeholderswill likely be directly involved in the implementation and

Hindawi Publishing CorporationInternational Journal of Forestry ResearchVolume 2016 Article ID 7218305 7 pageshttpdxdoiorg10115520167218305

2 International Journal of Forestry Research

maintenance of REDD+ activities [6] Through traditionalagroforestry practices communities have sustainably man-aged forests in the pastwith benefits of increased productivitysustained soil fertility erosion control biodiversity conserva-tion and income diversification through the harvest and saleof nontimber forest products accruing to them [7] Reducingemissions from deforestation and forest degradation withits benefits (REDD+) may thus spearhead the restoration oftraditional agroecological practices on the continent

In some African countries agricultural and environ-mental sustainability is contextualized in REDD+ policiesIn Ethiopia for example agricultural systems pose seriousthreat to the sustainability of the environment and highlycontribute to the countryrsquos greenhouse gas emissions HenceREDD+ is anticipated to help reverse this trend [8]

In Tanzania adopted agroforestry practices include homegardens alley intercropping improved fallows and bound-aries [9] Agroforestry practices in rural communities inSouthern Africa include improved fallows rotational wood-lots and indigenous fruit trees in the parklands system [10]Bryan et al [11] and Gledhill et al [12] emphasized thatagroforestry comes with a ldquotriple winrdquo of climate changemiti-gation agricultural adaptation and increased productivity asdoes REDD+

REDD+has been accepted amongmostAfrican countriesbecause of possible financial benefits through carbon financ-ing to support the forestry sector on the continent Never-theless tenure conflicts based on cultural inheritance posea threat that hampers development efforts in most Africancountries [13] The Agriculture Forest and Land Use(AFOLU) and reducing emissions from deforestation andforest degradation (REDD+) interconnection is increasinglygaining attention on the African continent but the realizationof actual deforestation and reduction in forest degradationhas yet to completely unfold [14]

In [15] Djagbletey and Adu-Bredu found in Nkoranzain Ghana that ownership of teak farms was dominated bynatives because tree planting on a parcel of land by an indi-vidual customarily implied his or her ownership of the landSettlers and migrants were therefore less actively involvedin tree planting initiatives [15] According to Adaba [16] inNorthern Ghana families establish woodlots on family landsas alternative sources of income and fuel wood Communalwoodlots are however not popular because individual andfamily access and utilization of these communal woodlots areusually restricted

The Cancun agreement states clearly that respect for therights of local people and the conservation of biodiversityand natural forests must be upheld in the implementationof REDD+ initiatives [17] REDD+ through avoided defor-estation has the potential to reduce GHG emissions It couldconversely result in leakages and increased degradation inadjoining marginal lands [18] Herein lies the need for agro-forestry to absorb such leakages by augmenting the benefitsof forests to forest communities and agriculture

Carbon sequestration in trees initially increases as treesgrow but eventually declines as the trees age [19] Agricul-tural and forested lands present major carbon sequestrationopportunities if the appropriate land use and management

practices are adopted [7] Since agricultural extensificationcould threaten REDD+ interventions should focus not onlyon forest but also on forest-farm frontier [17]

Carbon emission reduction through REDD+ can con-tribute significantly to land-based mitigation in two waysfirstly reducing land-based greenhouse gas emissions andsecondly sequestering carbon dioxide through reforestationand agroforestry [20] Decision on land use at the grassrootsinvolving stakeholders as smallholder must be a key target ofREDD+ interventions [17] The Energy and Resources Insti-tute [21] therefore recommends that in order for REDD+to be effective there is the need for stratification consideringprevailing land use options and patterns

In this regard some countries have integrated REDD+with prevailing land uses including reforestation afforesta-tion agroforestry and assisted natural regeneration usingthese as key drivers of REDD+ interventions [22] Small-holders are an important contributor to deforestation Issuesrelated to land rights are perhaps the most complex and havefar-reaching impacts on forest governance communities andREDD+ outcomes [23] To this Kotru [24] asserts that clarityof tenure and hence right to benefits present challenges at thecommunity level Private land ownership has facilitated theadoption of agroforestry systems inMasaka District since themajority of farmers hold private land In contrast other typesof land ownership may hinder the adoption of agroforestrysystems

Sebukyu andMosango [25] put forward that agroforestrypractices through REDD+ have benefits of soil fertility resto-ration among others greatly reducing the need for inputssuch as fertilizers Many developing countries are howevernot adequately prepared to utilize their forest and forest-frontier potentials to benefit from the REDD+ market [26]More emphasis on educating farmers on the benefits of sus-tainable resource management and specifically agroforestryand conservation practices would reduce hindrances to theadoption [27] Critical areas assessed for the purposes ofthis paper therefore included awareness of REDD+ and itsbenefits among smallholder farmers in the Bosomtwe Dis-trict willingness of smallholder farmers to engage in forestmanagement practices possible motivation for adoption ofREDD+ activities and land tenure and its potential implica-tion on access to REDD+ benefits

Problematizing the Concept of REDD+ in the Bosomtwe Dis-trict Factors constraining the development of agroforestryamong smallholder farmers in the Bosomtwe District arevariegated depending on ecological and socioeconomic fac-tors confronting the smallholder farmers The adoption ofagroforestry practices is influenced by many factors and onecategory of these factors is the characteristics and conditionsof the farmer as has been espoused by Oino and Mugure[28] Mbwambo et al [9] explain for example that land sizetenure access to extension services capital crop yield andhousehold income are key in determining farmers adoptionof agroforestry

Rapid population growth within the Bosomtwe Dis-trict and the Kumasi Metropolis has necessitated increasedfood supply from nearby agrarian districts as Bosomtwe

International Journal of Forestry Research 3

Periurban developments within the district are increasinglyexpanding into adjoining arable agricultural lands Thisrequires that agriculture be sustained by expansion into forestfrontiers Other activities as small-scale mining and wooddemands for firewood and charcoal production are on the risewith a current rate of 569 within the district

The Bosomtwe District being predominantly agrarianwith forest cover has potentials for climate change mitigationthrough REDD+ mechanism among smallholder farmersThus knowledge and practice of smallholder farmers of thisstrategy as an alternative livelihood potential are critical andpractices of this strategy as alternative livelihood potential totheir farming activities Consequently a substantial propor-tion of the forest cover is being depleted Considering theforegone argument the focus of this paper is to assess theREDD+ potentials among smallholder land users in selectedrural communities in the Bosomtwe District of the AshantiRegion of Ghana In earlier study the rate of periurbanizationwas identified as one of the various factors having depletingimpacts on forest land cover in the district [29]

Smallholder land users have access to original forest landcovers as well as their potential to engage in other forestregrowth systems in their food production activities How-ever these potentials appear largely untapped Furthermorethe enormous potentials of mitigating climate change byreducing emission of agriculture-based carbon dioxide withfavorable effects on the local warming and climate variabilityand change are not adequately studied in the BosomtweDistrictThis is the point of departure inmaking original con-tribution to the literature in general and in Ghana in partic-ular The main focus of this paper is therefore to assess theagricultural and forest land use potential for REDD+ amongsmallholder farmers in the Bosomtwe District of the AshantiRegion of Ghana

2 Materials and Methods

21 Profile of the Study Area The Bosomtwe District islocated in the central part of the Ashanti Region It lieswithin Latitude 6∘ 281015840NndashLatitude 6∘ 401015840N and Longitude 1∘201015840WndashLongitude 1∘ 371015840W Kuntanase is the District Capital Itspreads over a land area of 330 km2 (Figure 1) The districtis bounded to the north by Atwima Nwabiagya and KumasiMetropolis and to the east by Ejisu-Juaben Municipal Thesouthern section is bounded by Amansie West and EastDistricts all in the Ashanti Region of Ghana

Lake Bosomtwe the largest natural (crater) lake in WestAfrica is located in the district [30]The lake is also one of themain sources of livelihood for 24 communities living aroundit [29]With the exception of the lakewhich has an outer ridgethat maintains a constant distance of 10 km from the center ofthe lake and stands at an elevation of 50 to 80m the rest of thedistrict has no other varying unique topographical features

The drainage pattern of rivers and streams draining theBosomtwe District is dendritic and centripetal in outlookAround Lake Bosomtwe there is internal drainage where thestreams flow from surrounding highlands into the lake in acentripetal fashion The streams form a dense network due

N

654000

660000

666000

672000

678000

684000

654000

660000

666000

672000

678000

684000

735000

730000

725000

720000

715000

710000

735000

730000

725000

720000

715000

710000

Towns_district selectionLake_Bostwe

Class_1_roadsClass_2_roadsRailway_lineStreams_district

Boundary_District

0 15

3 6 9 12

15

18

(km)

Figure 1 The map of the Bosomtwe District in Ghana

to the double maxima rainfall regime Notable rivers in thedistrict are Rivers Oda Butu Siso Supan and Adanbanwe

The district is within the moist semideciduous forestecological zone with amajor and aminor rainfall regimeThemajor rainfall regime is from March to July while the minorone is from September to November The zone has meanannual rainfall and mean monthly temperature of about1900mm and 36∘C respectively Relative humidity rangesbetween 60 and 85 [31]

The district falls within the moist semideciduous forestzone where different species of tropical hard woods with higheconomic value can be found The trees species found in thedistrict include wawa (Triplochiton scleroxylon) denya (Cyli-codiscus gabunensis) mahogany (Khaya ivorensis) asanfena(Aningeria spp) and onyina (Ceiba pentandra) Howeverdue to extensive farming activities in the area the originalvegetation has been degraded to amosaic of secondary forestthicket and regrowth with abandoned farms of food cropsand vegetables

In certain parts of the district however the original forestcover has been turned into secondary forest and grasslandthrough indiscriminate exploitation of timber and inappro-priate farming practices such as the slash and burn systemand illegal gold mining activities

The population of the district according to the GhanaStatistical Service Census is 93910 with an urban to ruralpopulation ratio of approximately 1 2 [32] Proximity of thedistrict to the Kumasi Metropolis is greatly encouraging thegrowth of settlement in the district Moreover the districtrsquostourism potential has drawn a lot of investments in infras-tructure development and other socioeconomic activitiesinto the district [29]

22 Sampling Design Instruments and Data Analysis Thestudy analyzes agricultural and forest land use potential for


REDD+ among smallholder farmers in the Bosomtwe Dis-trict The purposive cluster sampling technique was used toselect 12 communities from which 152 smallholder farmerswere sampled and data solicited from themThe respondentsfor the study were sampled using snowball sampling tech-nique because of the difficulty of locating the smallholderfarmers as the target population This was to ensure thatthe required target respondents (smallholder farmers) wereaccessed [33] Using a semistructured partially precodedquestionnaire we administered proportionately to the com-munities based on their respective population sizes accordingto the 2011 District Assembly ScalogramThe Scalogram is thetable that details the socioeconomic profile of the district interms of the percentage availability of social and economicinfrastructure Field observation was also done to facilitatethe understanding of possible physical features of the com-munities that have bearing on the study

The quantitative data gathered were subjected to frequen-cies analysis embedded in the Statistical Package for SocialSciences (SPSS) v16 for Windows application The resultsare displayed in tables charts and graphs The diagramsgenerated in the SPSS were exported to Excel for editing forbetter visual presentation Open-ended qualitative responseswere integrated in the discussions under the various thematictreatments of the sections of the paper

3 Results and Discussions

31 Smallholder Farmersrsquo Knowledge of REDD+ Elbehri et al[34] espoused that some arguments remain that agricultureis a driver of deforestation in REDD+ The knowledge ofREDD+ among smallholder farmers was ascertained Thisrevealed that awareness of reducing emissions from defor-estation and forest degradation (REDD+) and its benefitswas diminutive among smallholder farmers in the BosomtweDistrict From Figure 2 only one percent of respondentsindicated knowing what REDD+ meant and stood for andthe benefits thereof for developing countries (and other stake-holders) The remaining 99 have never heard of REDD+According to Madeira [6] although the focus of internationaldiscourse on REDD+ is on credit design and policy itssuccess depends on the practicality of implementation in hostcountries and among local stakeholders

This is equally premised on their awareness and under-standing of what REDD+ is and the appreciation of theirrole in the implementation of these policies at the local levelStreed et al [35] posit that ill-informed stakeholders and ben-eficiaries could unknowingly sell their carbon rights to otherseven with a policy of equitable distribution of benefits It istherefore very necessary that these stakeholders be appropri-ately educated on what REDD+ is associated responsibilitiesand its accruing benefits accordingly

Although the potentials to achieve climate changemitiga-tion using REDD+ begin with its design actualization of itspurposes lies with the commitment of grassroot stakeholdersto this cause [6] In soliciting for the willingness of farmersto trade off their immediate gains of cutting down trees forfuture REDD+ benefits it was found that the majority of thefarmers are willing to utilize immediate benefits of cutting

99

1

YesNo

Figure 2 Knowledge of REDD+ in the Bosomtwe District

01020304050607080

Willingness totrade off

immediatebenefits

Willingness totrade off future

benefits


immediategains

74

23

3Fr

eque

ncy

()

Response

Figure 3 Decision on trading off future gains from tress for presentneeds

down trees and planting new ones instead A fewwere willingto trade off future benefits of REDD+ for present gains (with-out replanting) and much fewer respondents willing to tradeimmediate gains of cutting down trees for future benefitsfrom the trees (Figure 3) Farmers did not expect to ben-efit immediately from preservation of trees Consequentlytrading off their immediate and primary source of livelihoodfor benefits that may not be forthcoming in the short termdid not seem motivating enough to engage in the REDD+mechanism Some farmers were also much more willing tocut down the tress owing to the perceived notion of someshade intolerant crops which may not thrive well under trees

In the same vein it was found that their willingness to beinvolved in REDD+ activities was based on training and othersupportive measuresThis is because most of the smallholderfarmers (being 66) indicated that they were very willing tobe involved inREDD+ initiatives if the necessary training andsupport are provided while 29 were quite willing to engagein REDD+ activities Only seven percent were not willingto be involved in these activities This agrees with findingsby Banerjee-Woien [36] who asserts that in Indonesia thewillingness of indigenous peoplewas essential in determiningthe success of REDD+ initiatives

Using three benefits of REDD+ as benchmarks the moti-vation for smallholder farmers in the BosomtweDistrict to beinvolved in REDD+ initiatives was ascertained These were


0102030405060708090

100

Climatemitigation

Security ofagriculturallivelihood

Financialbenefits

81

95

76

19

5

24

Freq

uenc

y (

)

Response

YesNo

Figure 4 Motivation for willingness to be engaged in REDD+initiatives

climate mitigation security of agricultural livelihood andpossible financial benefits It was found that interest inREDD+ initiatives is underpinned by benefits of climatemiti-gation security of agricultural livelihood and possible finan-cial benefits that could accrue to smallholder farmers and thelocal communities as a whole This is shown in Figure 4

It is quite obvious that smallholder farmers in the districtkeenly have their livelihood at heart as the need to secureagricultural livelihood recorded the highest responses as amotivating factor for the adoption of REDD+ initiativesTherefore whether REDD+ does in fact deliver on its prom-ised benefits and avoid adverse impacts strongly depends onamong others fair and equitable benefit sharing land andcarbon tenure in favor of communities and full and effectiveparticipation [37]

32 Relationship between Land Tenure Arrangement andREDD+ Benefits Creating effective carbon benefit sharingmust not lose sight of prevailing land tenure systems forestand natural resource related livelihoods and territories [38]Respondents were required to indicate the land tenure sys-tems they subscribe to and their potential implications forREDD+ in relation to land use It was found that land tenuresystem in Bosomtwe District among smallholder farmers ispredominantly self-owned as can be seen in Figure 5 Hence76 of smallholder farmers own their farmlands 12 offarmlands belong to the families of the farmers and 12 areleased

This presupposes that it is quite clear who should beconsidered in the formulation and implementation of agro-forestry projects as well as their respective roles and benefits

Reference [38] notes that the challenge of potential tenureconflicts could be aggravated by the increased value of landdue to carbon benefits accruing from the implementation ofREDD+There is little anticipation among smallholder farm-ers of increased interest in farmland by land owners becausefarmland is predominantly self-owned and benefits wouldaccrue to them Hence 85 do not anticipate an increased

01020304050607080

Self Family Lease

76

12 12Freq

uenc

y (

)

Land tenure type

Figure 5 Land tenure arrangements among smallholder farmers

0102030405060708090

Increasedinterest in land

Increasedland litigations

Loss ofagricultural land

85 84 81

15 16 19Freq

uenc

y (

)

Response

YesNo

Figure 6 Implications for access to REDD+ benefits

interest in farmland by land owners while 15 think other-wiseThis trend is equally made manifest in their response tothe possibility of increase in land litigations due to access toREDD+ benefits Whiles the majority were not anticipatingan increase in land litigation a few of the respondents doanticipate that an increase in land litigation may likely bean outcome Figure 3 shows smallholder farmers response topossible implications of access to REDD+ benefits

Incidentally while only a small proportion of the respon-dents do not anticipate a reduction in agricultural land antic-ipating a competing land use change with the introductionof REDD+ activities a substantial proportion do anticipateotherwise (Figure 6) Those who anticipated a reduction inagricultural land attributed it to the shade that trees provideand the root systems of trees being less favorable for thetilling of land The majority who indicated no reduction inagricultural land explained that trees were more helpful andimproved soil moisture and nutrients which would bufferreduction in land area due to trees planted

The Forest Investment Program (FIP) one of the climatefunds that target forests and REDD+ activities had a targetranging fromUS $1 billion to US $2 billion to support amongother activities REDD+ afforestation and sustainable forest


management [39] Grieg-Gran [4] suggests that forest con-servation initiative should necessarily support alternativeincome generation activities among forest communitiessustainable agricultural practices and agroforestry Engagingin afforestation and other forest regeneration projects is likelyto have implication for agricultural activities at the householdscale Although 64 of smallholder farmers are willing topractice agroforestry as compared to 27 willing to use partof their farms for afforestation only one percent are willingto convert their entire current cropping system into farmfor afforestation with seven percent not willing to engagein agroforestry or afforestation The latterrsquos justification foropting out was based on concerns of the possible loss ofagricultural land through afforestation and agroforestry

This is because land is scarce and crops do not do well inthe shade They therefore anticipate that with the adoptionof either practice agriculture on such lands will invariablynot be sustainable Devoting the entire land to afforestationthereby becomes an inevitable option It however remainsthat sustainable agricultural and forest land use and conser-vation are favorable for the majority of smallholder farmersin the district

4 Conclusion

Conservation agriculture constitutes an important compo-nent for successful REDD+ programs Awareness of REDD+and its benefits is low among smallholder farmers in theBosomtweDistrict However farmers are willing to engage inactivities that are geared towards sustainable environmentalresource use and conservation Herein lies the potentialfor the implementation of REDD+ in the district for localnational and global benefits The majority of smallholderfarmers in the Bosomtwe District are willing to utilizeimmediate benefits of cutting down trees and plant new onesinstead because they do not expect to benefit immediatelyfrom preservation of trees

Consequently trading off their immediate and primarysource of livelihood for benefits that may not be forthcomingin the short term does not seem appropriate Benefits fromREDD+ reaching the grassroots will accrue to farmers asland is generally self-ownedThis is one motivating factor fortheir willingness to engage in REDD+ and related projectsBy contributing to the literature this paper proffers the needfor policy to be directed towards the protection of marginalagricultural lands This would ensure continuous local andregional monitoring of agriculture and forest land use prac-tices in the Bosomtwe District and Ghana

Conflict of Interests

There is no conflict of interests regarding the publication ofthis paper

Acknowledgments

Theauthors acknowledge the financial support from theWestAfrican Science Service Centre for Adapted Land Use (WAS-CAL) as well as the German Ministry of Higher Education

and ResearchThey also thank the Department of Geographyand Rural Development for their provision of office space andlogistics They thank Miss Lois Antwi-Boadi for her carefulproofreading of this paper

References

[1] IPCC ldquoClimate change 2007 impacts adaptation and vul-nerabilityrdquo Contribution of Working Group II to the FourthAssessment Report Cambridge University Press CambridgeUK 2007

[2] UN-REDD ldquoFrequently Asked Questions and AnswersmdashTheUN-REDD Programme and REDD+rdquo November 2010 httpwwwuneporgforestsPortals142docsUN-REDD20FAQs205B11105Dpdf

[3] Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and Interna-tional Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) Reducing Emis-sions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in DevelopingCountriesThe Role of Conservation SustainableManagement ofForests and Enhancement of Forest Carbon Stocks in DevelopingCountries 2nd edition 2012 httpwwwittointfilesuserpdfpublicationsOther20Publicationsop-2020e20jpdf

[4] M Grieg-Gran Beyond forestry why agriculture is key to thesuccess of REDD+ A Briefing November 2010 httpwwwiiedorgpubsdisplayphpo=17086IIED

[5] H Reid M Chambwera and L Murray ldquoTried and testedlearning from farmers on adaptation to climate changerdquo Gate-keeper 153 2013 httppubsiiedorgpdfs14622IIEDpdf

[6] E C M Madeira Policies to Reduce Emissions from Deforesta-tion and Degradation (REDD+) in Developing Countries AnExamination of the Issues Facing the Incorporation of REDD+into Market-Based Climate Policies Resources for the FutureWashington DC USA 2008

[7] B Bishaw H Neufeldt J Mowo et al Farmersrsquo Strategies forAdapting to and Mitigating Climate Variability and Changethrough Agroforestry in Ethiopia and Kenya edited by CM Davis B Bernart A Dmitriev Forestry CommunicationsGroup Oregon State University Corvallis Ore USA 2013

[8] A Wilkes T Tennigkeit and K Solymosi National IntegratedMitigation Planning in Agriculture A Review Paper Mitigationof Climate Change in Agriculture (MICCA) Food and Agri-culture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Rome Italy2013 httpmahiderilriorghandle1056827782

[9] J SMbwambo P L Saruni andG SMassawe ldquoAgroforestry asa solution to poverty in rural Tanzania Lessons from MusomaRural District Mara Region TanzaniardquoKivukoni Journal vol 1no 2 pp 15ndash30 2013

[10] K F Kalaba P Chirwa S Syampungani and O C AjayildquoContribution of agroforestry to biodiversity and livelihoodsimprovement in rural communities of Southern Africanregionsrdquo in Tropical Rainforests and Agroforestry under GlobalChange Ecological and Socio-Economic Valuations T Tscharn-tke C Leuschner E Veldkamp H Faust E Guhardja and ABidin Eds pp 461ndash476 Springer New York NY USA 2010

[11] E BryanC Ringle BOkoba I KooMHerrero and S SivestriAgricultural Land Management Capturing Synergies amongClimate Change Adaptation Greenhouse Gas Mitigation andAgricultural Productivity International Food Policy ResearchInstitute IFPRI Washington DC USA 2011


[12] R Gledhill C Herweijer D Hamza-Goodacre J Grant CWebb and J Steege ldquoAgricultural carbon markets opportuni-ties and challenges for Sub-Saharan Africardquo Rockefeller Foun-dation 2011 httpswwwpwccoukassetspdfagricultural-carbon-marketspdf

[13] Sahara and Sahel Observatory Comprehensive Framework ofAfrican Climate Change Programmes Sahara and Sahel Obser-vatory 2010 httpwwwuneporgroaamcenAmcen Events4th ssDocsAMCEN-SS4-INF-3pdf

[14] CommonMarket for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA)ldquoProgramme on Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation inthe Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA-EAC-SADC) Reg-ionrdquo 2011 httpwwwsadcintfiles961352933510COMESA-EAC-SADC Climate Change Programme 2011pdf

[15] G D Djagbletey and S Adu-Bredu ldquoAdoption of agroforestryby small scale teak farmers in Ghanamdashthe case of NkoranzadistrictrdquoGhana Journal of Forestry vol 20 no 21 pp 1ndash13 2007

[16] G B Adaba Natural resource management governance andglobalisation [MS thesis] Centre For Transdisciplinary Envi-ronmental Research Stockholm University Stockholm Swe-den 2005

[17] J N H Scriven and YMalhi ldquoSmallholder REDD+ strategies atthe forest-farm frontier a comparative analysis of options fromthe Peruvian Amazonrdquo Carbon Management vol 3 no 3 pp265ndash281 2012

[18] R W Gorte and J L Ramseur ldquoForest carbon marketspotentials and drawbacksrdquo CRS Report for Congress RL 34560Congressional Research Service Washington DC USA 2008

[19] FAO ldquoManaging forests for climate change FAO working withcountries to tackle climate change through sustainable for-est managementrdquo 2010 httpwwwfaoorgdocrep013i1960ei1960e00pdf

[20] Tanzania National REDD+ Task Force Preparing for theREDD+ Initiative in Tanzania A Synthesized ConsultativeReport Compiled by Institute of Resources Assessement Univer-sity of Dar es Salaam for National REDD+ Task Force Dar esSalaam Tanzania 2009

[21] The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) ldquoAdaptation to cli-mate change in the context of sustainable development UnitedNations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Divisionfor Sustainable Development Climate Change and Sustain-able Development A Workshop to Strengthen Research andUnderstanding New Delhi 7-8 Aprilrdquo 2013 httpwwwteriinorgeventsdocsadaptpdf

[22] G Kissinger M Herold and V De Sy Drivers of Deforestationand Forest Degradation A Synthesis Report for Redd+ Policy-makers Lexeme Consulting Vancouver Canada 2012

[23] E Jurgens W Kornexl C Oliver T Gumartini and T BrownldquoIntegrating communities into REDD+ in Indonesiardquo WorkingPaper PROFOR Washington DC USA 2013

[24] R Kotru ldquoNepalrsquos national REDD+ framework how to startrdquoJournal of Forest and Livelihood vol 8 no 1 pp 1ndash6 2009

[25] V B Sebukyu and D M Mosango ldquoAdoption of agroforestrysystems by farmers inMasaka District of Ugandardquo EthnobotanyResearch and Applications vol 10 pp 59ndash68 2012

[26] E Streed S Hajost andM Sommervile ldquoUSAID program briefforest carbon markets and communitiesrdquo A ProgramManagedby the Natural Resources Management Office Of USAID 2012httpwwwfcmcglobalorgdocumentsFinanceandCarbonMar-ketsLexiconFinal40cleanpdf

[27] World Agroforestry Centre Socio-Economic Analysis of Farm-ersrsquo Potential for Adoption of Evergreen Agriculture in BugeseraDistrict Rwanda World Agroforestry Centre Nairobi Kenya2008

[28] P Oino and A Mugure ldquoFarmer oriented factors that influenceadoption of agroforestry practices in Kenya experiences fromNambale District Busia Countyrdquo International Journal of Sci-ence and Research vol 2 no 4 pp 450ndash456 2013

[29] D O Appiah J T Bugri E K Forkuor and P K BoatengldquoDeterminants of peri-urbanization and land use change pat-terns in Peri-UrbanGhanardquo Journal of SustainableDevelopmentvol 7 no 6 pp 95ndash109 2014

[30] O D Anim Y Li A K Agadzi and P N Nkrumah ldquoEnviron-mental issues of Lake Bosomtwe impact crater in Ghana (WestAfrica) and its impact on ecotourism potentialrdquo InternationalJournal of Scientific amp Engineering Research vol 4 no 1 pp 1ndash92013

[31] S Prakash PWieringa B Ros et al ldquoSocio-economics of forestuse in the tropics and subtropics potential of ecotourism devel-opment in the Lake Bosumtwi Basin a case study of ankaasein the Amansie East District Ghanardquo SEFUT Working Paper15 Albert-Ludwigs-Universitat Freiburg Freiburg im BreisgauGermany 2005

[32] Ghana Statistical Service 2010 Populaiton and Housing CensusSummary Report of Final Results Ghana Statistical ServiceAccraGhana 2010httpwwwstatsghanagovghdocfiles2010-phcCensus2010 Summary report of final resultspdf

[33] H Katz ldquoGlobal surveys or multi-national surveys Onsampling for global surveysrdquo in Proceedings of the Thoughts forthe Globalization and Social Science DataWorkshop p 6 UCSBNovember 2006 httpwwwglobalucsbeduorfaleacenterconferencesngoconferenceKatz for-UCSB-data-workshoppdf

[34] A Elbehri A Genest and M Burfisher Global Action on Cli-mate Change in Agriculture Linkages to Food Security Marketsand Trade Policies in Developing Countries Trade and MarketsDivision FAO Rome Italy 2011

[35] E Streed S Hajost and M Sommervile ldquoUSAID ProgramBrief Forest Carbon Markets and Communities A ProgramManaged by the Natural Resources Management Office ofUSAIDrdquo 2012 httpwwwfcmcglobalorgdocumentsFinance-andCarbonMarketsLexiconFinal40cleanpdf

[36] T Banerjee-Woien Trust a precondition for successful imple-mentation of REDD+ initiatives [MS thesis] University ofAgder Kristiansand Norway 2010

[37] Tanzania Natural Resource Forum ldquoREDD+ Realities Learn-ing from REDD+ pilot projects to make REDD+ workrdquo 2011httpwwwtnrforgfilese-REDD20Realitiespdf

[38] UN-REDD+ ldquoThe UN-REDD+ Programme Strategy 2011ndash2015rdquo 2013 httpwwwtnrforgfilese-REDD20Realitiespdf

[39] T Griffiths Seeing REDD+ Avoided Deforestation and theRights of Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities ForestPeoples Programme Gloucestershire UK 2007

Submit your manuscripts athttpwwwhindawicom

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Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

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ClimatologyJournal of


maintenance of REDD+ activities [6] Through traditionalagroforestry practices communities have sustainably man-aged forests in the pastwith benefits of increased productivitysustained soil fertility erosion control biodiversity conserva-tion and income diversification through the harvest and saleof nontimber forest products accruing to them [7] Reducingemissions from deforestation and forest degradation withits benefits (REDD+) may thus spearhead the restoration oftraditional agroecological practices on the continent

In some African countries agricultural and environ-mental sustainability is contextualized in REDD+ policiesIn Ethiopia for example agricultural systems pose seriousthreat to the sustainability of the environment and highlycontribute to the countryrsquos greenhouse gas emissions HenceREDD+ is anticipated to help reverse this trend [8]

In Tanzania adopted agroforestry practices include homegardens alley intercropping improved fallows and bound-aries [9] Agroforestry practices in rural communities inSouthern Africa include improved fallows rotational wood-lots and indigenous fruit trees in the parklands system [10]Bryan et al [11] and Gledhill et al [12] emphasized thatagroforestry comes with a ldquotriple winrdquo of climate changemiti-gation agricultural adaptation and increased productivity asdoes REDD+

REDD+has been accepted amongmostAfrican countriesbecause of possible financial benefits through carbon financ-ing to support the forestry sector on the continent Never-theless tenure conflicts based on cultural inheritance posea threat that hampers development efforts in most Africancountries [13] The Agriculture Forest and Land Use(AFOLU) and reducing emissions from deforestation andforest degradation (REDD+) interconnection is increasinglygaining attention on the African continent but the realizationof actual deforestation and reduction in forest degradationhas yet to completely unfold [14]

In [15] Djagbletey and Adu-Bredu found in Nkoranzain Ghana that ownership of teak farms was dominated bynatives because tree planting on a parcel of land by an indi-vidual customarily implied his or her ownership of the landSettlers and migrants were therefore less actively involvedin tree planting initiatives [15] According to Adaba [16] inNorthern Ghana families establish woodlots on family landsas alternative sources of income and fuel wood Communalwoodlots are however not popular because individual andfamily access and utilization of these communal woodlots areusually restricted

The Cancun agreement states clearly that respect for therights of local people and the conservation of biodiversityand natural forests must be upheld in the implementationof REDD+ initiatives [17] REDD+ through avoided defor-estation has the potential to reduce GHG emissions It couldconversely result in leakages and increased degradation inadjoining marginal lands [18] Herein lies the need for agro-forestry to absorb such leakages by augmenting the benefitsof forests to forest communities and agriculture

Carbon sequestration in trees initially increases as treesgrow but eventually declines as the trees age [19] Agricul-tural and forested lands present major carbon sequestrationopportunities if the appropriate land use and management

practices are adopted [7] Since agricultural extensificationcould threaten REDD+ interventions should focus not onlyon forest but also on forest-farm frontier [17]

Carbon emission reduction through REDD+ can con-tribute significantly to land-based mitigation in two waysfirstly reducing land-based greenhouse gas emissions andsecondly sequestering carbon dioxide through reforestationand agroforestry [20] Decision on land use at the grassrootsinvolving stakeholders as smallholder must be a key target ofREDD+ interventions [17] The Energy and Resources Insti-tute [21] therefore recommends that in order for REDD+to be effective there is the need for stratification consideringprevailing land use options and patterns

In this regard some countries have integrated REDD+with prevailing land uses including reforestation afforesta-tion agroforestry and assisted natural regeneration usingthese as key drivers of REDD+ interventions [22] Small-holders are an important contributor to deforestation Issuesrelated to land rights are perhaps the most complex and havefar-reaching impacts on forest governance communities andREDD+ outcomes [23] To this Kotru [24] asserts that clarityof tenure and hence right to benefits present challenges at thecommunity level Private land ownership has facilitated theadoption of agroforestry systems inMasaka District since themajority of farmers hold private land In contrast other typesof land ownership may hinder the adoption of agroforestrysystems

Sebukyu andMosango [25] put forward that agroforestrypractices through REDD+ have benefits of soil fertility resto-ration among others greatly reducing the need for inputssuch as fertilizers Many developing countries are howevernot adequately prepared to utilize their forest and forest-frontier potentials to benefit from the REDD+ market [26]More emphasis on educating farmers on the benefits of sus-tainable resource management and specifically agroforestryand conservation practices would reduce hindrances to theadoption [27] Critical areas assessed for the purposes ofthis paper therefore included awareness of REDD+ and itsbenefits among smallholder farmers in the Bosomtwe Dis-trict willingness of smallholder farmers to engage in forestmanagement practices possible motivation for adoption ofREDD+ activities and land tenure and its potential implica-tion on access to REDD+ benefits

Problematizing the Concept of REDD+ in the Bosomtwe Dis-trict Factors constraining the development of agroforestryamong smallholder farmers in the Bosomtwe District arevariegated depending on ecological and socioeconomic fac-tors confronting the smallholder farmers The adoption ofagroforestry practices is influenced by many factors and onecategory of these factors is the characteristics and conditionsof the farmer as has been espoused by Oino and Mugure[28] Mbwambo et al [9] explain for example that land sizetenure access to extension services capital crop yield andhousehold income are key in determining farmers adoptionof agroforestry

Rapid population growth within the Bosomtwe Dis-trict and the Kumasi Metropolis has necessitated increasedfood supply from nearby agrarian districts as Bosomtwe









N

654000

660000

666000

672000

678000

684000

654000

660000

666000

672000

678000

684000

735000

730000

725000

720000

715000

710000

735000

730000

725000

720000

715000

710000



Boundary_District

0 15

3 6 9 12

15

18

(km)















99

1

YesNo


01020304050607080


immediatebenefits


benefits


immediategains

74

23

3Fr

eque

ncy

()

Response






0102030405060708090

100

Climatemitigation


Financialbenefits

81

95

76

19

5

24

Freq

uenc

y (

)

Response

YesNo







01020304050607080

Self Family Lease

76

12 12Freq

uenc

y (

)

Land tenure type


0102030405060708090




85 84 81

15 16 19Freq

uenc

y (

)

Response

YesNo








4 Conclusion





Acknowledgments



References













































Journal of












Volume 2014

Advances in









Geophysics






















N

654000

660000

666000

672000

678000

684000

654000

660000

666000

672000

678000

684000

735000

730000

725000

720000

715000

710000

735000

730000

725000

720000

715000

710000



Boundary_District

0 15

3 6 9 12

15

18

(km)















99

1

YesNo


01020304050607080


immediatebenefits


benefits


immediategains

74

23

3Fr

eque

ncy

()

Response






0102030405060708090

100

Climatemitigation


Financialbenefits

81

95

76

19

5

24

Freq

uenc

y (

)

Response

YesNo







01020304050607080

Self Family Lease

76

12 12Freq

uenc

y (

)

Land tenure type


0102030405060708090




85 84 81

15 16 19Freq

uenc

y (

)

Response

YesNo








4 Conclusion





Acknowledgments



References













































Journal of












Volume 2014

Advances in









Geophysics





















99

1

YesNo


01020304050607080


immediatebenefits


benefits


immediategains

74

23

3Fr

eque

ncy

()

Response






0102030405060708090

100

Climatemitigation


Financialbenefits

81

95

76

19

5

24

Freq

uenc

y (

)

Response

YesNo







01020304050607080

Self Family Lease

76

12 12Freq

uenc

y (

)

Land tenure type


0102030405060708090




85 84 81

15 16 19Freq

uenc

y (

)

Response

YesNo








4 Conclusion





Acknowledgments



References













































Journal of












Volume 2014

Advances in









Geophysics















0102030405060708090

100

Climatemitigation


Financialbenefits

81

95

76

19

5

24

Freq

uenc

y (

)

Response

YesNo







01020304050607080

Self Family Lease

76

12 12Freq

uenc

y (

)

Land tenure type


0102030405060708090




85 84 81

15 16 19Freq

uenc

y (

)

Response

YesNo








4 Conclusion





Acknowledgments



References













































Journal of












Volume 2014

Advances in









Geophysics

















4 Conclusion





Acknowledgments



References













































Journal of












Volume 2014

Advances in









Geophysics















































Journal of












Volume 2014

Advances in









Geophysics














research article agricultural and forest land use potential for...

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