Republican China (1911-1949)

Teacher Resource Guide

East Asia National Resource Center

By Kelly Hammond

Republican China: Changes and Continuities

China was in a state of disarray after the

Qing Dynasty collapsed in 1911. The

Republic of China was established and

people went from being subjects to

citizens, but many of them did not

understand what these changes meant for

them or their new nation-state. For the

next forty years, the new citizens of the

Republic grappled with what it meant to

be Chinese while they were still at war

with one another and with their neighbors.

It was a tumultuous time that brought

monumental changes to the people who

lived in China. Yet, the end of imperial

rule in China did not mean a complete

break from the past; although new

developments occurred, many things

remained unchanged. Today, historians

ponder about what would have meant to

be “modern” in the early twentieth-

century China. Did modernity create new

traditions, or did it draw on tradition to

legitimate itself? Can modernity be

explained without taking tradition into

account? How did the Chinese people who

lived in the cities and the countryside

react differently to the changes taking

place around them, and in what ways were

these changes mediated through their past

experiences and knowledge? It is

important to keep in mind that

throughout the forty years between the

end of the Qing Dynasty and the

establishment of the Communist regime in

1949, China was rarely unified as a nation,

and was often divided into a number of

regions that were ruled by different

powers. In order to understand the

Republican period, it is also crucial to

examine some of the successes and

failures of governments, political groups,

warlords, occupiers, and imperialists

during this time and think about how they

contributed to the development of China

that we know today.

Map of Republic of China in 1917. Source: New

Zealand History Online

Revolution and the New Republic

There is debate among historians about

whether the events of 1911 constitute a

revolution. The last imperial dynasty was

overthrown and a new Republic was

established, but how far-reaching the

“revolution” was in society is debatable.

Chinese elites and regular subjects were

unhappy with the Qing rule and this

growing resentment towards Manchu rule,

combined with new expressions of Han

chauvinism, contributed to the increasing

numbers of revolts and uprisings in the

last years of the nineteenth and early years

of the twentieth centuries. On October 10,

1911, yet another revolution broke out in a

city called Wuchang. Essentially, China

was a powder keg waiting to explode, and

when an arsenal blew up in Wuchang, it

sparked a revolution. Once things were set

in motion in Wuchang, other

revolutionary groups followed, and one by

one, Chinese provinces declared

independence from the Qing. On

December 29, 1911, Sun Yat-sen was

elected as the first provisional president

and on January 1, 2012, the Republic of

China was officially established. On

February 12, 1912, the young Emperor

Puyi abdicated his throne. The assembly of

the Republic of China adopted a new

national flag with the “five races under

one nation” slogan. The less conservative

republicans realized that if they wanted to

maintain the territorial integrity of the

Qing Empire, the new Republic needed to

be less “Han-centric” and incorporate

ethnic minorities into the new nation. This

way, the five peoples of the Qing Dynasty

became the five peoples of the new

Republic: the Tibetans, the Manchus, the

Mongols, the Muslims, and the Han.

Xinhai Revolution in Shanghai. Source: U.S.

Department of State Office of the Historian

After the Qing Dynasty’s power got

transferred to a new provisional

government, Yuan Shikai assumed control

and Sun Yat-sen took a backseat. However,

the new government failed to consolidate

power and the new Republic quickly fell

into a period of political division, known

as the Warlord Period. In many ways, the

ideals of the Revolution were altruistic: to

develop nationalism, republicanism, and

modernization to a united nation-state for

Chinese people. Nevertheless, in practice,

it was extremely difficult to unite such a

big empire. In the meantime, China saw

an emergence of a new class of

intellectuals. After the abolition of the

imperial examinations system in 1905, the

Qing encouraged Chinese students to

study abroad, especially in Japan, and

established new schools. Consequently,

students were “awakened,” and began to

see the differences between Meiji Japan

and their own Qing China.

Sun Yat-sen and People’s

Democracy Sun Yat-sen was born in 1866 in southern

China’s Guangdong province. When he

was ten, Sun moved to Hawaii with his

family and continued his education there,

and is today revered as the founding

father of the Republic of China. Despite

being remembered as one of the greatest

leaders of Modern China, Sun constantly

struggled throughout his political career

and had to endure frequent exile as he fell

out of power after the revolution in the

newly founded Republic of China.

Consequently, Sun led successive

revolutionary governments and

challenged the warlords who were

controlling most of China at the time. Sun

was also one of the founders of

Guomindang (also spelled as Kuomintang)

or the Nationalist Party, but he died before

he could see his dream of a unified China

being fulfilled. Overall, Sun’s most

important legacy is his political

philosophy, which is known as the ‘Three

Principles of the People.’ The three

principles refer to: nationalism,

democracy, and the people’s livelihood

(sometimes translated as ‘socialism,’ but

that is not accurate).

Sun Yat-sen. Source: U.S. Department of State

Office of the Historian

Sun had an international upbringing,

which enabled him to see some of the

deep-seated problems within Chinese

society at the end of the nineteenth

century. He originally studied medicine in

Hong Kong but changed the path and

began to engage in politics after realizing

that his country needed better leadership.

While in Hong Kong, which was a British

colony at the time, Sun met many people

who wished to overthrow the Qing

Dynasty. After the Sino-Japanese War

(1894-1895), these men with cosmopolitan

mindset sought to bring about a revolution

to modernize China. Because Sun held a

similar view, the Qing court exiled him,

forcing him to stay in Japan. During his

second exile, Sun went to the United

States and Canada, raising funds from the

wealthy overseas Chinese to prepare for

revolution.

When the Republic of China was

established in 1912, Sun was appointed as

the President of the Provisional Republic

until official elections could be organized.

Acknowledging his lack of experience in

running a government, Sun handed his

power over to Yuan Shikai, a warlord

whose private militia was too strong for

the revolutionaries to defeat. Yuan died

suddenly in 1946 after having declared

himself as the Emperor of the new

Republic. The situation quickly

degenerated into chaos and the period of

the provisional government gave way to

the ‘Warlord Period,’ during which China

was politically fragmented under the

leadership of individual warlords. The

period between Yuan Shikai’s death in

1946 and Chiang Kai-shek’s establishment

of the Nanjing Government in 1928 is

generally referred to as the ‘Warlord Era’

or the ‘Warlord Period.’

Yuan Shikai. Source: Militaryace

Sun’s definition of nationalism was

freedom from imperial domination. Sun

believed that in order to develop a true

nationalism, China needed to embrace all

peoples of China—the Han, the Mongols,

the Manchus, the Tibetans, and the

Muslims—and bring them together under

the roof of one nation. For democracy, Sun

wanted to create a Western-inspired

constitutional government, mostly based

on the American model with three

branches separating the power of the

government and thus the checks-and-

balances system. Finally, Sun sought to

improve ‘the people’s livelihood’ by

implementing a social welfare system that

would ensure the quality of living, such as

basic education and medical care. These

three principles served as the foundation

for the political ideology of Guomindang.

Sun Yat-sen married Soong Ching-Ling,

and her sister Soong May-Ling was

married to Chiang Kai-Shek, so the two

leaders were brothers-in-law by marriage.

China and WWI China enjoyed a respite from Western

pressure between 1914 and 1918, when

European powers were preoccupied by

World War I in continental Europe.

Chinese industries expanded, and a few

cities, especially Shanghai, Canton,

Tianjin, and Hankou (now part of Wuhan),

became industrial centers. However,

European powers’ preoccupation with the

war at home gave Japan an opportunity to

infiltrate deeper into mainland China. In

1915, Japan presented China with the

Twenty-One Demands, attempting make

China a Japanese protectorate. Yuan

Shikai's government yielded to a modified

version of the demands, agreeing, among

other concessions, to the transfer of the

German holdings in Shandong to Japan.

After the death of Yuan Shikai in 1916, the

central government in Beijing lost most of

its power, and for the next decade,

different warlords and their cliques ruled

China. In 1917, China entered World War I

on the side of the Allies (which included

Britain, France, and the United States)

hoping to gain a seat at the peace talks and

for a new chance to halt Japanese

ambitions on the mainland. China offered

to send 40,000 soldiers to France, but

France and the Great Britain deemed this

to be impractical. Instead, China sent

laborers to man to docks and take care of

construction in Europe whilst most of

their laborers were on the front lines. By

1918, there were almost 100,000 Chinese

laborers in France alone.

Chinese labor battalions ready to leave for

France. Source: W. Reginald Wheeler

Manpower was not the only area in which

the Chinese made a difference in WWI.

When China entered the war, all German

ships in Chinese ports were seized by the

Chinese state, as were the assets of

German banks, notably the Deutsche Bank

in Shanghai, dealing a blow to German

economic capacity. Despite their

contributions, China did not receive the

recognition and respect it had expected

after the war and China's demands at the

Paris peace conference were unfulfilled,

resulting in Chinese refusal to sign the

Treaty of Versailles.

China expected the United States to be on

its side during the negotiations in

Versailles, but President Woodrow Wilson

withdrew U.S. support for China on the

Shandong issue. Because of this, the

Chinese delegation refused to sign the

Treaty of Versailles, sending shockwaves

among the Chinese youth. When the news

about the peace conference reached China

on May 4, 1919, more than 3,000 students

from universities in Beijing assembled to

protest. The Beijing governor suppressed

the demonstrators and arrested student

leaders, but these actions set off a wave of

protests around the country in support of

the Beijing students and their cause.

Members of the Chinese labor corp during WWI.

Source: Miscellany.kovaya.com

The May Fourth Movement

The May Fourth Movement was

precipitated by the decisions of the Great

Powers in Versailles after WWI to not

return certain concessions to China, even

though the Chinese had fought on the side

of the Allies. What began as a small

protest at Tiananmen Square on May 4,

1919 against imperialism grew into a

cultural and political movement that had a

formative impact on emerging Chinese

nationalism in the early twentieth century.

The protesters were mostly upset that the

Shandong peninsula, once a German

colony, had been ceded to Japan rather

than returned to the mainland. It was the

empty rhetoric of ‘Wilsonian Democracy’

and the promises of self-determination

that upset the Chinese. The Chinese

people felt that they had made a large

contribution to the war effort (sending

almost 200,000 labourers to the front

lines to dig trenches) and were not

impressed when the Great Powers snuffed

off their promises to them after the war

was over.

May Fourth Movement. Source: Totally History

The movement’s leaders, who were mostly

elite students from Western-style schools

in Beijing and Shanghai, felt that the

“traditional” Confucian values were

responsible for China’s weakness as a

nation and that this weakness had allowed

foreign imperialists to take advantage of

China for the past one hundred years.

These student leaders set in motion some

changes in the structure and makeup of

Chinese society, including the

modernization and standardization of the

Chinese language. The students called for

a boycott of all Japanese goods and ended

up burning down the residence of a

Japanese official in Beijing. A few students

were severely beaten by the police and

imprisoned as recourse. However, the

events sparked a widespread movement

and students in large cities across China

began to demand action. They saw the

outcome of the Paris peace talks as

evidence of China’s prolonged weakness; it

had been almost a decade since the

establishment of the Republic and yet the

Western powers still controlled much of

China. As the movement became more

widespread, it attracted more and more

people, and those who worked in

Japanese-owned companies went on

strike. The May Fourth Movement served

as an intellectual turning point in China.

Western-style liberal democracy had

previously appealed to Chinese

intellectuals, but from the May Fourth

Movement onward, China lost interest in

it, as Woodrow Wilson’s fourteen points

were seen as Western-centric and

hypocritical. Consequently, China turned

its attention to other political tools and

theories, such as Marxism and Marxism-

Leninism, hoping that could potentially

resolve some the many issues it was facing.

If you are familiar with more current

events in China, you will recognize the

date May 4. On May 4, 1989, students in

Beijing occupied Tiananmen Square and

demanded democratic reforms in China.

Most of us remember June 4, 1989

because that is the day the tanks rolled

into the square, but students had already

been there for a month. The choice of the

date to start their protest on May 4 was no

coincidence; it was a direct harkening

back to the student leaders of the May

Fourth Movement exactly seventy years

before who had risked their lives to bring

about change and reform in China.

The Warlord Era

Map of China in 1925. Source: U.S. Army

The Warlord Era is usually defined as the

tumultuous years after the founding the

Republic of China (1916-1928). During

this time, China was divided and fractured

along the lines of different military cliques

that ruled different areas, roughly around

the size of a province. The Warlord Era

lasted from the death of Yuan Shikai in

1916 until the consolidation of power by

Chiang Kai-shek in 1928. After Yuan

Shikai died rather suddenly, his powerful

army split into multiple factions and

military leaders began to control regions

on their own. There was tacit recognition

from Beijing that these warlord leaders

ruled certain areas because it allowed

Beijing to maintain order and collect taxes.

Although the country was fragmented, it

was not in complete chaos, unlike what

the name “Warlord Era” suggests. In 1928,

Chiang Kai-shek established the so-called

Nanjing government after leading the

North Expedition and defeating infamous

warlord Zhang Zuolin, bringing an end to

the Warlord Era.

Chiang Kai-shek. Source: NNDB

Throughout the Warlord Era, some

warlords tried on numerous occasions to

gather supporters and unify China. At one

point, there was an alliance between

Zhang Zuolin and another warlord named

Feng Yuxiang. These two warlords from

the north wanted to reunify northern and

southern China, but they did not have

much in common with generals in the

south. By 1927, Chiang Kai-shek had

amassed enough power to march north

with the support of the Communists and

succeeded in defeating the northern

warlords. This collaboration between

Chiang’s army and the Communists is

known as the First United Front.

Nonetheless, Chiang began to purge the

Communist party members and

assassinated thousands of them in an

event known as the White Terror. This

event marked the end of the cooperation

between Chiang’s nationalist forces and

the Communists. In the meantime, Zhang

Zuolin tried to escape north China, but he

was killed by the Japanese and his son

Zhang Xueliang assumed power. Zhang

Xueliang submitted to Chiang Kai-shek a

few months later.

The Establishment of the Chinese

Communist Party In July 1921, Li Dazhao and Chen Duxiu

founded the Chinese Communist Party

(CCP). Following WWI was a time of

intense intellectual foment in China,

during which young students came into

contact with new ideas from the West and

looked for ways to improve their own

country. Marxist ideas quickly spread

across China, especially after the 1917

Russian Revolution. In June 1920, the

Comintern sent agents from the Soviet

Union to China to establish a Marxist-

Leninist party in China. Li Dazhao was an

important figure at Beijing University and

knew Mao Zedong, who was working as

the university’s librarian at the time. Mao

joined the Communist Party as one of the

representatives from Hunan, his home

province.

The CCP soon gained many new members

and quickly grew in size. The Comintern

had a heavy hand in the early years of the

establishment of the CCP and often

negotiated with Chiang Kai-shek’s

Nationalists behind the CCP’s back. The

CCP did end up allying with the

Nationalists in what is known as the First

United Front. However, after the death of

Sun Yat-sen in 1925, Chiang Kai-shek

grew increasingly spiteful of the CCP and

began to assert his anti-Communist

agenda. There were instances of

Communist success, but Chiang’s army

was far superior. The CCP had to leave on

what is now known as the Long March to

escape persecution at the hands of the

Nationalists.

Li Dazhao, Founder of the Chinese Communist

Party. Source: Encyclopedia of Marxism

During the Long March, the CCP began to

look at its party organization and Mao

formulated his ideas about the role of

peasants in revolution. Mao realized that

given China was primarily an agrarian

society, he needed to find ways to adapt

Marx’s ideas to fit the conditions in China

in order to succeed in bringing about

Chinese Communist Revolution. This is

where the doctrine of rural revolution

comes from, and it has inspired

Communist leaders in non-industrial,

agrarian nations in South Africa and

South America.

Mao Zedong in his youth. Source: China Mike

Mao succeeded because he was able to

relate his political ideology to the majority

of people in China, who lived in rural

areas. Mao also wrote seminal works on

the use of guerrilla warfare, a strategy that

the Communists heavily relied on

throughout the Sino-Japanese War (1937-

1945) and the Civil War. Like his political

doctrine, Mao’s ideas about guerrilla

warfare inspired many insurgents, such as

the Shining Path in Peru. Although Mao is

often remembered for some of his later

campaigns, such as the Cultural

Revolution, he was an influential political

thinker of the twentieth century and his

impact on society goes far beyond the

Chinese borders.

Japanese Encroachment in

China By 1931, the Japanese were increasing

their presence on the mainland, especially

in Manchuria. Wanting more land and

power in the region, the Japanese staged

the Mukden Incident. In this instance, the

Japanese planted a bomb on a section of

railroad in north China. When it

detonated, Japan claimed that the Chinese

had set the bomb, and used the detonation

as a pretext to launch a full invasion of the

region. They seized control of the

government and installed a pro-Japanese

government with Puyi, the last Qing

emperor, as regent. After the invasion of

Manchuria in 1931, Japanese militarists

moved forward to separate the region

from Chinese control, and on February 8,

1932, Japan officially proclaimed the state

of Manchukuo. China, of course, did not

recognize the government in Manchukuo,

but the two nations established ties to

conduct trade.

Skeptical of Japanese encroachment in the

region, the League of Nations sent a

commission to investigate the Mukden

Incident and the situation on the ground

in Manchuria. This commission released

the Lytton Report and declared that the

League would not recognize the Japanese

state of Manchukuo as a sovereign nation

and that the region remained part of

China. The Japanese were furious and

withdrew from the League of Nations.

Some scholars claim that this incident was

the catalyst for prompting the

militarization of Japan and their

involvement in WWII.

Japanese occupation of Beijing.

Source: Wodu Media

After the Marco Polo Bridge Incident and

the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese

War, Manchukuo was officially

incorporated into the Japanese empire

and remained under Japanese influence

until the end of the war. The impact of the

Japanese occupation had a lasting

influence on the region. Cities in north

China, such as Dalian, still retain a

Japanese colonial feel in their layout and

architecture.

The Chinese Communists and the Long March

The Long March (1934-1935) was a

military retreat by the Communist Red

Army to evade pursuit and destruction by

the Nationalist Party of China

(Guomindang, or Kuomintang). The

Nationalists and the Communists had

tried to work together to establish order in

the country, but soon after the

Nationalists managed to consolidate their

power, they purged the Communists. The

Communists, facing destruction, were

forced to flee to the distant countryside,

where they regrouped and reworked their

strategy for fomenting revolution in China.

There was not one Long March, but a

series of marches, as various Communist

armies in the south escaped to the north

and west. The most well-known one is the

march from Jiangxi province on the coast

of China (near Shanghai) that began in

October 1934.

The Long March. Source: Anarkismo.net

The Communists were under the

command of Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai,

and they managed to retreat north and

west, reportedly traversing around 8,000

miles before they arrived almost starved

and desperate in Shaanxi province over a

year later. Once they established

themselves in Shaanxi, Mao began to work

on his political philosophy, developing

some of the most important treaties he

would write about peasant revolution and

guerrilla warfare. It was also during the

Long March that Mao solidified his assent

to power. The bitter struggles of the Long

March, which was completed by only

about one-tenth of the force that left

Jiangxi, would come to represent a

significant episode in the history of the

Communist Party of China, and would seal

the personal prestige of Mao and his

supporters as the new leaders of the party

in the following decades.

Japanese Invasion and WWII in China

On July 7, 1937, a war broke out at the

Marco Polo Bridge just outside of Beijing.

There was a skirmish between some

Chinese and Japanese soldiers, and the

Japanese demanded that they be able to

search the walled city of Wanping for a

missing Japanese soldier. The Chinese

refused and this led to a war on the

mainland. The Japanese quickly occupied

most of the major cities in China,

including Shanghai, Nanjing, and Wuhan,

wreaking havoc and bringing destruction.

As they moved south and west, the

Nationalist government retreated to

Chongqing far inland in China. The

Communists were still holed up in the

northern provinces and began honing

their guerrilla warfare techniques in

battles against the Japanese Imperial

Army on the border of Manchuria. After

the Japanese got what they wanted—

access to all treaty ports and the main

north/south railroad in China—the war

came to a stalemate by the end of 1938.

The Nationalists were shipping in goods

and ammunition to southern China

through Burma on the Burma Road, but

the Japanese stopped advancing.

Marco Polo Bridge Incident. Source: Chinafolio

However, the Japanese attack on Pearl

Harbor quickly changed Japan’s position

from that of offense to defense in the war,

especially after its massive loss at the

battle of Midway in the Pacific; Japan lost

almost half of its fleet. Yet, the Japanese

still had a stronghold over most of the

urban centers in China and in 1944, they

launched a new offensive called ichigo,

aiming to link Manchukuo to Vietnam

(which was also under Japanese control)

to send war supplies up and down through

China on the railways without

interruption. This offensive was successful

but the Japanese soon lost the war and

were forced to withdraw all of their troops

from China. In the meantime, another war

was to emerge in China. Neither the

Nationalists nor the Communists were

ready to concede and while both had spent

the past eight years fighting the common

enemy—the Japanese—it was now time for

them to have it out over who would rule

China.

Civil War and the Defeat of the Nationalists

Following the end of the WWII, China

quickly fell into a devastating civil war that

lasted until the establishment of the

People’s Republic of China (PRC) in

October 1949. As Mao Zedong claimed

victory, the Nationalists fled to the island

of Taiwan and declared it the Republic of

China (ROC). The Chinese civil war was

also fueled by the emerging Cold War; the

Americans aided the Nationalists and the

Soviets supported the Communists. The

United States did not want to see China

become a Communist state, while the

Soviets did not want to see a pro-

American regime in China.

Chiang Kai-shek on TIME cover. Source: TIME

The Nationalists received a large amount

of aid from the United States, but their

economic policies were extremely

inefficient and the KMT never gained

respect from the large peasant population

in China. The Communists, on the other

hand, had managed to maintain the

popular support of the locals wherever

they went, mainly because the CCP treated

them fairly and equally. The Communists’

land reform policies, which promised poor

peasants access to farmland, also helped

the CCP garner support. The United States

also became weary of supporting the

Nationalists as their degree of corruption,

disorganization, and ineptitude became

apparent.

Mao Zedong. Source: Mao Biograph

Although the Chinese civil war eventually

came to an end, no armistice or peace

treaty was ever signed. The relationship

between the PRC and ROC remained tense

throughout the decades that followed. The

Communists refused to recognize the

government in Taiwan, claiming that the

island was part of mainland China and

thus the legitimacy to rule solely belonged

to the CCP.

Useful Websites Attempting Analogy: Occupied Manchuria and the Invasion of Iraq by Jonathan Dresner http://hnn.us/article/5247 The Long March http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1900_mao_march.htm Article about Modern China from China Folio http://www.chinafolio.com/modern-chinese-history-1927-1937/ Chinese Communists who’s who from Marxist.org http://www.marxists.org/subject/china/whos-who.htm Writings by Mao Zedong (1939) about the May Fourth Movement http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mao/selected-works/volume-2/mswv2_13.htm May Fourth Movement Political Posters http://chineseposters.net/themes/may-fourth-movement.php Before and After the so-called May Fourth Movement http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1750_mayfourth.htm Sun Yatsen Classical Chinese Garden in Vancouver http://vancouverchinesegarden.com/

Story about the Last Warlord for History Today by Rana Mitter http://www.historytoday.com/rana-mitter/last-warlord Website for the Sun Yatsen Museum http://www.lcsd.gov.hk/CE/Museum/sysm/en/ Historical maps of China from the University of Texas http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/history_china.html Gallery of Chinese Propaganda Posters http://chineseposters.net/gallery/index.php Republican China Library from The Fairbank Library http://www.cnd.org/fairbank/fair-rep.htm Fordham University History sourcebook—primary sources online http://www.fordham.edu/HALSALL/eastasia/eastasiasbook.asp#Imperial China Google online archive of Life Magazine photos http://images.google.com/hosted/life Modern Chinese Literature and Culture website—hosted by the Department of East Asian History and Languages at Ohio State University http://mclc.osu.edu/ University of Washington—Guide to modern Chinese clothing http://depts.washington.edu/chinaciv/clothing/clotweb.htm University of Washington—Guide to modern Chinese graphic art http://depts.washington.edu/chinaciv/graph/9gramain.htm Cultural guide to understanding how Chinese people say “hello” to each other https://www.mtholyoke.edu/courses/jlipman/chifanlemeiyou.htm

Suggestions for Further Reading

Adshead, S.A.M. The Modernization of the

Chinese Salt Administration, 1900-1920. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970.

Averill, Stephen (2007) “The cultural politics

of local education in early twentieth-century China.” Twentieth-Century China 32, no. 2 (April): 4-32.

Barlow, Toni. The Question of Women in

Chinese Feminism. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004.

Barrett, David, and Larry N Shyu, eds.

Chinese Collaboration with Japan, 1932-1945: the Limits of Accommodation. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001.

Bastid, Marianne. Educational Reform in

Early Twentieth-Century China. Ann Arbor, MI: Center for Chinese Studies, 1987.

Bergère, Marie-Claire, and Janet Lloyd. Sun

Yat-Sen. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1998.

Bergère, Marie-Claire. The Golden Age of the

Chinese Bourgeoisie, 1911-1937. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989.

Bianco, Lucien. Origins of the Chinese

Revolution, 1915-1949. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1971.

Brook, Timothy, and B. Michael Frolic. Civil

Society in China, Studies on Contemporary China. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1997.

Brook, Timothy. Collaboration: Japanese

Agents and Local Elites in Wartime China. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005.

Buck, David B. Urban Change in Tsinan,

Shandong, 1800-1949. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1978.

Buck, Peter. American Science and Modern China, 1876-1936. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1980.

Carroll, Peter. Between Heaven and

Modernity: Reconstructing Suzhou, 1895-1937. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2006.

Carter, James Hugh. Creating a Chinese

Harbin: Nationalism in an International City, 1916-1932. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2002.

Chen, Jerome. “Defining Chinese Warlords

and Their Factions.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 31, no. 4 (October 1980): 439-470.

Chiang, Yung-chen. Social Engineering and

the Social Sciences in China, 1919-1949, Cambridge Modern China Series. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001.

Clausen, Søren, and Stig Thøgersen. The

Making of a Chinese City: History and Historiography in Harbin, Studies on Modern China. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1995.

Clayton, Cathryn H. Sovereignty at the Edge:

Macau and the Question of Chinessness. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010.

Coble, Parks M. Chinese Capitalists in Japan's

New Order: The Occupied Lower Yangzi, 1937-1945. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2003.

Cochran, Sherman. Encountering Chinese

Networks: Western, Japanese, and Chinese Corporations in China, 1880-1937. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2000.

Cochran, Sherman. Inventing Nanjing Road:

Commercial Culture in Shanghai, 1900-1945, Cornell East Asia Series; 103. Ithaca, NY: East Asia Program, Cornell University, 1999.

Cohen, Paul A. Discovering History in China:

American Historical Writing on the Recent Chinese Past. New York: Columbia University Press, 2010.

Cohen, Paul. Speaking to History: The Story

of King Guojian in Twentieth Century

China. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2009.

Culp, Robert. Articulating Citizenship: Civic

Education and Student Politics in Southeastern China, 1912—1940. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009.

Culp, Robert. “Rethinking Governmentality:

Training, Cultivation, and Cultural Citizenship in Nationalist China.” Journal of Asian Studies 65, no. 3 (August 2006): 529-54.

Dikötter, Frank. Crime, Punishment, and the

Prison in Modern China, 1895-1949. New York: Columbia University Press, 2002.

Dirlik, Arif. The Origins of the Chinese

Communist Party. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989.

Dirlik, Arif. “Asians on the Rim:

Transnational Capital and Local Community in the Making of Contemporary Asian America.” Amerasia Journal 22 (1996): 1-24.

Dirlik, Arif. Anarchism in the Chinese

Revolution. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1991.

Dirlik, Arif. Global modernity: modernity in

the age of global capitalism. Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers, 2007.

Dirlik, Arif. Revolution and History: The

Origins of Marxist Historiography in China, 1919-1937. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1978.

Duara, Prasenjit. Culture, Power, and the

State: Rural North China, 1900-1942. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1988.

Esherick, Joseph. Remaking the Chinese City:

Modernity and National Identity, 1900-1950. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai’i Press, 2000.

Fernsebner, Susan R. “A People’s Playthings:

Toys, Childhood, and Chinese Identity, 1909-1933.” Postcolonial Studies 6, no. 3 (2003): 269-93.

Gang, Zhao. Man and Land in Chinese History: An Economic Analysis. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1986.

Gao Mobo. Gao Village: Rural Life in Modern

China. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press, 1999.

Goodman, Bryna. Native Place, City, and

Nation: Regional Networks and Identities in Shanghai, 1853-1937. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1995.

Harrison, Henrietta. China, Inventing the

Nation. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.

Henriot, Christian. Shanghai, 1927-1937:

Municipal Power, Locality, and Modernization. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993.

Hua Shiping. Chinese Utopianism: A

Comparative Study of Reformist Thought with Japan and Russia, 1898-1997. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2008.

Johnson, Chalmers A. Peasant Nationalism

and Communist Power: The Emergence of Revolutionary China. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1962.

Johnson, David. Spectacle and Sacrifice: The

Ritual Foundations of Village Life in North China. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010.

Karl, Rebecca. Staging the World: The

Invention of China in Modern World Making. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004.

Kirby, William. “Engineering China: Birth of

the Developmental State, 1928-37.” In Becoming Chinese: Passages to Modernity and Beyond, 1900-1950, edited by Yeh Wen-hsin. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2010.

Kirby, William. “The Internationalization of

China: Foreign Relations at Home and Abroad in the Republican Era.” In Reappraising Republican China, edited by Frederic Wakeman, Jr. and Edmonds, and Richard Louis. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.

Kirby, William C. “The Nationalist Regime

and the Chinese Party-State, 1928-1958.” In Historical Perspectives on Contemporary East Asia, edited by Merle Goldman and Andrew Gordon, 211-237. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000.

Lary, Diana, and Stephen R. MacKinnon.

Scars of War: The Impact of Warfare on Modern China, Contemporary Chinese Studies. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2001.

Lary, Diana. “Warlord Studies.” Modern

China 6, no. 4 (October 1980): 439-470. Lary, Diana. Region and Nation: The Kwangsi

Clique in Chinese Politics, 1925-1937, Cambridge Studies in Chinese History, Literature, and Institutions. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1974.

Lary, Diana. Warlord Soldiers: Chinese

Common Soldiers, 1911-1937, Contemporary China Institute Publications. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985.

Lee, Leo Ou-fan. Shanghai Modern: The

Flowering of a New Urban Culture in China, 1930-1945. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999.

Li, Lincoln. Student Nationalism in China,

1924-1949. Albany: State U of New York P, 1994.

Lu Hanchao. “Away from Nanking Road:

Small Stores and Neighborhood Life in Modern Shanghai.” Journal of Asian Studies 54, no. 1 (February 1995): 92-123.

Lu Hanchao. Beyond the Neon Lights.

Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2000.

Mackerras, Colin. China’s Minorities:

Integration and Modernization in the Twentieth Century. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.

Mackerras, Colin. China’s Minority Cultures:

Identities and Integration since 1912. New York: Longman, 1995.

Martin, Brian G. The Shanghai Green Gang: Politics and Organized Crime, 1919-1937. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1996.

McCord, Edward A. “Civil War and the

Emergence of Warlordism in the Early Twentieth-Century China.” War and Society 10, no. 2 (October 1992): 35-56.

Mechthild, Leutner. The Chinese Revolution

in the 1920s: Between Triumph and Disaster. New York: Routledge, 2002.

Mitchell, Katharyn E. “Transnational Citizens:

Constituting the Cultural Citizen in the Era of Pacific Rim Capital.” In Ungrounded Empires: The Cultural Politics of Modern Chinese Transnationalism, edited by Aihwa Ong and Donald Nonini. New York: Routledge, 1997.

Mitter, Rana. A Bitter Revolution: China’s

Struggle with the Modern World. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004.

Mitter, Rana. The Manchurian Myth:

Nationalism, Resistance and Collaboration in Modern China. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2000.

Morris, Andrew D. Marrow of the Nation: A

History of Sport and Physical Culture in Republican China. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2004.

Nakajima Chieko. “Health and hygiene in

mass mobilization: hygiene campaigns in Shanghai, 1920-1945.” Twentieth-Century China 34, no.1 (November 2008): 42-72.

Pepper, Suzanne. Civil War in China: The

Political Struggle, 1945-1949. Lanham, MD: Roman & Littlefield Publishers, 1999.

Peterson, Glen, Ruth Hayhoe, and Yongling

Lu. Education, Culture, and Identity in Twentieth-Century China. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2001.

Reardon-Anderson, James. Yenan and the

Great Powers: the Origins of Chinese Communist Foreign Policy, 1944-46.

New York: Columbia University Press, 1980.

Saich, Tony. The Rise of the Chinese

Communist Party: Documents and Analysis, 1920-1949, Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1994.

Schoppa, Keith. Revolution and Its Past:

Identities and Change in Modern Chinese History, Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 2002.

Schram, Stuart R. and Nancy J. Hodes. Mao’s

road to power: revolutionary writings, 1912-1949, Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1992- (5 volumes to date).

Schwarcz, Vera. The Chinese Enlightenment:

Intellectuals and the Legacy of the May Fourth Movement of 1919. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1986.

Schwartz, Benjamin I. Communism and

China; Ideology in Flux. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1968.

Sheridan, James E. China in Disintegration:

The Republican Era in Chinese History, 1912-1949. New York: Free Press, 1975.

Spence, Jonathan D. The Gate of Heavenly

Peace: The Chinese and Their Revolution, 1895-1980. New York, NY: Penguin Books, 1982.

Strand, David. Rickshaw Beijing: City People

and Politics in the 1920s. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1989.

Taylor, Jay. The Generalissimo: Chaing Kai-

Shek and the Struggle for Modern China. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009.

Taylor, Jeremy. "The Production of the

Chiang Kai-shek Personality Cult, 1929-1975." China Quarterly 185 (March 2006): 96-110.

Thøgersen, Stig. A County of Culture:

Twentieth-Century China Seen from the Village Schools of Zouping, Shandong. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2002.

Tsin, Michael. Nation, Governance, and

Modernity in China. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1999.

Unger, Jonathan. Chinese Nationalism. New

York: Armonk, 1996. Van de Ven, Hans J. War and Nationalism in

China 1925-1945. New York: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003.

Van de Ven, Hans J., and University of

California Berkeley. Center for Chinese Studies. From Friend to Comrade: The Founding of the Chinese Communist Party, 1920-1927. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1991.

VanderVen, Elizabeth “Village-State

Cooperation: Modern Community Schools and Their Funding, Haicheng County, Fengtian, 1905-1931.” Modern China 31 (2005): 204-234.

VanderVen, Elizabeth. “It's time for school:

the introduction of the new calendar in Haicheng County primary school, northeast China, 1905-1919.” Twentieth-Century China 32, no.2 (April 2007): 60-83.

Wakeman, Frederic E. The Shanghai

Badlands: Wartime Terrorism and Urban Crime, 1937-1941, Cambridge Studies in Chinese History, Literature, and Institutions. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.

Wakeman, Frederic E. Policing Shanghai,

1927-1937. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1995.

Wakeman, Frederic E., and Richard L.

Edmonds. Reappraising Republican China. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.

Wakeman, Frederic E., and Wen-Hsin Yeh.

Shanghai Sojourners. Berkeley, CA: Institute of East Asian Studies Center for Chinese Studies, 1992.

Waldron, Arthur N. The Chinese Civil Wars,

1911-1949. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.

Wang Di. The Teahouse: Small Business,

Everyday Culture, and Public Politics in Chengdu, 1900-1950 Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2008.

Wong, Young-tsu. The Search for Modern Nationalism: Zhang Binglin and Revolutionary China, 1869-1936. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989.

Wu, Odoric Y.K. Mobilizing the Masses:

Building the Revolution in Henan, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1994.

Yeh Wen-hsin. “Corporate Space, Communal

Time: Everyday Life in Shanghai’s Bank of China.” American Historical Review 100, no 1 (February 1995): 97-122.

Yeh Wen-hsin. “Shanghai Modernity:

Commerce and Culture in a Republican City.” China Quarterly 150 (July 1997): 375-394.

Yeh, Wen-Hsin. Provincial Passages: Culture,

Space, and the Origins of Chinese Communism. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1996.

Yeh, Wen-Hsin. Wartime Shanghai. London:

Routledge, 1998. Yue Dong, Madeline “Juggling Bits: Tianqiao

as Republican Beijing’s Recycling Center.” Modern China 25, no. 3 (July 1999): 303-342.

Yue Dong, Madeline. Republican Beijing: The

City and its histories. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2003.