Report No. 12606-MAU

MauritaniaCountry Environmental Strategy PaperJune 30, 1994

Africa RegionSahelian Departnient

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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

AMEXTIPE Mauritanian Agency for Public Works Agence Mauritanienne d'Execution desand Employment Travaux dlnteret Public et pour

l'Emploi

CESP Country Environumental Strategy Paper Document de StrategieEnvironnementale

CNEA National Center for Alternative Energy Cellule Nationale des EnergiesAlternatives

DEAR Department of Environment and Rural Direction de lEnvironnement et dePlanning l'Am6nagement Rural

EC European Community Communaute Europeene

GEF Global Environment Facility Fonds pour l'Environnement Mondial

IUCN World Conservation Union Union Mondiale pour la Nature

LPG Liquid Propane Gas

MDRE Ministry of Rural Development and Minist&re du Developpement et deEnvirorunent l'Environnement

MHE Ministry of Water and Energy Ministere de lHydraulique et delEnergie

MS Ministry of Health Ministere de la Sante

NEAP National Environmental Action Plan Plan dAction National pourl'Environnement

NRM Natural Resource Management Gestion des Ressources Naturelles

OMVS Organization for the Development of Organisation pour la Mise en Valeurthe Senegal River Valley du Fleuve Senegal

PAs Pastoral Associations Associations Pastorales

UNCED United Nations Conference onEnvironment and Development

UNDP United Nations Development Programme des Nations Unies pour laProgramme Developpement

UNSO United Nations Sudano-Sahelian Office Office Sahelian des Nations Unies

Currency Equivalents

Currency Unit = Ouguiyas (UM)

US$ 1.0 = 120.23 UM (March 1994)

SDR= US$1.418

System of Weights and Measures

Metric System

Government Fiscal Year

January 1-December 31

TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .................................................. i

I. INTRODUCTION ................................................. 1I

II. BACKGROUND .................................................. 2

A. The Economic Context ................................................. 2

B. The Demographic Context ................................................ 2

C. Natural Resources ................................................. 3

D. Social Structure .................................................. 7

III. KEY ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND CHALLENGES TOSUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ................................................ 8

A. Natural Resource Management Issues .......................................... 8

Development of the Senegal River Valley ................. .............8

Land degradation in the Guidimaka ............................ ........... 13

Pastoralism ................................................. 14

Water Overexploitation in the Oases ...................................... 15

Sand Dune Encroachment ................................................. 17

Forest Degradation ................................................. 20

B. Coastal Fishing ................................................. 22

C. Urban Environmental Issues ................................................. 25

IV. GOVERNMENT POLICY AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK FORENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENTt ................................................. 28

A. Policy Framework .......... ....................................... 28

B. Institutional Framework . . ............................................... 29

C. Environmental Assessement of Public Investment Program ........... 30

D. Information Constraints ................................................. 30

E. Legal Framework ................................................. 31

V. ENVIRONMENTAL PRIORITIES AND STRATEGY .. 35

VI. CONCLUSION .. ............................................... 40

ANNEXES

Annex 1: Rainfall Distribution by Region

Annex 2: Population Distribution by Region

Annex 3: Land Use in Mauritania

Annex 4: Protected Areas in Mauritania

Annex 5: Classified Forests

Annex 6: Bibliography

MAPS Agro-ecological Zones IBRD 25383

Preface

This paper is one of a series of Country Environrnental Strategy Papers prepared by World Bank staff bothfor internal discussion and to strengthen policy dialogue with borrower countries on environmental issuesand strategy. The report was prepared by Ms. Sarah Forster from the Sahelian Department under thesupervision of Ms. Katherine Marshall, Department Director and Mr. Salah Darghouth, Chief, AgricultureDivision. Mr. David Steeds (Division Chief, Agriculture and Natural Resources Department) and Ms.Cynthia Cook (Environmental and Social Policy Advisor, Occidental and Central African Department)acted as informal Bank peer reviewers.

The paper is based primarily on informnation collected during a three week mission to Mauritania in Julyand August, 1993 and a review of relevant documentation and Bank operational experience. The missioncomprised Mr. Yves Pr6vost, Consultant, Environmentally Sustainable Development Division, AfricaTechnical Department, Mr. Aleksander Kawalec, agronomist, FAO/CP and Ms. Sarah Forster. The authorwishes to thank Messrs. Hadya Amadou Kane, Dahmoud ould Merzoug, Sall Brahim and Cheikna M'Bareof the Ministere du Developpement Rural et de l'Environment for their participation in the mission andclose collaboration, which has aided in the preparation of this document. The paper draws on thediscussions during the mission with representatives from the key Government ministries as well as with thedonor community, non-governmental organizations and local people. The mission spent ten days visitingthe regions of Trarza, Gorgol, Assaba, Hodh el Gharbi, and the Guidimaka to discuss environmental issuesat the local government and community levels in order to to gain a better understanding of local perceptionsof environmental issues and to visit project sites.

The report has also benefitted from the comments and suggestions of Katherine Marshall (AF5DR), SalahDarghouth, John Hall (AF5AG); Miguel Saponara (AF5CO); Ignatius Menezes (AF5IE); ClaudeDelapierre, Souleymane Sow (AFMAU); David Steeds (AGRNR); Cynthia Cook (AF1DR); Jan Bojo,Yves Prevost (AFTES) Hans-Werner Wabnitz (LEGAF), Jamison Suter (AF5 consultant) and MichaelHorowitz (AGRNR/lnstitute for Development Anthropology, Binghamton, New York).

This paper reflects the Bank's preliminary findings and concerns regarding environmental issues, and isintended to provide a contribution to the Government of Mauritania's ongoing environmental policy-makingprocess and to stimulate a broader and more intensive debate on environmental priorities and action withthe Government and its donor partners. It has been widely read and reviewed within the Bank andpreliminary discussions were held with the Government in March 1994. It was then presented as abackground paper for the Consultative Group meeting held in Paris in April 1994 and has since beenrevised to incorporate the Government's comments.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION

1. A broad and strategic approach to environmental management is essential to Mauritania's developmentas, in virtually all sectors, the Government is confronted with issues of environmnental sustainability. Theobjective of this Country Environmental Strategy Paper (CESP) is to take stock of the Bank's understanding ofthese issues and situate them within the broader development context. The overarching aim is to launch abroader and more intensive policy dialogue on environmental issues with the Government and Mauritania'sdevelopment partners. The paper identifies, briefly analyzes, and broadly establishes priorities among themany environmental issues facing Mauritania. Based on this analysis, it suggests a strategy as to how theGovernment of Mauritania and its donor partners can better integrate environmental concerns into thedevelopment effort.

2. Much analysis has been done on environmental issues for Mauritania, most notably on issues ofdesertification and the Senegal River Basin. Many actors are involved in assisting the Government ofMauritania address a broad agenda of environmental challenges, particularly, UNSO, UNDP, theGovernments of Germany and France, and IUCN. To date, though, the Government and its partners havelacked an overall framework that clearly links environmental concerns to Mauritania's development strategyand defines environmental priorities and policy choices. This is the role that a national environmental strategyor National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) is intended to play. The Government's broad approach onenvironmental issues was reflected in the Policy Framework Paper 1993-1996, prepared in collaboration withthe World Bank and the IMF. The aim for the national environmental strategy is to expand on these policystatements and translate them into operational and budget planning and investment priorities and decisions. Itis also designed to serve as an instrument to prompt a broad public debate on environmental priorities andaction measures in Mauritania.

3. This paper examines three major environmental challenges facing Mauritania, highlighting the mainissues and implications of each. The first issue is how to manage natural resources in a way that issustainable, equitable and efficient. Natural resource management issues manifest themselves somewhatdifferently in four important regions of Mauritania: the Senegal River Valley, the pastoral areas, theGuidimaka, and the oases. The paper also takes a closer look at sand dune encroachment, the most visible ofMauritania's land degradation problems, and deforestation. The second issue examnined is overfishing ofcoastal fisheries which appears to be undermining the profitability of the fishing sector. Third is the rapidemergence of serious environmental problems in the burgeoning urban areas.

KEY ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND CHALLENGES TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

(i) Natural Resource Management

Development of the Senegal River Valley

4. An urgent and central challenge for Mauritania, with its partners in neighboring countries, is tomanage the development of the Senegal River Valley in a manner that integrates economic, technical,ecological and social concerns. The river valley is of central importance to Mauritania's overall developmentstrategy, representing the area with by far the highest agricultural potential. Prospects for expandingagricultural production, however, depend to a large extent on how the land and water resources are managed.Though the valley has been the subject of numerous discussions and studies, the environmental and socialdimensions of change in the valley have not always been taken into account in development planning.

5. Over the last 20 years, the Senegal River Valley has undergone tremendous social and environmentalchanges, in part the result of the Manantali and Diama dams which have profoundly modified the water regimein the valley, and in part the result of the droughts and increasing human and animal populations. Integratingenvironmental considerations into all development activities is vital to ensure the sustainability of production inthe valley. The Government of Mauritania recognizes this basic principle and is working with donors,

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including the Bank, to develop an integrated development plan for the valley, that focuses much less onmaximizing the overall irrigated area and more on promoting diversified production (flood-recession, rainfed,livestock, fishing) while taking into account the need to protect the biodiversity of the region, particularly thewetlands and birdlife in the river delta.

6. Water management throughout the valley is the key to ensuring the sustainability of productionand the ecological integrity of the river basin. Many studies suggest that adopting an explicit system toallow a reliable artificial flood from the Manantali reservoir is the most important measure to take. Theflood is vital for sustaining traditional flood-dependent activities. The flood also recharges the surface aquifer,from which many villages obtain water, and it provides soil moisture required by plant species, so guardingagainst land degradation. Variation in the reservoir level may also destroy disease vectors, thereby acting as atool for minimizing dam-related diseases. Lack of reliable and adequate flooding since the dam went intooperation highlights the need to reconsider the dam management strategy and ensure that demands forflood-recession production are given adequate consideration when determining water requirements fordifferent purposes. Given the direct role the flood plays in sustaining agricultural production, water supply,biodiversity conservation and disease control, it is important to promote a stronger awareness of the role of theflood, particularly among decision-makers and technical staff responsible for control of dam management.

7. One of the next steps forward in adopting a more integrated approach to development of the valley willbe further consultation and agreement between the OMVS member states and donors on action toensure a reliable artificial flood taking into account local production and environmental needs as well asenergy and irrigation requirements. A clearer understanding is needed of the relationship between floodingand the area of land inundated, forest regeneration and aquifer recharge. Another issue for agriculturaldevelopment is opening up to annual flooding various flood plains, which have been closed by dikes andhave not been used for irrigated agriculture. A more integrated approach to valley development alsosuggests paying more attention to increasing the productivity of local production systems: rain-fed and floodrecession cropping, livestock, fishing, and vegetable gardening. Continuous monitoring and analysis ofenvironmental changes are also essential to enable design of measures to minimize negative impacts.

Natural Resource Management in the Guidimaka

8. The Guidimaka region is an area bordering the river valley which has high agricultural potential due torelatively high rainfall (350-600mm per year) and fertile soils but where, according to the Government'spoverty strategy, some of the poorest of Mauritania's population live. Here, the central environmental issue ishow to reverse the deterioration of land and increase sustainable agricultural production. The region has morevegetation cover than virtually any other region, however, it is under significant population pressure and isexperiencing some of the most rapid land degradation in the country; an estimated one third of the land area isaffected by water erosion.

9. The problems in the region are due to a number of overlapping factors. First, high rates ofoutmigration have led to a shortage of labor. Agricultural production has stagnated and many families relyheavily on migrant remittances. Male outmigration has shifted the responsibility for agriculture to women;however, often they do not have the rights or access to land, agricultural services and credit which would helpthem increase agriculture production and take measures to prevent land degradation. Second, over the last 20years, an increasing number of camel herders and farmers have moved into the region from elsewhere in thecountry. Agriculture expansion into traditionally protected forested areas and concentrated browsing pressureis leading to alarming devegetation which, in turn, exacerbates soil erosion. The complexity of populationmovements in the region and increasing competition for land is likely to make land tenure an increasinglyimportant issue, as people try to clarify and secure their rights to land. This highlights the need to examine theapplication of the 1983 Land Law reform to areas such as the Guidimaka. Third, lack of rural infrastructure

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and access to urban markets is a major factor behind the economic decline in the region. It reduces returns toagriculture which, in turn, limits the amount of revenue available to invest in soil and water managementtechniques.

10. Reversing the detioration of land resources in the Guidimaka and the stagnation of agricultural outputwill require some major shifts in Government policy and investment. To date, the region has received littleattention. Agricultural production is constrained by a lack of investment in infrastructure and road access tourban markets. Priority should be given to protecting watersheds through the construction of small dams andother water management techniques. In its Poverty Strategy, the Government has targeted the Guidimaka as aregion where priority should be given to land use management and agricultural production. A "gestion desterroirs" approach that aims to improve soil, water, pasture and forest management through targetinginvestment directly to the local level and supporting communities in efforts to reverse land degradation andclarify issues of land tenure may be the best approach to take in the region.

Pastoralism

11. A central challenge facing Mauritania is how to ensure the continued economic and environmentalsustainability of the livestock sector. Pastoral production is important to Mauritania's economy (80% ofagricultural GDP) and to its society . The livestock sector, however, is in a state of flux as patterns ofownership and herd management change. The droughts plus rising economic expectations have led to rapidsedenterization of the nomads. This has been followed by a trend towards agro-pastoralism. Increasingnumbers of livestock are owned by urban-based absentee owners which has led to increasing competition forwater and range resources between traditional and 'modem' livestock owners. Around the new pastoralsettlements, particularly in the south-west and around Nouakchott, overgrazing, loss of trees and landdegradation all present serious problems. In part this is linked to rainfall - rangeland production bounces backwith the coming of good rains - however, sustained animal grazing pressure in concentrated areas isexarcerbating vegetation degradation.

12. Many complex issues emerge within the livestock sector, including clarifying the land tenure rights ofpastoralists and improving range management and production. In 1987, the Government, with Bank support,promoted the establishment of Pastoral Associations (PAs) to provide a legal status to traditional pastoralgroups and privatize certain livestock sector activities. This program has compelled a greater practical focuson pastoral institution building. It has provided PAs with an opportunity to take greater responsibility forrange management and strengthen their legitimacy with respect to land and water rights. Though thestrengthening of PAs has been largely successful, several significant issues remain. These include balancingthe interests of traditional versus modern livestock owners, management of public wells, introducing improvedrangeland management techniques and taking a more integrated approach to livestock development. Theproposed Bank-financed Rainfed Natural Resource Management Project will focus on these topics.

Water Overexploitation in the Oases

13. Mauritania faces serious problems of overexploitation of water in the oases. These fertile regions inthe desert are a vital part of Mauritania's past and its present, both from a cultural and an economicperspective. Agricultural production in,the oases has declined over the past 20 years, largely as a result of theoutmigration during the drought years of people who worked on the date plantations. As a consequence of thelabor shortage, many land owners have begun to invest in motor pumps to replace the traditional hand pumpswhich has led to overexploitation of groundwater, particularly in the Adrar region. Lowered water tables leadto production losses due to inadequate irrigation and increased soil salinity.

14. There is a critical need to carry out groundwater evaluations to determine more accurately themagnitude and effect of the problem. Data on both groundwater and production trends are poor, and thisimpedes designing the action programs which are needed to arrest the decline. A further constraint to

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addresssing the problem is the lack of legislation placing limits on groundwater use. Strengthening the legaland administrative framework regulating water use in the oases deserves priority attention.

Sand dune encroachment

15. Land degradation -- the most visible manifestation of which is sand dune encroachment -- is serious inlocalized areas of Mauritania and presents challenges for policy design and program implementation.Mauritania has had relative success with sand dune fixation projects. Experience in Mauritania has shownthat the success rate of dune fixation projects dramatically increases where the local community is directlyinvolved in project design, implementation and maintenance of the project. These efforts need to bestrengthened and multiplied within an overall framework of improving natural resource management.

16. Measures to tackle sand dune mobilization in Mauritania have focussed on investment in "physical"projects, such as tree planting. These largely tackle the symptoms rather than the causes of dune mobilization.These causes are complex and entail the links between land management, demography and settlement andpublic policies influencing these trends. Risks of sand encroachment are inevitable when establishing towns orconstructing roads in desert regions. This fact needs to be taken into account in all policy decisions andinvestment projects concerning spatial planning and land use. It is vital that the costs of sand duneencroachment and mitigation measures be fully integrated into project design. Environmental assessmentsprovide a tool with which to address these concerns. Such assessments will require a better information basethan currently exists and highlights the need to strengthen environmental information systems in Mauritania.

17. The magnitude of sand dune encroachment problems and the high cost of sand dune fixation projectsin Mauritania raise some fundamental questions about the long-term economic and ecological viability ofsettlement and development in the arid zones. Careful review of Mauritania's geography and developmentpattern would suggest promoting increased investment in secondary towns and infrastructure in the southern,more fertile area of the country. This might reduce the population pressure in Nouakchott and stimulate morebalanced growth throughout the country.

Forest Degradation

18. The woodfuel crisis is assuming major proportions in Mauritania. Data on the situation is limited,though the Government estimates that total annual woodfuel consumption is over ten times higher than thesustainable rate of exploitation, which is leading to rapid deforestation, particularly in the Senegal RiverValley. Urban demand for fuelwood is one of the main causes of deforestation. The Government ofMauritania has adopted a household energy strategy based on four strategic options designed to address bothdemand and supply side issues: (i)) accelerated inter-fuel substitution, particularly to LPG; (ii) demandmanagement measures, such as promoting the use of improved stoves; (iii) improving biomass supply andmanagement; (iv) introduction of economic household fuel pricing.

19. Strategic targets have been set including increasing use of LPG as the primary household fuel to 75%of households in Noukchott by 1998, compared to 27% in 1988; and, for houses which continue to usecharcoal as the primary fuel source, increasing use of improved charcoal stoves from 0% in 1988 to 83% in1998. Considerable progress has been made in reaching the targets for LPG substitution and the use ofimproved stoves. However, less progress has been made on the supply-side measures. Concerted efforts tostrengthen implementation of both demand and supply side measures are vital if a deepening energy crisis is tobe avoided.

20. Renewable energy sources -- solar, wind and biomass -- offer good potential in Mauritania where allthree are present in abundance. To date, investments in renewable energy in Mauritania have been small-scaleand scattered. More investigation into the economic viability of renewable energy is called for followed bymore proactive development and promotion of these energy-efficient technologies.

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(ii) Coastal Fishing

21. Mauritania must address the serious risk of overfishing, which available information indicates isalready undermining the sustainability of the fishing sector. Coastal fishing is a vital pillar of Mauritania'smodem economy, providing one of the main sources of foreign exchange earnings. However, recent declinesin fish catches have signalled the start of a worrisome decline in the sector's performance. The Total Catch-per-Unit-Effort (CUE) for the entire fleet has fallen by an estimated fourteen times over the past three decadesfrom 1,400 kg/hour in 1964 to 100 kg/hour in 1990.

22. Overfishing reflects poor implementation of fisheries management practices. While, from a technicalstandpoint, surveillance is improving, in 1991, it was estimated that less than 50% of violations againstMauritanian fisheries regulations were reported. The Government in collaboration with the World Bank andthe donor community has undertaken a review of the fisheries sector which generated an action plan to improveperformance and prevent overfishing. The study recommends the setting-up of a Fisheries ManagementRegime and immediate measures to reduce the total catching power of the demersal fleet by introducing asystem of fishing quotas. It is imperative that these measures are followed-up by effective action inconsultation with all the actors in the fishing industry.

(iii) Urban Environmental Issues: Water Supply and Sanitation

23. Lack of clean drinking water and sanitation facilities, inadequate waste disposal, and salinization ofNouakchott's drinking water supply are becoming increasingly serious problems, as a result of Mauritania'sremarkably rapid pace of urbanization. Water supply in Nouakchott is wholly inadequate and greatly at riskof deterioration. Only 18% of the urban population have access to clean piped water. Exploitation of theTrarza aquifer, Nouakchott's water source, is already causing the saltwater front to advance at a rate thatcould lead to permanent salinization. Only about 4% of the urban dwellers in Nouakchott are serviced by awater-borne sewage system. There is also no systematic garbage collection service in the towns.

24. Immediate priorities are to increase the percentage of the population with access to clean drinkingwater and to address problems of salinization. The Government has embarked on a Water Supply Project(FY92), with World Bank support, which aims to fulfill the water supply needs of the poorest section of thepopulation at an affordable price. Objectives include monitoring salt water intrusion into the Trarza aquiferand developing a groundwater management plan for the exploitation of a new wellfield.

25. Longer term goals are to improve sanitation and Nvaste collection facilities in urban areas. Two Bankfinanced projects will help achieve these goals. The Construction Capacity and Employment Project (FY93)will go part way to improving public drainage systems and waste collection services, and is also financingsand dune fixation efforts. The proposed Highwav and Urban Infrastructure (FY96) will help theMunicipality of Nouakchott implement an effective and comprehensive waste collection system.

POLICY AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK

26. The most effective vehicle for addressing environmental problems lies in the domain of public policyand institutional arrangements. Weaknesses in both contribute to problems and impede solutions and highlightthe importance of a clear and explicit focus on policy instruments and institutions. An overarching policy andinstitutional framework that integrates environmental concerns into development planning and examines policychoices is vital. Such a framework would not only guide public investment but could also channel privatesector activities, which in Mauritania offer the potential for significant economic growth, within a frameworkof economic incentives and legal regulations that ensure environmentally balanced and sustainable growth.

National Environmental Policy-making Process

27. Much valuable work has already been done in Mauritania towards defining an environmental policyframework, particularly on the PMLCD, in preparation for the 1992 Conference on Environment andDevelopment and the ongoing negotiations of the Desertification Convention. These exercises represent

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important building blocks towards developing a national environmental strategy framework. However, theyhave not yet achieved some important objectives defined for the NEAP process. Notably, public participationhas been quite restricted and the programs appear more oriented towards preparing a list of projects forfinancing than on the key step of addressing policy and institutional reforms. Further, explicitly environmentalwork has been dominated by natural resource management and degradation issues, with inadequate focus onthe "brown" issues, such as water supply and sanitation in towns and the environmental effects of mining andindustry. Still lacking is an explicit and publicly articulated framework which sets environmental issues withinthe Government's overall development strategy.

28. As its next step in finalizing a national environmental strategy (NEAP), the Government plans to worktogether with its donor partners to identify missing elements in the environmental strategy so as to complete acomprehensive policy framework and action plan. In light of the vast array of environmental concernscurrently confronting Mauritania, priority setting will be of decisive importance in implementing a realistic andeffective program.

Institutional Framework

29. Environmental concerns cut across sectors and are an integral aspect of the work of many ministriesand departments. However, there is little overall coordination between these departments, and theirresponsibilities often overlap. What is lacking is an institutional framework which clearly defines roles andresponsibilities. The restructuring and strengthening of one agency to act as a national environment agency,charged with formulating environmental policy, monitoring environmental standards, reviewing environmentalassessments and coordinating environmental activities could ameliorate this situation. A strong message fromthe highest levels of Government that environmental concerns are to be considered integral components ofplanning would provide institutional impetus for such reforms. The Government could then follow-up, as partof the NEAP process, by clarifying lines of administrative responsibility. Such a restructuring may involvereassessing staffing and training requirements.

Decentralization

30. In the past, measures to address environmental problems have often focused on technical interventions,for example, dune fixation projects. These interventions have often been top-down and not demand driven.TIhe issue is largely one of participation in decision-making and development planning. The Government ofMauritania is aware of the issue and through its policy of decentralization of central government functions tothe regional and rural commune level, it aims to increase popular participation in development efforts. Theproposed Bank-supported Rainfed Natural Resource Management Project, which will build on the work donein empowering Pastoral Associations under the Livestock II Project. could help take this decentralization onestep further and provide local communities with more responsibility and rights over their natural resource baseand support for the development and implementation of management strategies and measures to prevent landdegradation.

Environmental Assessments and Information Systems

31. Explicit consideration of the environmental impact of the public investment program is vital ifenvironmental concerns are to be adequately addressed. EAs provide critical information about environmentalimpacts. They ensure environmental concerns and mitigation measures are incorporated into planning fromthe start. The Government needs to take the lead on requiring environmental impacts of all projects in thePublic Investment Program and on ensuring measures are in place to tackle these concerns.

32. Strengthening of environmental information systems is an area in need of more systematic attention.Data with which to monitor and evaluate the conditions of the Mauritanian environment are inadequate. Therehas been no systematic mapping of natural resources in Mauritania. The biggest problem lies on the demandside: the institutional decision-making processes that should be using environmental information are either not

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operative or are badly organized. The next step will be to build up an environmnental information system thatis clearly linked to decision-making processes.

Land tenure

33. Issues on land tenure are vital to natural resource management in all countries, but nowhere more so inMauritania where land degradation is an immediate problem. Land tenure issues have received considerableattention in Mauritania, particularly in the context of the development of irrigated agriculture in the SenegalRiver Valley. However, the considerable experience of land law issues gained in Mauritania and elsewhere inAfrica suggests that a review of the 1983 land tenure reform (which is based on a system of individual privateproperty rights) and its application to non-irrigated areas both inside and outside the valley would bebeneficial. The complexity of traditional rights and uses suggests that further study and a better understandingof traditional tenure systems is important for both policy makers and project design. Some adaptation of thecurrent law may be called for to take into account locally specific circumstances and local constraints, forexample, in the pastoral areas and the oases.

CONCLUSION

34. The issues discussed in this paper pose a daunting agenda. The plentiful questions that remain to beresolved are all the more vexing for their reciprocal and causal relationship with poverty. While this linkagemay complicate the situation, it can also facilitate solutions, since it suggests that environmental concerns willbe best addressed as part of an integrated overall development policy. Correspondingly, incorporatingenvironmental measures into the Government's central development designs serves to institutionalize thoseconcerns and ensure them a permanent place in economic planning. In light of the vast array of environmentalconcerns currently confronting Mauritania, selectivity will be of decisive importance in implementing arealistic and effective program. It is up to the Government of Mauritania to identify areas it considers firstpriorities, and, with the help of the international community, further develop the objectives and means bywhich it can pursue a development path that enhances the management of natural resources both throughincreased efficiency and improved equity.

35. Throughout this paper, recommendations are made as to how to integrate environmental concerns intodevelopment planning. These focus on the areas of policy definition and action and the need for betterincorporation of environmental information into decision-making. For the Bank, they highlight the need tostrengthen policy dialogue on environmental issues and specific issues to be addressed in project preparationand supervision in the lending program. The Consultative Group meeting provides a good opportunity for theGovenmment and donors to broaden and intensify the policy dialogue on environmental issues and to decide onconcrete action to be taken to finalize a national environmental strategy.

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I. INTRODUCTION

1. Mauritania is the most arid of the Sahelian countries and is where regional environmental problemsare most starkly played out. The droughts of the 1970s and 80s had deep and long-lasting effects both onthe environment and the very social and political fabric of society. Decimation of livestock herds, the plightof those threatened by famine and emergency relief activities focused attention of issues of food securityand provoked an intense debate on the causes of environmental degradation. This debate persisted evenafter the drought years passed. Memories of the drought have marked the whole policy agenda inMauritania, and in the Sahel as a whole, and colored the environmental debate which has revolved aroundthe issue of "desertification".

2. In Mauritania, this phenomenon is most visibly conjured up by sand dune encroachment on whichmost attention and practical efforts have focused. However, environmental problems in Mauritania are farbroader than this and are fundamentally linked to socio-economic development. The country faces aparticularly complex set of environmental challenges revolving around the management of its fragilenatural resources. Three priority challenges can be identified. The first challenge is to how to manageMauritania's natural resources in a way that is sustainable, equitable and efficient. This issue is of mostconcern in the Senegal River Valley which holds great agricultural potential, yet where sustainability ofdevelopment in the region will depend on integrating social and ecological concerns into developmentplanning. Second, is to guard against overfishing, which already appears to be undernining theprofitability of the fishing sector. The third challenge is to improve basic living conditions in theburgeoning urban areas where water and sanitation facilities are far from adequate

3. Much analysis has been done on environmental issues for Mauritania, most notably on issuesof desertification and on the problems and development of the Senegal River Basin. Many actors areinvolved in assisting the Government of Mauritania address the challenges it faces. In particular,UNSO has provided constant support since the early 1980s for the development of the PMLCD, which wasapproved in 1991, and to specific sand dune fixation efforts. The Government of Germany is supporting acoumnunity-based natural resource management program in the east of Mauritania; the Government ofFrance supports prograns for the integrated development of the Senegal River valley; and IUCN providestechnical assistance to the Government on environmental policy-making and biodiversity conservation inthe two national parks. The Bank has worked in close collaboration with the rest of the donor communityin assisting the Government develop policies and goals to restore the profitability of the fishing sector andguard against over-exploitation of fish resources.

4. Work at both the policy and operational level has yet to be set within a overall frameworkthat clearly links environmental concerns to Mauritania's development strategy and definesenvironmental priorities and policy choices. This is the role of the National Environmental ActionPlan (NEAP). The Governnent outlined its broad approach on environmental issues in the PolicyFramework Paper 1993-1996. The aim for the NEAP is to expand on these policy statements and translatethem into operational and budget planning and investment priorities and decisions. It is also designed toserve as an instrument to prompt a broad debate on environmental priorities and action measures inMauritania and with the donor community.

5. This paper aims to improve the Bank's understanding of environmental issues in Mauritania andsituate them within the broader development context, so as to strengthen policy dialogue on environmentalissues and better integrate environmental concerns into the Bank's lending prograrn. The paper (i) identifiesand analyzes the environmental problems and their underlying causes; (ii) discusses the Govermnent'spresent strategy, policy and institutional framework for environmental management; and (iii) suggests astrategy as to how the Government of Mauritania and the Bank, working in partnership, can better integrateenvironmental concerns into the development effort.

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II. BACKGROUND

A. THE ECONOMIC CONTEXT

6. Mauritania has undergone a rapid and dramatic socio-economic transformation in the last threedecades. In 1960, over 75% of the population were nomadic and the country was essentially based on apastoral economy. During the 1970s and 80s, a combination of the droughts, increasing populationpressure plus rising economic expectations led to a mass influx of nomadic herders into the urban areas. Aprocess of rapid sedentarization took place. By the late 1980s, only an estimated 12% of the populationwere nomadic and 48% were living in urban areas.

7. During this same period, the Govemment invested in a series of ambitious programs aimed at'modernizing' and transforming the economy, based largely on three sectors: mining, fisheries, and irrigatedcrop production in the Senegal Valley. Thus, the last three decades have taken Mauritania from a small,nomadic subsistence economy, to a more diversified economy characterized by sharp contrasts between thecontinuing subsistence agricultural economy, a large but precarious informal urban economy, and three"modern" sector poles that provide most exports and over 90% of foreign exchange earnings. Despite thisdevelopment, the country remains heavily dependent on foreign aid (US$107 per capita aid) which finances90% of the public investment program.

8. Economic performance over these last three decades has fluctuated widely, largely as a result ofthe droughts, declining international prices and weak economic management. In 1985, the Governmentlaunched a structural adjustment program aimed at restoring external viability and developing institutionsand policies to lay the foundation for sustainable growth. This program has been relatively successful atrestructuring the economy towards a more free market system. Price controls have been removed, importlicenses and quotas abolished and this liberalization has encouraged private sector expansion. Successfulpolicy reforms also improved management of public resources, monetary and credit policies and financial,energy, private sector and fisheries policies. However, fluctuations in economic growth demonstrate thatthe Mauritanian economy remains fragile and vulnerable to exogenous factors.

B. THE DEMOGRAPHIC CONTEXT

9. Patterns of population growth and spatial distribution are major factors affecting environmentaldegradation. In 1988, the date of the last population census, the total population of Mauritania wasestimated at 1,826,000. Population growth rates and densities vary dramatically from one region toanother. People are concentrated in the urban areas and the south of the country, which are also the areaswhere population growth is highest. The overall population growth rate is an estimated 2.85% per year,implying a fivefold increase in population by the end of the next century. Urban areas are growing thefastest -- around 10% per year for Nouakchott and Noudhibou - largely due to rural-urban migration. Theregion of Guidimaka, in the south-east of the country, is experiencing population growth of 3.15% per year,the highest growth rate of any rural area; whilst, the population in the regions along the Senegal Rivervalley -- Assaba, Gorgol, Brakna -- is growing at around 2% per year. Except in the mining areas, thearid north of the country is very sparsely populated with people concentrated in the oases. The northernregions of Trarza, Tagant and Inchiri are experiencing a decline in overall population, largely due tooutmigration.

10. Given current trends, nearly 70% of Mauritania's population will live in urban areas by the year2020. Already, 48% of the population (nearly I million people) live in urban area, as compared to 3%(19,500 people) in 1960.1

'Includes all towns and cities with a population of over 10,000 people.

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The Evolution of Urbanization

6000

5000

4000

3000 Urban PopnLiTotal Popn

2000

1000

0

1960 1960 19 70 1 980 1990 2000 2010 2020

Year

C. NATURAL RESOURCES

Water Resources

Rainfall and Climate

11. Mauritania is a very hot and dry country, with daytime temperatures exceeding 380C over sixmonths of the year in most areas and rainfall averaging from a low of 36 mmn in the coastal zone to 650 mmnin the far south of the country. Recurrent drought is characteristic of the climate. During this centuryalone the country has experienced four droughts -- 1913-14, 1940-42, 1968-1973 and 1983-84. Thedroughts of the 70s and 80s were particularly devastating and led to mass rural-urban exodus. Since 1968,the 150mm isohyet has shifted south by some 100km, a latitude well south of Nouakchott. Someclimatologists argue that the decline in rainfall experienced throughout the Sahel over the past 25 years isunprecedented and represents the start of a major climatic shift. However, there is much debate on thisissue and forty or more years of obeservation may be necessary to determnine the real nature of the currenttrend.

Surface Water

12. The Senegal River, which serves as the border between Senegal and Mauritania, is the only majornon-seasonal river in Mauritania. Between August and December, the river floods the alluvial plain,supplying water for recession agriculture and vegetation growth. However, the magnitude of the naturalflood varies greatly according to rainfall and, since the construction of the Manantali dam in 1988,according to the water release from the dam's reservoir. Other rivers are mostly of a temporary or seasonalnature. These are the wadis, dried stream beds which when filled with rainwater produce flows of oftenseveral hundred kilometers in length and overflow their banks to provide moisture for recession agriculture.Wadis usually converge on depressions where their waters are drained which allows dense vegetation toflourish. Small earthern dams and diguettes are often built to enhance water collection and prevent its lossfrom wadis, particularly in the Brakna, Hodhs, Assaba and Tagant so as to provide water for animals andfor irrigation.

Groundwater

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13. Groundwater resources of varying depth and quality are present throughout Mauritania. Amongthe most important groundwater resources are the aquifers of the coastal sedimentary basin, which supplythe water needs of Nouakchott, Noudhibou and the mining operations in Akjoujt and Zouerate. Thisaquifers are threatened by salinization which has resulted from overexploitation for drinking water supply(see para....)

14. Recharging of groundwater supplies is of essential importance. In many areas, rainfall issufficiently heavy to recharge supplies, and in the south, aquifers are recharged by drainage from theSenegal River Basin. However, in many other areas, especially in the north, where rainfall is limited andevaporation is high, recharge is often less than demand and many aquifers are likely to dry up withextensive use.

Agro-ecological Zones

15. Mauritania can be divided into four agro-ecological zones:

16. The Saharan or arid zone: this area which accounts for some 60% of the total land area isessentially desert, a vast expanse of rolling sand dunes and barren, stony plains known as mreye ("mirror").The only places suitable for pernanent settlement are the oases. Date production was an important activityin these areas but once thriving date plantations suffered badly during the droughts largely because of therural exodus which led to a shortage of labor.

17. The Sahelian or semi-arid zone: this is the heart of the country's pastoral economy and home toan estimated 400,000 people. The area can be divided into eastern, central and western regions. Theeastern zone comprises the regions of Hodh el Gharbi and Hodh ech Chargui which consists of sand dunesand wide plains of sahelian deciduous Acacia bushland and tough grasses given some topological relief bythe occasional plateau. The central Sahelian zone is comprised of the regions of Tagant and Assaba. Thisis an area of more complex landscapes where erosion of sandstone plateau has created impressive rockformations. The third distinguishable region is the western area of the Trarza and Brakna, which isrelatively flat and comprised mainly of sand dunes.

18. The Senegal River Valley: this region is the area of highest agricultural potential. The soils arerich, alluvial and clayey and well-suited to crop production. More than I million people live in the SenegalRiver valley on both sides of the river, with approximately 400,000 on the Mauritanian side.2 Traditionalproduction systems relied heavily on the river's yearly flooding which provided water for flood-recessionagriculture, pasture land and fishing. The river valley also provides an important stop-over for migratorybirds.

19. The coastal zone is a 50km-wide band which covers 2-3% of the total land area. The area receivesthe lowest rainfall in the country, however, the sea mist and reservoirs of water within the dunes provide fora cooler climate and good growing conditions for vegetation. Roughly 500,000 people, the majority in thecoastal cities of Nouakchott and Nouadibhou, live here making their living primarily from fishing,conmmerce and informal sector activities.

Forests

20. Mauritania is predominantly a land of sparse vegetation, some desert areas being among the mostbarren in the world, others sustaining only occasional clumps of hardy grasses and no trees. Nevertheless,there are forested areas in the southern sections of the country, particularly in the regions of the Hodhs,Assaba and the Gorgol. The densest forests are found along the Senegal River and its tributaries and in the

2Many communities straddle both sides of the river. Households owned farm lands on both the right and leftbanks, and the herders crossed the river northwards in the rainy season, seeking fresh pastures for their livestock,and southward during the dry season.

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far south-east of the country. There exists no overall survey of forest resources in Mauritania, though it isestimated that the country has 138,000 hectares of non-classified forest and 48,000 hectares of classifiedforest. Much of the area classified as forest would probably not be termed "forest" elsewhere in the world,as it can refer to scattered stands of trees or even individual trees in fields.

21. Mauritania's forest resources serve several important functions: as a source of firewood, forage,construction material and gum arabic. The most prominent genus of tree is acacia, ranging in size from therelatively tall Acacia nilotica of the Senegal Valley to the often dwarfed Acacia raddiana of the dunes.Acacia senegal, found in the Sahelian zone, is of particular economic importance as a source of gumarabic, a substance used in medications, confections, and adhesives, which was one of Mauritania's mainagricultural exports. In 1970, Mauritania was the second largest exporter of gum arabic in the world, witha production of 7,300 tons; in 1981 it produced only 200 tons. The decline is both a result of the droughtand damage to the trees from improper bark stripping.

Fish Resources

22. Mauritania has some of the richest fisheries in the world off its 525 km coastline3. The totalannual catch is estimated to be 600,000 tons, including commercially valuable species, such as mackeral,sardines, tuna, lobster and shrimp. The large fish populations are sustained by the strong upwelling whichoccurs along the coast from September to May and brings nutrient-rich water to the surface. Themovements of the upwelling front have important effects on the distribution and abundance of fish.

23. The Senegal River is also a plentiful source of fish, among which Tilapaia nilotica and Citharinuscitarus are the most valued for food. Prior to the droughts, the Senegal River produced some 30,000 tonsof fish a year which provided employment for some 10,000 people. Flooding is critical to the reproductionof fish in the middle Senegal valley. During the flood, nutrients on the floodplain surface dissolve in thewater and provide nourishment for freshly hatched fry. If the flooding is stopped or limited, the number offish downstream declines. Seawater fish also breed in the Senegal River delta, brought in by the yearlyintrusion of sea water, although the construction of Diama may have upset this breeding pattern.

Mineral Resources

24. Mauritania's mineral wealth consists of iron ore deposits at Zouerate, copper deposits at Akjoujt,and gypsum deposits to the north of Nouakchott. Iron mines opened in 1963 in the far north, and todayrepresent a large, high-tech enclave geared entirely to exports. Mineral exports provide one of Mauritania'smain sources of foreign exchange earnings. Important salt deposits are found in the Saharan zonc not farfrom Zouerate; these have been exploited for centuries and transported by camel to other parts of thecountry. Faced with the foreseeable exhaustion of some of the known reserves, the search is continuing forfurther deposits of copper and iron ore and other minerals, as well as for petroleum.

Biodiversity

25. Mauritania has a unique array of natural treasures. Perhaps, the most spectacular and significantin terms of biodiversity is the Banc d'Arguin. This region on the northern coast is the largest intertidalwetland in Africa and supports an exceptional wealth of bird life, fish and marine habitats. Lying betweenithe two headlands of Cap Blanc to the north and Cap Timiris to the south, the Banc d'Arguin is a vastexpanse of mud flats and creeks, where beds of eel grass (Zostera sp.) and other habitats provide importantbreeding and nursery areas for fish and crustaceans.

3The coastal waters fall in the Eastern Central Atlantic which, according to the Food and AgriculturalOrganization (FAO) is one of the world's most productive fishing regions.

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26. The Banc d'Arguin provides food and shelter for about 4 million birds every year, most notably theworld's largest concentration of overwintering migrant waders. During the European winter, the tidal flatsprovide a rich feeding ground for more than 2.3 million shorebirds.4 The area also supports large breedingcolonies of 15 species of waterbird. Found among the 25,00-40,000 pairs, there are great white pelicans(Pelicanus onocrotalus), greater flamingoes, European spoonbills (Platalea leucorodia), and severalspecies of heron, egret and tern, including two endemic sub-species.5

27. In addition to this rich birdlife, the combined influence of the cold Canaries current from the northand the warm Guinean current from the south make the Banc d'Arguin a frontier zone. Here, many plantand animal species from northern Europe and Asia at the southem limit of their range mningle withAfrotropical species at their northern limit. For example, the area includes the most northerly mangrovesfound on the west African coast. The Baie du Levrier, an adjoining bay and national reserve, contains thelargest known colony of monk seals (150), 25% of the world's population, and is a nesting site for fourthreatened species of marine turtle. Also of great biological significance are the benthic ecosystems, inparticular seagrass and macroalgae. These are 'critical marine habitats' (like mangroves and coral reefs)that function as coastal food factories which help support the remarkably high concentrations of birds andfish.6

28. The local inhabitants of the Banc d'Arguin region are the Imraguen people. Every November toJanuary, the Imraguen fish for migrating mullet in the shallow waters of the Banc d'Arguin. Using longpoles to beat on the water, they attract dolphin, which drive the mullet inshore and into their nets.

29. The rich fauna and flora diversity of the region prompted the establishment of the Banc d'ArguinNational Park in 1976, and its subsequent inclusion in the Ramsar List of Wetlands of InternationalImportance and listing as a World Heritage Site.

Senegal River Delta

30. The Senegal River Basin comprises several of the Sahelian region's most important wetlands,including the Senegal River delta, the lac d'Aleg, lac de Mal and lac R'kiz with a high biodiversity value.The wetlands are internationally recognized as a vital stopover for millions of migratory birds. The deltaalso supports colonies of several species of bird, including pelicans, flamingoes, egrets and ibises. In 1991,15,600 ha of land in the delta region were designated a national park, known as the the Diawling NationalPark.

Wildlife

31. In the northern Saharan zone of Mauritania, wildlife is limited chiefly to insects, reptiles (especiallyvipers) and the occasional antelope. Habitat loss and uncontrolled hunting have wiped out most of thecountry's large wild animals. The oryx, elephant, Dama gazelle and the giraffe have disappeared and theaddax, roan antelope, bushbuck, buffon cob, reedbuck, lion, leopard, cheetah and ostrich are on the vergeof extinction. The only species which are relatively abundant are the dorcas and red-fronted gazelle,

4Including bar-tailed godwit (Limosa lapponica), dunlin (Calidris alpina) and both ringed and grey plovers(Charadrius hiaticula and Pluvialis squatarola).

5Dugan, Patrick ed., 1993. Wetlands in Danger, Newv York: Oxford, pp. 136-137.61UCN, 1992. Coastal Assessment of Parc National du Banc d'Arguin, Mauritania.

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warthog, baboon, patas monkey, jackal, desert fox and wild cat7. Bush meat (tishtar) has traditionallyplayed an important role in local diets and economies.

D. SOCIAL STRUCTURE

32. Mauritania represents the dividing line between the northern Arab Magreb region and subsaharanblack Africa. The creation of the country has brought together several different ethnic groups whose socialstructures are undergoing change in this period of transition from a nomadic to a more sedenterized society.The most important ethnic split is between Moor and negro-African.

33. The Moors are split between the beydan (Arab-Berber "white" Moors) and the haratin (formerslaves of black African descent). The white Moors are traditionally pastoralists and, in contrast to mostother African countries, it is this society that has the most political and economic power. Moors arepolitically and socially organized into tribes (qabila) consisting of people said to be patrilineally descendedfrom a common ancestor. More important than the tribe for many issues are smaller sub-groups known asfigh (sing.) orfakhad (pi.). The French administrative term for figh was fraction. Fakhad often functionas organized interest groups with most decisions being made at this level. Each figh consists of extendedpatrilineal families (aiaO, which are the basic organizational units of Moor society. Within the aial, thesmallest unit of organization is the tent (haima), comprising the nuclear family of the owner, as well asservants.

34. Traditionally, tribes were defined according to their occupation and a caste system existed.Though today these castes are losing their importance in termns of determing one's economic and socialstatus, Moors sense of social identity is still very strongly based on their tribe. At the top of the systemwere the noble tribes which were either warrior (hassan) or maraboutic (zwaya). These were followed bythe znagas, who are livestock specialists (mainly camel herders), artisans and griots. Tribes also includedpeople who did not share descent from the tribal founder, but are "accessory" to it. At the bottom of thehierachy of those attached to tribes were the haratin. Though slavery was officially abolished in 1980,many haratin still remain economically bound to their white Moor masters and live as an integral part ofbeydan encampments. Others have their own encampments and work as herders or are settled inagricultural communities. A large number have migrated to urban areas or to the south in search of newjob opportunities.

35. The black African groups are the Haalpulaaren (comprising Toucouleur cultivators and FulBepastoralists), Soninke (cultivators) and Wolof (mainly fishermen). These groups have social structuresbased on a caste system that distinguishes three basic groups: nobles and warriors, fishermen and artisans,and the descendants of slaves. Wolof society is the least stratified with much movement between castes.Black African society is organized along extended family lines. The individual household is part of avillage compound headed by a senior male, who represents local interests in larger-scale clan discussions.

36. The majority of the Haalpulaaren live on both sides of the Senegal River valley. Control overflood lands along the Senegal River essentially determined the distribution of wealth arnong this society.The Wolof are a minority in Mauritania, numbering only a few thousand concentrated around Rosso,though they are the largest ethnic group in neighboring Senegal. The Soninke are the predominant ethnicgroup in the Guidimaka region bordering eastern Senegal and Mali.

7Prevost Yves, 1986. Etudes sur la Faune Mauritanie: Bilan et Recommendations, Programme de CooperationFAO/Gouvemement de la Republique Islamique de Mauritanie.

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III. KEY ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND CHALLENGES TOSUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

37. The environmental situation of any country evolves in a complex web of interrelated causes andeffects which link demographic growvth, economic growth, political development and exogenous change.This paper examines three major environmental issues facing Mauritania in the context of these broaddevelopment factors. The first issue is how to manage natural resources in a way that is sustainable,equitable and efficient. Natural resource management issues manifest themselves differently in fourimportant regions of Mauritania: the Senegal River Valley, the pastoral areas, the Guidimaka, and theoases. The paper also takes a closer look at sand dune encroachment, the most visible of Mauritania's landdegradation problems, and deforestation. The second issue examined is overfishing of coastal fisherieswhich appears to be undermining the profitability of the fishing sector. Third is the rapid emergence ofserious environmental problems in the burgeoning urban areas.

A. NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT ISSUES

Development of the Senegal River Valley

38. The Senegal River Valley is a region of central importance to Mauritania's overall developmentstrategy, representing the area with by far the highest agricultural potential. Prospects for expandingagricultural production in the river valley, a long-standing policy objective, depend to a large extent on howthe land and water resources are managed. Such management poses the Government of Mauritania with achallenge of particularly complex dimensions. First, is the international dimension. The valley is part ofan international river basin which comprises an area of some 289,000 km2 that falls within Mali,Mauritania, Senegal and Guinea. Management of the area's resources requires a high degree ofinternational cooperation and planning at a riverbasin level. Second, is the environmentaldimension. The river basin is an ecosystem in Traditional Land Use in the Senegal River Valleywhich water is the most ecologically and Populations in the valley have adapted agricultural productioneconomically valuable component. Development systems to the yearly floods. The Haalpulaaren, in particular,in the valley needs to be undertaken with a have developed a complex land tenure and natural resourceholistic approach that gives due weight to management system, known as the leydi. This system was

the interitofthe co-ystm based around the use of the same land area by three groups -protectg herders, cultivators and fresh water fishermen. Each group usesThird, is the social dimension. The river valley the same piece of land in succession. During the flood period,is the home to a number of different ethnic the fishermen fished from the flooded watercourses. Thengroups. Today the region is in a state of flux, when the flood receded, the farmers used the same floodplainchanging from a time when sedentary farming area to plant their crops. Once harvested, during the dry season,populations reliant on flood-recession activities the herders moved into the area with their animals. When thewere the main inhabitants of the valley, with rains returned, they moved back north, and the cycle startedherders and their animals making annual visits again. The system was overseen by the "chef du terroir" (djom

during the dry season, to a time of mass leydi) who decided the calendar of activities and also organizedinmmigration, in which the valley has come to the exchange of products (sorghum, fish, milk) among the three

both an investment groups. The system resulted in an extremely efficient use of therepresent both an attractive investment.. Crern aresources which was both environmentally sustainable andopportunity for pnrvate entrepreneurs from minimized conflicts over land.outside the region and one of the only areas ofguaranteed grazing for herders, with many nowstaying in the valley year-round. The result is anincreasing mix of ethnic groups all competing for the same resources which has led to increasing tensionbetween ethnic groups in some areas. In such a situation land tenure, which provides the legal framework

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governing access and control of resources, has become a vital issue which requires careful monitoring andreview.8

39. Development of the valley region has been a long-standing aspiration of both the Governments ofMauritania and Senegal and has given rise to numerous discussions, studies and projects. As a result, theSenegal River Valley is a much studied area, however, the dimensions mentioned above have not alwaysbeen taken fully into account in the development planning process.

40. Traditionally, the economy of the area was based upon a range of production activities: rainfedcropping and animal husbandry in the upper valley; flood-recession cropping, rainfed crops, animalhusbandry and fishing in the middle valley; and livestock and fishing in the lower valley and delta. Lifealong the river was often hard. The majority of activities depended upon the yearly floods which wereunpredictable, due to fluctuations in rainfall. There have been years when the Senegal River only produceda quarter of the previous year. These huge annual fluctuations in water volume were often the cause of lostharvests and repeated food shortages, and many people regularly had to find work outside the valley tosurvive. The traditional production systems were well adapted to the natural environment, however, andfrom an environmental perspective, flood-recession activities were very sustainable. The floodplain fieldsthat have not experienced irrigation showv no loss of soil fertility whatsoever, despite continuous cultivationfor a millenium.9

The Development Vision

41. The vision of a bold agricultural development scheme in the valley was a particularly powerful oneat the time of the droughts when per capita food production in the communities bordering the SenegalValley was in serious decline. One of the central development objectives was to regulate the river's flow soas to make large-scale irrigated agriculture possible, which is seen as vital for ensuring continuedagricultural growth and food security in the context of the Sahelian climate. In 1972, the Governments ofMauritania, Mali and Senegal aimed to realize this vision by forming an inter-governmental organization,the OMVS (Organisation de la Mise en Valeur du Fleuve Senegal) to develop and coordinate a regionaldevelopment plan for the river valley. The three main objectives of the plan were to develop 375,000 ha ofland for irrigated agriculture on both sides of the river, to generate up to 800 Gwh of hydroelectric powerand to establish river navigation from the Atlantic Ocean to Kayes in land-locked in Mali.

42. To this end, two dams were built during the 1980s - the Diama and the Manantali - with donorfinancing of about US$500 million. The Diama darn, completed in 1986, was constructed 26 kms from themouth of the river to block the upstream intrusion of salt water during the dry season and raise water levelsso as to allow irrigation in the delta. The Manantali, completed in 1988, is situated on the Bafing tributaryin Mali some 1,000 kms upstream, created a large reservoir to enable power generation and regulation ofthe river's water regime for irrigation. Manantali was designed to allow controlled flooding to mimic thenatural flooding. It was planned to release wvater to create an "artificial flood" for a period of 10 yearsduring which time people were expected to change to irrigated farming. The basic assumption, therefore,was that eventually traditional flood recession activities would be replaced by irrigation.

43. The building of the dams has had both positive and negative impacts. On the one hand, irrigatedagricultural production has increased quite dramatically (though it is still far from the levels initiallyplanned). Crop output growth in Mauritania was an estimated 20% a year during the 1980s and 90s, inlarge part due to irrigation development in the valley. Rice production in 1992-93 reached 24,600 tons

8See section on land tenure.9King, Jack, 1990. Agropedology of the AMiddle Senegal Valley, Senegal River Basin Monitoring Activity Report,Binghamton, NY, Institute for Development Anthropology.

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with the Government predicting a record harvest of 58,000 tons for 1993/94.10 On the other hand, theSenegal River Valley has undergone tremendous social and environmental changes over the past 20 years,which are in part a result of the construction of the dams which profoundly modified the water regime inthe valley, but also a result of the droughts and increasing human and animal populations in the valley.Many environmental studies have been done on these changes under the auspices of OMVS and donor-funded programs.' l These studies all underscore that it is vital to integrate environmental considerationsinto all development activities to ensure the sustainability of production in the valley. Continuousmonitoring and analysis of environmental changes are also essential to improve our understanding of theissues and to design measures to minimize negative changes. The remainder of this section briefly analyzesthe main environmental issues in the valley and highlights the areas for concern and action.

What are the main environmental concerns?

44. One of the main environmental concerns is rapid deforestation. It is estimated that the regionloses 6% of its forest cover every year.'2 The Senegal River Valley contains some of the densest forestedareas in Mauritania, consisting primarily of Acacia nilotica, which is heavily dependent on high soilhumidity for its growth and regeneration. Over the last 20 years, droughts and the reduced floods have ledto the death of large stands of acacia. The situation is exacerbated by the exploitation of the trees forcharcoal production - the wood resources in the river valley are a major source of fuelwood to the urbanareas. Though 22,000 ha of forest have the status of classified forests in which utilization is restricted tograzing and controlled cutting, there are many violations of the restrictions. Charcoal production hasproved difficult to control as local officials are often involved in it and issue illegal cutting pennits.

45. A further cause of the deforestation is the increased number of livestock, particularly camels, inthe valley. According to government estimates, the numbers of camels have risen (nationwide) from around700,000 in 1970 to over I million in 1992, though this trends masks the massive losses suffered during thedroughts. Numbers of cattle, on the other hand, have declined from an estimated 2 million in 1970 to 1.2rmillion in 1992.13 A large proportion of these animals are concentrated in the river valley, whose floodplains are a traditional dry season grazing area. Unable to find enough forage further north, pastoralistsare staying in these dry season pastures year round, when previously they used to stay for only four monthsof the year. Camels cope relatively well under drought conditions, which partially explains their rise innumber; however, they browze on shrubs and trees and so, in concentrated numbers, have a particularlydestructive impact on vegetation.

46. River Fisheries: Prior to the droughts and the decline in flooding, the Senegal River producedabout 30,000 tons of fish a year which provided employment for some 10,000 people. During the flood,nutrients on the floodplain surface dissolve in the water and provide nourishment for the fry. Today fishproduction has practically disappeared due to the decline in flooding.'4 This decline may be largely offset interms of fish tonnage by increased fish production in the Manantali reservoir in Mali; however, fishing inthis area is not yet fully developed and in any case vill not compensate for the losses experienced by thefisherpeople in Mauritania.

I0MDRE 1994. Government estimates.

I 'For example, Ganett Flemming, Cordry and CarpenterIUSAID, 1980. Evaluation des effets sur l'environnementd'amemanagements prevus dans le bassin dufleuve Senegal; Euroconsult/RIN, 1990. Profil de l'environnement dela Valleee dufleuve Senegal.12MDRE, 1991. Multisectoral Program to Combat Desertification (PMELCD).

13MMDRE figures from PMLCD and May 1993 workshop on development of the Senegal River Valley.

14EuroconsultlRIN, 1990. Profit de 1tenvironnement de la Valleee dufleuve Senegal.

47. Large populations of saltwater fish also used to breed in the river delta brought in by the yearlyintrusion of the sea. With the construction of Diama and the dykes, these fish can no longer get upstreamto reproduce. This is likely to have a negative impact on the coastal fish resources, although this linkagehas not been adequately studies.

48. Two new environmental risks presented by the dams and introduction of irrigated agriculture aresalinization and the contamination of water supplies by pesticides and chemical fertilizers. Salinization isalreading posing problems in the delta region and lower valley where due to past tidal inundations of saltwater the soil is very saline. ' 5 In the past, these areas were drained by the fresh water floods of the river,but with the closing of Diama much of the land has an increased ground water table which brings thesalinity level nearer to the surface and increases the chance of it percolating to the surface, where the waterevaporates leaving a salt crust which makes the soil useless for agriculture. The development of irrigatedrice production has also involved limited use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers. Run-off of the residuesof these chemicals could contaminate the river and ground water harming fish populations and drinkingwater supplies. To date, this not appear to be a significant problem; however, monitoring the situation andtaking measures to prevent chemical pollution are required to guard against future contamination.

49. Both these problems are recognized and OMVS has undertaken several studies to identify theirextent. OMVS is setting up a system to monitor groundwater exploitation and salinity'6 The problem ofsalinization is essentially one of drainage and suggests a need to take immediate action to ensure allirrigation schemes incorporate adequate drainage facilities.

50. Since the Manantali dam was completed, several important health impacts have also beenobserved. The stable level of the lake behind Manantali and the standing water in flooded rice fields providean ideal breeding ground for the breeding of bilharzia snail hosts and malaria mosquitos. Epidemics of RiftValley Fever broke out during the rainy season of 1987 centered around Rosso and Kaedi and there hasbeen a severe outbreak of bilharzia on the Senegalese side at Richard Toll; prevalence of the diseaseincreased from an estimated 2% in 1988 to 72% in 1990.'7 These health effects and measures to mitigatethem are under review as part of the environmental assessment of the proposed Manantali Energy Project.Suggested measures to minimize the spread of disease revolve around varying the reservoir level which candestroy disease vectors.

Integration of Environmental Concerns into Development Planning

51. There are trade-offs between different water uses. These trade-offs need to be made as explicit aspossible when making decisions as to how to allocate water in river basins. To ensure that development issustainable, an integrated approach to river basin development that balances land and water uses in amanner that takes into account socio-economic and ecological interests needs to be developed. Decisionsregarding land and water used are often based on simple economic cost-benefit analyses. Taking a moreintegrated approch will require modifying the way in which cost-benefit analyses are done. Traditionalcost-benefit analyses tend to focus on measures that are easily quantified and often do not take into accountindirect and longer term social and environmental impacts, such as the consequences of lack of flooding,salinization etc.. In the agricultural sector, for example, production regimes are often compared on thebasis of crop yields per hectare. Irrigated agriculture clearly has higher returns to land than rainfed orrecession agriculture from this perspective, however, despite its higher land productivity, small fhrmersgenerally find that returns per unit capital and labor are lower. Recession agriculture provides a much

15Euroconsult/RIN, 1990. Profil de l'Environnement de la Vallee du Fleuve Sen,gal.

160MVS, 1992. Document du Projet: Assistance a l'OMVS pour la gestion et le suivi de l1environnement et dudeveloppement par l'utilisation de la teledection dans le bassin du fleuve.17Blue Nile Associates, 1993. Rapid Health Assessment Manantali Energy Project.

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higher return to labor than does irrigation, and thereby contributes to household food stocks while freeinglabor to engage in non-farm activities that are more renumerative.'8

52. During the 1990s, the Governments of Mauritania and Senegal have begun to develop a moreintegrated approach to the development of the valley, one that focuses not so much on maximising theoverall irrigated area but aims to promote diversified production throughout the valley while taking intoaccount the need to balance economic, social, and ecological concerns. Such an approach was advocatedby the Government of Senegal in the 1991 "Master Plan for the Integrated Development of the Left Bank ofthe Senegal River Valley" developed in collaboration with the World Bank, UNDP and other donorpartners. The Government of Mauritania espoused a similar approach in a May 1993 donor workshop onthe development of the valley. This workshop aimed to establish a consensus between the governmentministries and donors on the basic principles for development of the valley which is now being translatedinto an action plan. The key principles of the development strategy are to promote diversified production,including irrigated agriculture, flood-recession agriculture, rainfed agriculture, livestock and fishing; tomonitor, improve and extend current reforms underway to encourage private investment and the role ofprivate actors in the agriculture sector; and to ensure that all development occurs within a long-termstrategic framework to protect and improve the environment.19

53. Water management throughout the valley is key to the ensuring sustainability of productionand the ecological integrity of the river basin. The main tools for water management in the valley are theDiama and Manantali dams. The "Commission permanente des Eaux" coordinates overall watermanagement in the valley. In this commission, established in 1978, representatives of the OMVS memberstates and the High Commission of OMVS coordinate the requirements for water management as to waterdemand for different purposes and water availability. This commission is a key instrument for planning ata river basin level.

54. Designing and operating an explicit dam management plan to ensure a reliable artificial flood isarguably the most important water management measure to institutionalize. Many studies, including theGovernment of Senegal's Left Bank Master Plan, suggest that uncertainties concerning the maintenance ofmninimal artificial flooding are jeopardizing the region's ecological balance. Though waters have beenreleased since the completion of the dam in 1988, this release has not been managed in such a way as toensure a reliable yearly artificial flood. Since the completion of the dam, only in one year, 1988, was thedam managed to provide a flood that was well-timed and of sufficient duration to allow good harvests onflood-recession land. In other years, either water was not released or it was released at the wrong times,washing away farmers' crops.20 The reasons for this lack of flooding are linked to the extremely lowinflows into the Manantali reservoir. Since the dam came into operation in 1988, inflows into the reservoirhave been around 50% of average inflows over the period 1954-76, which were used as the initial basefigures for flood release computation.21 Sudden releases were also made for urgent repairs. Lack ofreliable and adequate flooding since the dam went into operation highlights the need to reconsider thedam management strategy and ensure that demands for flood-recession production are givenadequate consideration when determining water requirements for different purposes e.g. energy,agriculture, water supply.

I8See Horowitz, Michael and Muneera Salem-Murdock, 1990. 7he Senegal River Basin Monitoring Activity: APhase One Synthesis, Institute for Development Anthropology, Binghamton, New York for a full discussion.

I9MDRE, 1993. Atelier sur le developpement agricole de la vallee dans le contexte de 1'apres barrages.20Horowitz, M. and Salem-Murdock, M, 1993. "Development-Induced Food Security in the Middle SenegalValley", GeoJournal 30.2, pp. 179-184.21Personal communication from Dr. Frechen, KfW.

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55. The flood is vital for sustaining flood-recession cropping, livestock production and fishing onwhich several hundred thousand households in both Mauritania and Senegal depend. The flood alsorecharges the surface aquifer, from which many villages obtain water for domestic use, and it provides soilmoisture required by Acacia nilotica, the dominant tree species, so guarding against devegetation.Variation in the reservoir level may also destroy disease vectors thereby acting as a tool for minimizingdam-related diseases. Given the direct role the flood plays in sustaining agricultural production, watersupply, biodiversity conservation and disease control, it is important to promote a strongerawareness of the role of the flood, particularly among decision-makers and technical staff responsiblefor control of dam management and overall water management throughout the valley.

56. One of the next steps forward in adopting a more integrated approach to development of thevalley will be further consultation and agreement between the OMVS member states and donors onaction to ensure a reliable artificial flood. The impacts of controlled flooding need to be carefully studiedover the next five years. A clearer understanding is needed of the relationships between the amount andduration of flooding and the amount of cultivable land inundated, forest regeneration and aquifer recharge.Improved downstream water management is also called for. Another issue for agricultural developmentis opening up to annual flooding various flood plains, which have been closed by dikes and have notbeen used for irrigated agriculture. These plains could be opened up again for flood-recessionagriculture by repairing existing and constructing additional water regulators. A more integrated approachto valley development also suggests paying more attention to increasing the productivity of local productionsystems: rain-fed and flood recession cropping, livestock, fishing, and vegetable gardening, which isprimarily a women's domain. At present, agricultural research is focused almost exclusively on irrigationand commercial crops. Various othcr measures are also important, such as ensuring all irrigationdevelopment schemes incorporate tree planting.

Land degradation in the Guidimaka

57. In the Guidimaka region, just north of the Senegal River Valley bordering Mali, the centralenvironmental issue is how to reverse the deterioration of land and increase sustainable agriculturalproduction. This is an area of primarily subsistence farming where some of the poorest of Mauritania'spopulation live and where issues of environmental degradation and poverty clearly overlap. TheGuidimaka is virtually the only region with significant vegetation cover, largely because it has the highestrainfall in the country (350-600 mm/year). The region, however, is under significant population pressure --having both the highest population density (11 people per km2) and the highest population growth rate(3.5% per year) of any rural area -- and is experiencing some of the most rapid land degradation in thecountry, particularly in the north of the region bordering Assaba. Water erosion is a particularly severeproblem affecting an estimated one third of the land area.22 During the rains, flash floods wash away topsoil and create large ravines.

58. Particularly high rates of outmigration are a distinguishing feature of the Guidimaka region andare an important underlying factor determining land use and investment in the land, though there is limitedquantitative data on these trends. The nature of outmigration has changed over the past century in parallelwith changes in the economic opportunities of the West Africa region. In the eighteenth century, when theGuidimaka was a relatively prosperous region at the heart of trade along the Senegal River Valley, manypeople travelled for trade purposes. In the early nineteenth century, as the region fell into economic decline,people went to work as laborers on the groundnut plantations in Senegal. During the middle of this

22MDRE, 1991. PMLCD, p. 52.

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century, as the population in the groundnut basin increased and demand for labor fell, people wereincreasingly drawn to the major towns of the region. However, the overcrowded urban areas often offeredfew economic opportunities, and in the 1960s and 70s, increasing numbers of people migrated overseas toFrance. Rates of migration to France were particularly high among the Soninke, who represent themajority of the population of the Guidimaka. During the 1970s, 65% of the Mauritanians working inFrance were Soninke.23 The majority of migrants are young men between the ages of 15 and 25 years.

59. The result of this male outmigration is a severe shortage of labor in the Guidimaka. Manyvillages consist virtually entirely of old people, women and children. Male outmigration has shifted theresponsibility for agricultural production increasingly to women. From a natural resource managementperspective, the situation is largely negative. Large areas of land are left fallow. Agricultural productionhas stagnated. Many families cannot make sufficient income from agriculture and are heavily dependent onmigrant remittances. Women, though de facto in charge of agricultural production, often do not haveaccess to credit and services that are necessary to help improve agricultural productivity. This suggests theneed for increased targeting of women in all agricultural development programs. Overall, there has beenlittle investment in the land and few measures are taken to arrest the deterioration of land and waterresources. However, as the situation for immigrant workers in France becomes more difficult, it is likelythat many migrants will return to the region which may lead to increased investment in the land andimprove the situation.

60. Another factor affecting land use is the immigration of camel herders and farmers into the region,which has increased over the past 20 years largely due to the drought which forced people to move intomore fertile areas, such as the Guidimaka. Migrants are often given land use rights by local village chiefs.However, in some instances, land is taken over without permission and locally protected forested areas arecleared for cultivation. This removal of vegetation cover can expose the soil to water erosion, particularlyon sloped areas. Large camel herds are also depleting vegetation resources at an alarming rate, though dataon the increase in camels in the region is limited. The complexity of population movements in the regionand increasing competition for natural resources is likely to make land tenure an increasingly importantissue, as people try to claim and secure their rights to land. This highlights the need to examine theapplication of the 1983 land law reform to areas, such as the Guidimaka, and to determine how best toprovide a land tenure framework that is well-adapted to the situation on the ground and provides incentivesfor sustainable natural resource management.

61. A third important factor is the lack of rural infrastructure and access to urban markets. Roadsboth within the region and connecting the region to major towns are inadequate and those that exist areunpaved and generally in poor condition. During the rainy season, most roads are impassable. This lack ofaccess to markets is a major factor behind the economic decline in the region. It reduces returns toagriculture which in turn limits the amount of revenue available to invest in soil and water managementtechniques.

62. Reversing the detioration of land resources in the Guidimaka and the stagnation of agriculturaloutput will require some major shifts in Government policy and investment. To date, the region hasreceived little attention. However, in its Poverty Strategy, the Government has targeted theGuidimaka as a region where priority should be given to land use management and agriculturalproduction. A "gestion de terroirs" approach that aims to improve soil, water, pasture and forestmanagement through targeting investment directly to the local level and supporting communities in effortsto reverse land degradation and clarify issues of land tenure may be the best program approach to take in

23Bradley, Raynaut and Torrealba, 1977. Le Guidimaka Mauritanien: Diagnostic et Propositions d'Action, p. 48.

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the region. Priority should be given to protecting watersheds through the construction of small dams andother water management techniques.

Pastoralism

63. A central challenge facing Mauritania is how to ensure the continued economic and environmentalsustainability of the livestock sector. Pastoral production is central to Mauritania's economy and to hersociety. It is the dominant agnrcultural activity in Mauritania, representing 80% of the agriculture sector'soutput. Data on livestock numbers is limited which makes analysis of livestock movements and theirimpacts difficult. Animal numbers vary widely from one year to the next in corollation with the incidenceof drought. According to government estimates, cattle numbers have fluctuated from 800,000 in 1950, to2,400,000 head in 1969, to 1,100,000 in 1973. Since 1980, numbers have stabilized around 1,200,000,however, there is an overall trend of decline in numbers, largely due to migration to pastures in the south(in Senegal, Mali and even the Ivory Coast). Camel numbers on the other hand have risen over the past 40years to an estimated 1,050,000 head in 1992. The majority of the stockraising systems are transhumance-based. During the dry season, Mauritanian herdsmen often cross into Senegal and Mali in search ofpasture. However, the last 20 years have been extremely difficult for pastoralists. This is due to a numberof factors, including the droughts which caused the rangelands used during the rainy season to shrink;agricultural expansion in dry season grazing areas; the rise in the number of urban livestock owners nowcompeting for resources with traditional herders; and lack of demand for Sahelian livestock products in thecoastal countries due to cheap imports from the European Community.

64. The livestock sector is in a state of flux as patterns of ownership and herd managementchange. The droughts plus rising economic expectations led to rapid sedenterization of the nomads. Thishas been followed by a trend towards agro-pastoralism in the rural and peri-urban areas which has resultedin a build-up of livestock numbers in the south of the country, in the Senegal River valley and theGuidimaka. Unable to find enough forage further north, pastoralists are staying in the dry season pasturesyear round. This has particularly affected the Senegal river valley, where previously livestock used tograze for only four months of the year. Animal concentration in a limited area has increased competitionfor fodder and land resources among herders, and between herders and farmers. The result has been rapiddevegetation and deterioration of the rangelands, particularly in the southwest and increasing tensionsbetween herders and farmers. The Govemment estimates that the largest livestock increase is in camelnumbers which cope better under drought conditions but have a more damaging effect on vegetationwhereas cattle and goats have decreased in numbers.

65. Increasing numbers of livestock are owned by urban-based absentee owners. In 1986, it wasestimated that up to 40% of the national herd was owned by absentee owners.24 This has led to increasingcompetition for water and range resources between traditional and 'modem' livestock owners. Absenteeowners often prefer to keep their herds as close as possible to the towns to produce milk for the urbanmarket. The bulk of herds belonging to Nouakchott-based owners are found within a radius of 100 kmsaround the city25. Such herd concentration in limited areas without any form of communal managementcan exacerbate sand dune devegetation and encroachment problems. Around urban areas, animals roamfree and there is a situation of open access which is leading to overexploitation of the vegetation.

24Shanmugaratnam N. et al., 1991, Resource Management and Pastoral Institution Building in the West AfricanSahel, World Bank report prepared by NORAGRIC.25According to the MDRE, Nouakchott probably has the highest concentration of camels anywhere in Mauritania,with an estimated 100,000 camels concentrated around the city.

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66. Many complex issues emerge within the livestock sector, including land tenure, water point andrange management and how to manage more integrated production sytems. In 1987, the Government, withWorld Bank support, promoted the establishment of Pastoral Associations (PAs) to provide a legal statusto traditional pastoral groups and pnrvatize certain livestock sector activities. This policy decision hascompelled a greater practical focus on pastoral institution building. It has provided PAs with anopportunity to take greater responsibility for natural resource management and strengthen their legitimacywith respect to land and water rights. There are several challenges to realizing the potential of PAs andresolving issues of land tenure and management. These include balancing the interests of traditionalversus modern livestock owners, management of public wells, introducing improved rangelandmanagement techniques and taking a more integrated approach to natural resource management, thatlooks at pastoralism, crop production and forest use within a multisectoral framework.

Water Overexploitation in the Oases

67. The oases of Mauritania are a vital part of her history and her present. These small but fertileareas are generally situated along dry riverbeds (often called wadis). Oases are scattered throughout thedesert region of Maunrtania, and are thus primarily found in the regions of Adrar, Tagant and Assaba andto a lesser extent in the Hodh el Gharbi and Hodh ech Chargui. Data on oases is extremely limited andthere is much uncertainty as to the number of oases, their population and agricultural production. Since1984, IFAD has collected data on the oases in conjunction with the Oases Development Project.26 Theyestimate that there are about 100 oases in Mauritania in which some 34,000 families live.27 Oasisagriculture occupies around 5,000 ha.28 Date production is the most important revenue-earner with annualdate production estimated at 18,000 mt, worth approximately US$13 million. Vegetables and cereals areoften grown in oases and many oases dwellers also raise livestock.

68. Agricultural production in the oases has declined over the past 20 years. This is largely a result ofthe outmigration during the drought years of people who worked as laborers on the date plantations. In theTagant region, for example, population decreased at a rate of 1.2% per year during the period 1977-1988.29 The exodus of laborers led to an overall shortage of labor, and date production fell due to theneglect or complete abandonment of the plantations.

69. As a result of the shortage of labor, many land owners began to invest in motor pumps toreplace the traditional hand pumps. This has led to overexploitation of groundwater, particularly inthe Adrar region.30 Safe yield, that is the quantity of water that can be withdrawn from an aquifer on acontinual basis without depleting the underground reservoir, has been exceeded in a number of oases. Avicious cycle has started in the Adrar: drought, in conjunction with investments in wells and motor pumps,has led to rapidly falling water tables (estimates are that the water table has dropped by 100-200% over thelast decade). As water levels fall, new technologies of deeper water extraction are developed leading tofurther overexploitation. Lowered water tables and decreased water quality lead to production losses dueto inadequate irrigation and increased soil salinity.

26This data was presented as a statistical atlas on oases published by FAO in 1985.27This figure refers to the physical number of oases. From a sociological perspective, there are roughly 350 oaseswhich are managed as discrete "socio-geographic" units.28FAO, 1993. Preparation Report for the Oasis Development Project Phase II, p. 1529FAO, 1993.30Institute of Development Anthropology, 1994. Report prepared for IFAD on the Oasis Project.

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70. Data on these trends, both groundwater and production declines, is poor and unreliable, which is animportant impediment to designing the action programs which are needed to arrest the decline. Quantitativeestimates of exactly how far water has fallen are not possible because of the absence of reliable baselinedata. However, a consensus exists both in the literature and among hydrologists familiar with the oasesthat over-exploitation of water is a severe problem that threatens the long-term sustainability of oasisagricultural production. There is a critical need to carry out groundwater evaluations in oases to determinemore accurately the magnitude and effect of the problem.

71. A major constraint to achieving sustainable agriculture is the lack of legislation placing limits ongroundwater use. Water use is regulated by the Islamic Maliki law under which water is regarded as a giftof God. It it therefore common property and anyone may gain access to groundwater by constructing awell or borehole and utilize as much water as she or he wishes. The siting of wells is regulated, however.For example, an individual cannot dig a well that affects the water of other properties or wells belonging toother people. Given the evidence that there is a trend of overexploitation, strengthening of the legaland administrative framework regulating water use in the oases deserves priority attention. Settingof limits would follow the initial step of carrying out hydrological surveys to assess more accuratelythe magnitude of the problem and current trends.

72. A further threat to the the future of the oases is sand dune encroachment onto agricultural land.Unfortunately, there is no long-term time series data which assesses the rate of sand encroachment with anydegree of specificity. Much of the information on this problem is anecdotal and based on observationwhich is inadequate to give a proper assessment of the situation. The problem appears to be most severe inAdrar where, although there has not been massive encroachment on to farmed land, local people report thatdunes have destroyed palm plantings in Chinguetti and Toungad.31

73. It is highly likely that there is a relationship between dune movements and groundwater depletionwhich deserves further examination. Falling groundwater levels contribute to the destabilization of sanddunes. The capillarity of water contributes to the adhesion of dune materials. As water levels fall this zoneof adhesion is lowered, and sand particles become far more susceptible to being blown by the wind. Theimplication is that if one controls water depletion one may reduce dune movements.

74. A further factor affecting the sustainability of production in the oases is the land tenure situation.Land tenure in and around the oases is complex. Ownership has tended to be concentrated in the hands of afew traditional landowners. Many of these landowners are today absentee landlords, either because theywork in business or government elsewhere or because they have livestock that they must graze in areas farfrom the oases. It is difficult for anyone who is not a traditional owner of land to purchase land or gainlegal rights to land. In theory, the 1983 law reform will change this situation as it abolishes traditional landtenure systems and provides all Mauritanians with the right to own land. The application of the law to theoases deserves special attention. This might offer a good opportunity to encourage more equitabledistribution of land, which in turn might increase incentives for people to stay in the oases and reduce thelabor problem.

Sand Dune Encroachment

"Sand dunes have become a huge problem for us. W'inds blow persistently throughout the year,forming dunes and sand hills. Our villages are surrounded by dunes, constantly threatening toclose in on us. Sand blows across roads and tracks and accidents are caused - despite constantgovernment efforts to clear the paths and plant shelter belts to halt the sand's movement. The majorreason for this desertification is the drought, which has killed much of our vegetation. There is also

31Institute of Development Anthropology, 1994.

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a human factor, particularly the cutting of treesforfuel and charcoal". - Hadk ouldSaleck, 50yrold manfrom Nouakchott.3 2

75. Sand dune encroachment is the most visible of Mauritania's environmental problems. It is a realand increasing problem, though more localized than generally perceived. Much good work has been doneon describing dunal encroachment and developing and implementing methods to fix dunes, yet the causesand long-term trends of dune encroachment are relatively unstudied and rarely addressed. There is littlesystematic information on the relationship of dune movements to rainfall patterns or to human settlement.Indeed, ecologists do not agree on the nature and seriousness of dune migration. Some focus attention onthe resilience of the desert regions of the Sahel and link dunal movements to rainfall patterns or lack ofwater due to other factors, such as overexploitation of groundwater.33 Others focus attention on the imnpactof human and animal population pressure and link dunal movements to overexploitation of vegetationcover.

76. This difference of opinion as to the importance of climatic as opposed to man-made factors is atthe heart of the desertification debate. In the final analysis, it is largely a question of which factorpredominates and most would agree that a combination of the two are at play. Though the Mauritanianenvironment is very resilient - rangeland production bounces back with the coming of good rains - manyareas were without rain for so long and have been subjected to such heavy population and grazing pressurethat the dunes have been stripped bare of all protective vegetation and become mobile when blown by thefrequent winds. Once mobile, this process of "desertification" is very difficult to reverse.

77. There has been no systematic mapping of natural resources in Mauritania, so it is difficult todetermine the nature of sand encroachment trends and their linkages to land use. Observationsindicate that dunal movements are most severe around areas of settlement and infrastructure development.Along the roads in the Sahelian zone, sand encroachment is a constant menace to the road network. Some164 kms of the Route de l'Espoir is already affected by sand encroachment and the problem is gettingworse every year.

78. Nouakchott and its entry roads provide a classic example of the linkage between urbanization anddesertification. The city, established in 1958, was built upon a dunal plateau formed between 25,000 and10,000 B.C. stabilized by vegetation cover of Euphorbia balsamifera. During the drought of 1972-73,nomads from the drought-stricken interior of the country flooded into the city in search of food. Refugeecamps were established and a ring of several kilometres wide around the town was quickly stripped of treesand shrubs by people desperate for material for housing, fencing and cooking and their animals searchingfor food. The large animal population close to the city graze on the vegetation necessary to stabilize thedunes. According to government estimates, Nouakchott has the highest concentration of camels anywherein Mauritania, with an estimated 100,000 camels concentrated around the city.34 The dunal area wasstripped bare and problems of sand dune encroachment problems soon became an evident and practicalproblem. This is the situation to date and explains in large part why Mauritania's leaders see duneencroachment as their priority environmental problem.

Techniquesfor Sand Dune Fixation

79. Considerable experience of sand dune fixation has been gained in Mauritania, both around townsand along roads. Numerous sand dune fixation projects, many of them implemented by non-governmentalorganizations, are underway. A combination of two main techniques is used to fix dunes: mechanicalfixation and tree planting. Mechanical fixation consists of building windbreaks along the top of the dunes

32AII quotes taken from At the Desert's Edge: Oral Historiesfrom the Sahel, Panos/SOS Sahel, 1992.

33This can destabilize dunes by reducing the degree of adhesion of dune materials.34Personal communication from M. Gueye Malick, Delegue R6gional, MDRE, Nouakchott.

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from materials such as tree branches, palm fronds and synthetic materials. The second technique isbasically afforestation, using fast-growing and drought resistant species such as Leptadenia pyrotechnicaand Prosopis juliflora. The aim is to reestablish a sufficient density of vegetation to stabilize areas ofmoving sands.

80. On a strictly technical level, Mauritania has had relative success with sand dune fixationprojects around settled areas. However, social and economic factors have often undermined dunefixation efforts, leading to their eventual failure. One of the main factors determining success is thedegree of involvement of local people. Experience in Mauritania has shown that the success rate of dunefixation projects is dramatically increased where the local community is directly involved in the design,implementation and maintenance of the project. People are only wvilling to expend effort watering andprotecting the newly planted trees from grazing animals if they have a vested interest in the project. At avillage level, efforts to promote communitv participation in sand dune fixation projects and to promotelocal initiatives have proven successful at several sites (see box).

81. Salinization caused by sand dune fixation projects is a problem at certain sites, though there isinsufficient data on the overall magnitLde of the problem. Planting trees in an attempt to solve oneenvironmental problem has created another. At several sand dune fixation sites, villages have complainedthat well water supplies are becoming saline. The problem stems from the fact that fast-growing speciesused to fix the dunes draw up water very quickly. The solution may lie in making more use of indigenousspecies which are slower growing and so require less water.

Promising Dune Fixation at Maghta Lahjar

At Maghta Lahjar the results of the dune fixation project are truly remarkable. This town stretches for 10km alongthe Route de l'Espoir and has a population of some 4,000 families. At the start of the project all the houses on thenorthern and eastern side of the town were completely buried by sand dunes and had been virtually abandoned bytheir owners. The project started with the establishment of a nurscry where trees were tended before being plantedout on the dunes. Initially, the town residents were skeptical about the project and there was little communityparticipation:

'I must admit that, to begin with, we were not clear exactly how we could benefitfrom this project. We thereforeused to watch the technicians going to and fro fromn the project site with a certain amount of cynicism andindifference. But a year after their arrival, each one of uts could see for himself the concrete results brought aboutby the project on the eastern side of the town. "

The trees took root and today nine years afler the start of the project there is a dense man-made forest edging thetown with trees reaching up to seven metres high. The roads, homes and fields have all been cleared of sand andpeople feel sure that they are permanently protected against the moving sands:

"We have a feeling of security which we did not have before... The project site is an area that everyone use toavoid. Now the cominunity has been moving back into the area. Thanks to this project we know the houses will befree of sand long enough to pass on to our children. "

The dune fixation project today serves a double purpose. Not only have the dunes been stabilized but the trees aresufficiently dense that they require thinning. The townspcople plan to sell the cut trees for fuelwood. Thinning isnecessary as already the fast-growing trees are quickly depleting the water reserves found within the dunes, leadingto salinization of the water table. The people plan to plant local, slower growing species and when these reacb asufficient size, cut down the fast-growing trees.

Sources: Gaye Sidi, 1987. Glaciers of the Desert: A Report on the Projet de Stabilization et de Fixation des Dunes, PtwosInstitute, p. 8; mission notes.

82. In 1992, a joint UNSO-World Bank study reviewed the experience gained in stabilizing sand dunesalong roads in Mauritania. This study concluded that it is technically feasible to protect highways oriented

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at right angles to the direction of the dominant winds, but that not enough protective work has been carriedout along roads oriented parallel to the prevailing wind direction for inferences to be drawn.35 The cost ofdune fixation measures to protect the Nouakchott-Boutilimit road is estimated to be between UM2.6-5.7million per kilometre ($21,500-$47,150/km). This was found to be more cost-effective than mechanicallyclearing sand as problems arise; the cost of the protective works was estimated at UM 2.2 million perkilometre, with annual recurrent costs of UM 70,000, whereas the recurrent cost of mechanical sandremoval in 1992 was UM I. I million per year ($9,100 km/yr).

Issues and Policy Implications

83. Risks of sand encroachment are inevitable when establishing towns or constructing roads in desertregions. Despite these risks, for various socio-political reasons, Mauritania's development path hasresulted in 60% of Mauritania's population being concentrated in Nouakchott and the string of towns alongthe Route de l'Espoir in arid zones which are highly susceptible to sand dune encroachment.

84. This pattern of spatial development has three implications. First, the environmental impact ofsettlement and road construction in the arid zones needs to be factored into both policy decisions andinvestment projects concerning spatial planning and land use. Urban and transport planning, inparticular, have not always taken sufficiently into account the risks of sand encroachment. It is vital thatthe costs of sand dune encroachment and mitigation measures be fully integrated into project design,particularly in areas of urban and transport planning. This essentially involves carrying out environmentalassessments. This highlights the need to have a better information base on the incidence of sand duneencroachment and the linkages between dunal movement and land and water use.

85. Second, the impact of livestock browsing on the vegetation raises the issue of livestockmanagement by settled communities and overall community-level land management and planning.Such concepts are new to nomads who have recently settled and will require their developing a new sense ofrange management.

86. Third, the magnitude of sand dune encroachment problems and the high cost of sand dunefixation projects in Mauritania raises some fundamental questions about the long-term economic andecological viability of settlement and development in the arid zones. The growth of Nouakchott was farbeyond the Government's expectations and largely out of their control. It thus illustrates the pitfalls inseeking to control or even predict development. Nonetheless, it seems probable and desirable that carefulreview of Mauritania's geography and development pattern would suggest a strong focus on promotingincreased investment in secondary towns, such as Kiffa and Kaedi, and infrastructure in the southem, morefertile area of the country. This might reduce the population pressure in Nouakchott and stimulate morebalanced growth throughout the country, that is both environmentally and economically more sustainable.

Forest Degradation

87. Mauritania's limited forest resources are rapidly disappearing under pressure from agriculturalexpansion, woodfuel demand and animal browsing. Woodfuel (fuelwood and charcoal) is the mostimportant source of energy in Mauritania, comprising 95% of household energy consumption and urbandemand for woodfuel is one of the main causes of deforestation. Total annual woodfuel consumption iscstimated to be over ten times higher than the sustainable rate of exploitation36. In 1988, total woodfuelconsumption in both rural and urban areas was estimated at 1,243,900 tons. Nouakchott is the area of

35Government of Mauritania/UNSO, 1992. Protection des Routes contre I'Ensablement: Technique - Couts -Benefices: Etat des Connaissances, by Axel Martin Jensen.36MDRE/UNSO, 1991. Programme Multisectoriel de Lutte contre la Desertification.

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greatest and most concentrated demand, accounting for 58% of total charcoal consumption.37 The scarcityof supply is reflected in the retail woodfuel prices in Nouakchott which in 1989 were 96 UM/kg, over fourtimes higher than in any other Sahelian city.38 Prices in Nouakchott were also four times higher than inKaedi, a secondary town along the Senegal River valley where there is no woodfuel deficit. In rural areas,demand is far more scattered and therefore woodfuel collection does less damage. However, massivedevegetation is evident in some areas, partially as a result of the droughts and, in the valley, because of thepoor floods which are necessary for the regeneration of the dominant tree species, Acacia nilotica. As aresult, it takes increasing amounts of time to collect wood, a task that is done by women and children. Theaverage distance for wood collection in Hodh el Chargul is 12km return trip every 10 days with a cart or 3times a week with a headload39.

88. In 1988, the World BanklUNDP Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP)carried out a household energy survey. They identified the most serious energy problems as (i) the highdemand for charcoal, which is causing over-exploitation of scarce wood resources far from the urbanareas; (ii) the energy efficiencies of both charcoal production and consumption are low; and (iii)Mauritania's options to deal with fuel substitution are constrained by its total dependence on petroleumimports to cover the national demand for crude oil. If no action is taken ESMAP estimated that charcoalconsumption would growv by more than 26% over the next ten years to 93,000 MT per year. To addressthese problems the Government developed a household energy strategy which is built on four principles thattogether will begin to address demand and supply side issues:

(a) accelerated inter-fuel substitution, particularly to LPG, in the urban areas to replace charcoal as acooking fuel.

(b) demand management measures, such as promoting the use of improved cooking stoves.

(c) improving biomass supply - it is imperative to know the status of existing forest resources, their rate ofclearing, and a precise determination of all the actors involved. A larger degree of control and managementof resources is required for their optimal utilization.

(d) economic household fuel pricing - pricing policy should be geared more towards economic fuel priceswhich will not only enhance the use of substitute fuels and improved stoves, it can also generate a source ofincome to develop forest activities to protect the environment.

89. Charcoal production for urban areas is a relatively well-organized, commerical enterprise. Themain source of forest resources are the forests of Acacia nilotica in the Senegal River Valley which makesvery good charcoal. Forest resources are essentially treated as free goods as the prices of woodfuel do notreflect their actual scarcity value. The retail price of charcoal is low compared to the economic costs ofcharcoal production and tree replacement. Consequently, there is no economic incentive for people toeconomize on charcoal or start using substitute fuels. Though there are forestry taxes charged for cuttingpermits, they do not cover replacement costs as they are based on the quantity of charcoal produced ratherthan on the amount of wood cut. Charcoal production has been difficult to control as local officials areoften involved in it and issue illegal cutting pennits.

90. To date, the Government's approach to arresting deforestation has been one of imposingrestrictions on the cutting of live trees and trying to police the forests to catch and fine offenders. Forestagents have been primarily concerned with collecting fines even though their roles also includes promoting

37ESMAP, 1990. Mauritania: Elements of a Household Energy Strategy, p. 6-7.38World Bank/UNDP ESMAP Household Energy Surveys.39Spurling, D. 1993. Sahelian Countries: Agricultural Extension for Women Farmers - The Working Paper onMauritania, prepared for the Agriculture Division, Sahelian Department, World Bank.

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tree planting and the use of improved stoves. The inadequate salaries of the staff means that the incentivesare to focus on enforcement rather than building up community relations and forest management capacity.Today, there is a growing realization that coercive solutions to the management of natural woodland do notwork. The Government of Mauritania is in the process of revising the Forest Code to give more control tolocal people over forest resources. Many projects, particularly those associated with sand dune fixationefforts, are already making deliberate attempts to involve local people in the management of naturalwoodland and tree nurseries. Such decentralization and empowerment measures need to be accompaniedby pricing and fiscal reforms that remove subsidies on alternative fuels and increasing the stumpage fees oncharcoal to reflect the replacement cost of trees.

Renewable Energy

91. For Mauritania, renewable energy sources, particularly solar, wind and biomass, are abundant andenvironmentally attractive resources with enormous economic promise. The last two decades have seenmajor technical developments for harnessing solar energy in ways that have greatly increased conversionefficiencies and reduced costs. The costs of photovoltaics (PVs) have fallen by a factor of 50-100 over thecourse of two decades40.

92. To date, investments in renewable energy in Mauritania have been small-scale and scattered. TheGovernment, through the Cellule Nationale des Energies Alternatives (CNEA), with European Community(EC) funding, is promoting renewable energies on a small-scale basis. Wind-powered water pumps are inuse for market gardening and it is planned to introduce 200 solar photovoltaic power units to supplyelectricity to health clinics in the rural areas with EC funding. The GEF, through the UNDP administeredsmall grants program, is also financing a project to promote wind-powered water pumps.

93. There are three strong arguments why far more emphasis and investment should be placed onrenewable energies. The first is economic. Already, renewables are competitive with fossil fuels andhydroelectric for small-scale applications and for electricity generation in remote rural areas. Theeconomic gains from lower-cost energy resources might well be considerable. Solar power is especiallysuited to Mauritania with its high temperatures and vast land surfaces.

94. The second argument is environmental. Solar energy has no net emissions of carbon dioxide,sulphur dioxide or nitrous oxide, which pollute and can contribute to global warming. Furthermore,switching to renewables would reduce deforestation and consequent soil erosion.

95. The third argument relates to land use. The commnonly held notion that solar energy is too diff-useto harness and would require too much land needs to be dispelled. For solar-thermal and PV schemes, landrequirements are comparatively small and considerably less than for hydroelectric schemes. Mauritaniahas a clear advantage, having large areas of arid areas with low population densities ideally suited for thelocation of solar schemes which would not compete with other land uses. However, the low populationdensities throughout the country in themselves may not justify large-scale investment in renewable energyin the short term.

96. The above arguments suggest that more proacative investigation, development and promotionof renewable energy is called for. As technologies develop, the cost-effectiveness of renewable energy israpidly increasing. The European Community has already supported small-scale initiatives in solar power,primarily photovoltaic generating units. These have been plagued by dust problems and work is being doneon how to solve these problems. Given the large number of livestock in the country, conversion of dunginto methane is another renewable energy source for cooking and lighting that has proved successful inother parts of the world and merits further research.

4dAnderson D. and Ahmed K., 1993. "Where we Stand with Renewable Energy", Finance and Development, AQuarterly Publication for the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, June 1993.

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B. COASTAL FISHING

97. Coastal fishing, a vital pillar of Mauritania's modem economy, poses important and urgentenvironmental issues. The sector provides a primary source of foreign exchange earnings, generating anestimated US$308 million (68%) of total foreign exchange in 1988, falling to about US$236 mnillion (54%/o)in 1991. Fish are exported primarily to Europe, Japan and Spain. The fisheries sector also makes a vitalcontribution to the budget, yielding about 20% of total budget revenues, and a small contribution toemployment.4 '

98. The Government of Mauritania has, over more than a decade, followed policies designed to providepride of place to coastal fishing, and indeed it was one of the major sources of economic growth during the1980s. However, recent declines in fish catches and production volume have signalled the start of aworrisome decline in the sector's performance and an indication of the depletion of fish resources. Thiscrisis has been the area of intense study by the Government and the donors over the past few years. In1992, as part of this work, the Bank undertook a Fisheries Sector Review which analyzed the sector'sproblems and outlined a framework for action. The recommendations in this report are currently underdiscussion.

99. Mauritania's Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), declared in 1979, extends for 200 mniles seawardalong its 525 km coastline. The fisheries off the coast of Mauritania have been the object of intense andincreasing fishing efforts since at least 1950. The vastness of the coastal waters and the limited resourcesof the Government make monitoring and surveillance of fishing activities particularly difficult.

100. All available information indicates that there is considerable overfishing in Mauritania.Evaluating the status of fish populations (stocks) and their growth trends is difficult to do at the best oftimes, but is made more difficult in Mauritania by the lack of data on fish caught in Mauritania's ExclusiveEconomic Zone (EEZ). No system for the collection of data on catches existed until 1990. However, thestatus of the marine resources of Mauritania's EEZ was reviewed by the Mauritanian Centre National deRecherche Oceanographique et des Peches (CNROP), FAO and the French Institute for Scientific Researchfor Development and Cooperation (ORSTROM) in 1985, and more recently by CNROP in 1991 (see tablebelow):4 2

4t Estimates of employment in the fisheries sector are incomplete and vary widely among sources. According to theBank's Fisheries Sector Review about 7-10,000 people are employed in fishing and related activities.42The World Bank, 1992. Islapnic Republic of Maurilania: Fisheries Sector Review.

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Pelagic Species

Horse Mackerels 170 Over Exploited (125%)

Other Mackerels 30 Heavily Exploited (80%)

Sardinellas, etc. 140 Moderately Exploited (45%)

All Tunas 15 Fully Exploited (95%)

Other Small Pelagics 110 Over Exploited (175%)

Demersal Species

Octopus 48 Over Exploited (150%)

Cuttlefish 10 Over Exploited (125% +)

Squid 6 Over Exploited (100% +)

Sparids (Breams) 50 Severely Over Exploited (160% +)

Other Demersals 35 Mostly Fully Exploited (?%)

101. This analysis provides compelling evidence of overfishing. Total Catch-per-Unit-Effort (CUE) forthe entire fleet has fallen by an estimated fourteen times over the past three decades from 1,400 kg/hour in1964 to 100 kg/hour in 1990. For cephalopods alone, the average CUE has fallen by four or five timessince the 1970s. These figures indicate that fish stocks are being depleted.

102. There appears to be a clear link between the value of the species and the rate of stock depletion.Catches of most higher-value species (e.g. octopus, cuttlefish, squid, bream) fell by roughly 55-75% from1977 to 1990 whilst catches of lower value small pelagics (e.g. sardines, mackerals, and sardinellas) fell byabout 2%.

103. Overfishing is a symptom of the lack of implementation of fisheries management practices. In1987, the Government, concerned about the depletion of fish stocks and its impact on the sector, issued anew Declaration on Fisheries Policy. The main purpose of this measure was to improve fisheriesmanagement as well as to promote artisanal fishing and to increase national value added. In terms offisheries management, strict limits were imposed on the volume of catch by species and on the number offishing trawlers. Certain fishing zones were closed in order to preserve spawning grounds. To enforce thisnew policy, the Government increased the surveillance of waters by both sea vessels and airplanes, with thesupport of Germany and France. While the technical aspects of surveillance is improving, in 1991 it wasestimated that less than 50% of violations against Mauritanian fisheries regulations were reported.44

Though fines are imposed for violations of fishing regulations, many go uncollected either because thevessel-owner has gone bankrupt or the vessel has left the water.

104. Overfishing is only one element of the fishing sector crisis; another related concern is the pasthistory of easy access to credit to the sector. Most individuals depended heavily on credit to enter thefishing industry. The share of credit to the fisheries sector as a proportion of total credit to the economyrose from 15% during the period 1985-87 to 36% in 1991. However, a combination of poor catches,

43These amounts are approximate estimates of the maximum sustainable yield. Almost every stock listed is on thedecline side of a catch-per-effort curve i.e. the more effort expended, the less catch results.

"World Bank, 1992. Fisheries Sector Review.

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increasing operating costs, deteriorating vessels and marketing uncertainties meant that most Mauritanianshipowners quickly became deeply indebted and unable, as well as reluctant, to fulfill their obligations tothe banks. This led to a banking crisis with medium-term liabilities estimated at about US$110 million in1991.

105. In 1991, the World Bank in collaboration with the Government and the donor communityundertook a review of the fisheries sector oriented to the medium- and long-term operational and strategicconcerns of the fishenres sector. The review resulted in an action plan, currently under discussion, whichintegrates both policy and technical recommendations to improve performance of the fishing sector andguard against overfishing. In terms of fisheries management, the study recommended the setting-up of aFisheries Management Regime consisting of three elements:

* A Fisheries Management System (FMS) that sets out rules for conducting fishing;

* A Monitoring, Control and Surveillance (MCS) system to monitor fishing activities and enforce fishingrules; and

* A Fisheries Judicial System (FJS) that complements the MCS and ensures adherence to the overallmanagement system.

106. In addition, the study recommended immediate mcasures to reduce the total catching power of thedemersal fleet and the introduction of interim fishing quotas until a satisfactory management regime is inplace. Once catch ceilings are in place a system of allocating fishing effort would become necessary. Thisis not an easy task and success may largely depend upon the system being designed in consultation with theactors in the fishing industry.

107. A large number of options are available for setting up allocation systems, most of which tendtoward granting a form of de facto tenure to operators. Examples include transferable quotas and long-term lease rights to certain areas. Setting up a system of competitive bidding might be the most efficientway of allocating such use rights of this scarce resource.

108. If overfishing is not curtailed, Mauritania's fish stocks may be seriously depleted and fish catcheswill continue to decline. Efforts to improve fisheries management are hampered by excessive public sectorinvolvement in the industry. Government agencies have been heavily involved in the research, planning,financing, management and regulation of the sector. There is a clear need to reassess the dominant roleplayed by government in the commercial aspects of the fisheries sector while strengthening its legitimaterole in setting fisheries policy, carrying out fisheries management and research. Given the government'simmediate needs for foreign currency earned fishery exports and license fees, it is tempting to sacrifice longterm interests for short-term gains. Yet such a trade-off would, over the long-run, undermine Mauritania'soverall economic development. Implementation of a fisheries action plan incorporating the measuresmentioned above is therefore a priority.

C. URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

109. Mauritania's remarkably rapid pace of urbanization has brought with it an array of urbanenvironmental problems: lack of clean drinking water and sanitation facilities, inadequate wastedisposal, and salinization of the main aquifer supplying Nouakchott with water. The pattem ofurbanization has also concentrated human settlement in the Sahelian zone on the edge of the desert wherethere is little easy access to food, fuel and water supplies and a high susceptibility to sand duneencroachment. This raises some fundamental questions about the long-term economic and environmentalviability of settlement and development in the arid zones.45

45See section on sand dune encroachment for discussion of this issue.

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110. Urbanization in Mauritania far outstripped government expectations. The history of Nouakchott isa good illustration of what has occurred. In 1958, the date of creation, the city was planned on theassumption that it would harbor 8,000 inhabitants in 1970. In fact by 1970, largely due to the drought, itwas home to five times that number. The city plan was revised on the basis that 100,000 people would livein the city in 1980. Again estimates were way off target - over 200,000 people were living in the capital by1980, many of them in tented encampments, which today have become "temporary-permanent" settlementsknown as kgbUs, and today Nouakchott's population is over half a million.46 Already, Nouakchott facesdifficulties sustaining this population - there are few employment opportunities in the city which, as yet,has no real industrial or commercial base; many of those seeking employment lack the education and skillswith which to find jobs; the city is far from food and water resources; and the outskirts face increasing sanddune encroachment problems.

111. Water supply in Nouakchott is wholly inadequate and greatly at risk of deterioration. Only 18% ofthe urban population have direct access to clean, piped water. The remainder gets its water from publicstandpipes or purchases it from private vendors who sell water transported in barrels on donkey carts.Surface water sources are scarce and the great majority of the population rely on fossil aquifers fordrinking water. Nouakchott and Nouadhibou are located above saline aquifers, so drinking water isextracted from wellfields about 60km east of the saltwater front. However, exploitation of the Trarzaaquifer, Nouakchott's water source, is already causing the saltwater front to advance at a rate that couldlead to permanent salinization of the aquifer. Furthermore, fossil aquifers are not recharged. Given therapidity with which they are being depleted, it is, as yet, unclear how future long-term demand for waterwill be met. Hydrogeological studies strongly recommend the construction of a new wellfield no later than1996 to prevent irreversible saltwater contamination of the existing wellfield and to increase supply. TheBank-supported Water Supply Project (FY92) is helping the government develop a long-term water supplyplan.

112. The service levels for sewage disposal are considerably lower: only about 4% of the urban dwellersin Nouakchott are serviced by a water-borne sewage system. The remainder rely on pit latrines, cesspoolsor septic tanks, or have no disposal system at all. Unlike in many other countries, these systems do not riskcontaminating drinking water supplies as the groundwater below Nouakchott is saline and drinking water issupplied from the aquifer over 60 kms away. Untreated sewage discharge near to the market gardeningareas is used by informal sector market gardeners to irrigate food crops. This poses a potential healthhazard. Dealing with this issue through rehabilitation of the plant and restrictions on discharge forms partof the environmental mitigation plan developed under the Water Supply Project. The inadequate availabilityof safe water and sanitation facilities contributes to a high rate of infant mortality and water-relateddiseases among urban populations.

113. Domestic garbage disposal is another problem which can have a direct impact on health. Urbandwellers tend to dump their garbage at the closest convenient location, as they did when living in ruralareas. As yet, there is little sense of community responsibility for keeping cities clean. As a result, townstend to be dirty and strewn with garbage on roadsides. Solid waste is dumped directly into the gutters orcanals, thereby clogging them. There is no systematic garbage collection service. The municipal authorityorganizes collection of garbage by donkey cart, but this effort has proved insufficient to keep the city clean.Private individuals and NGOs have also organized 'clean-up' campaigns which help the situation but do notprovide a long-term solution.

114. The situation is worst in the keb6s on the outskirts of Nouakchott. Housing conditions are poor -mostly tents and shacks, built of scavenged materials including shipping containers - and the areas lack

46Estimates of the population of Nouakchott vary widely. The last census (1988) estimated that 331,000 peoplelived in Nouakchott, though the District of Nouakchott claimed the figure to be 600,000.

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water supply, sanitation and garbage disposal facilities, leading to a high incidence of disease and a highrate of infant mortality. A recent survey in a kebe neighbourhood found that one-quarter of the childrenunder the age of five were suffering from diarrhea.4 7

115. It is the poor who overwhelmingly bear the health and financial cost of inadequate water andsanitation and waste collection. The scarcity of water in Nouakchott results in the following paradox: thepoor pay nearly four times more for their water than wealthier families with a tap in their homes. Theurban poor spend an average of 4% of family income on water. This percentage is even higher for familieswho buy water from the vendors who charge up to twelve times the average price at a public standpipe48.

116. Exacerbating the city's waste and sanitation problems are the municipal authorities' lack ofmanpower and financial resources. The Government aims to address these problems through its policy ofdecentralization. This will grant city municipalities new financial and operational autonomy. An importantobjective of the decentralization policy is to improve local tax collection and utilities revenue so as tostrengthen the overall financial viability of the municipal governments. Increased attention should also bepaid to strengthening community participation at the neighborhood level. Keeping Mauritanian cities cleanwill require that citizens become stakeholders in their cities' management. This will require intensive publiceducation and ensuring that local populations pay at least a share of the cost of public services.

117. The Government has embarked on three major programs, with World Bank support, whichtogether will begin to alleviate the most dehabilitating aspects of urban poverty and environmentaldegradation. The Water Supply Project (FY92) will provide investment for improving and expanding thewater supply system. Priority will be given to fulfilling the water supply needs of the poorest section of thepopulation at an affordable price. The project will also improve the financial management of the watersupply subsector. The development and implementation of an Environmental Management Plan is anessential component of the project. The aim of the plan is to develop a groundwater protection plan for theTrarza aquifer and a long-term water resource management plan to address how to supply Nouakchott withwater after the year 2000. Under the project, the government also plans to initiate a health informationprogram to inform the public of the dangers of consuming vegetables grown near the sewage system whileinvestigating cost-effective ways of re-using sewage safely for irrigation.

118. The Construction Capacity and Employment Proiect (FY93) will support the establishment of aprivate agency, known as AMEXTIPE, to contract out public works to local firms. As well as creatingemployment opportunities, it will go part way to improving the sanitation, waste collection and sandencroachment problems in the city. Projects contracted out through AMEXTIPE will include publicdrainage systems, private waste collection services, sand dune fixation projects, and the creation of cityparks. The project also aims to increase public awareness and grassroots participation in urbanmanagement.

119. The proposed Highway and Urban Infrastructure Proiect (FY96) will continue and enlarge ongoinginitiatives in the roads and urban sectors. The project has two components: an urban component and ahighway component. The main objective of the urban component is to assist the Government implementthe decentralization of decision-making and resources to regional and municipal levels. With regard towaste collection, this new project will aim at helping the Municipality of Nouakchott to implement aneffective and comprehensive waste collection system comprised of primary collection by donkey carts and

47The World Bank, 1992. Water Supply Project: Staff Appraisal Report, Infrastructure Division, SahelianDepartment.48The World Bank, 1992. Water Supply Project: Staff Appraisal Report, Infrastructure Division, SahelianDepartment, May, 1992.

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haulage to the final depot by truck. The city population will be asked to pay for a share of the costs withthe municipality financing the remainder.

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IV. GOVERNMENT POLICY AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORKFOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

A. POLICY FRAMEWORK

120. Much analysis and work has taken place on environmental issues in Mauritania, particularlyon issues of desertification and the Senegal River Valley. This work, however, is not yet explictlyintegrated into the overall development framework and the policy choices involved are not clearlydefined. Despite awareness of environmental problems, they have tended to be treated separately tooverall development planning.

121. As in the rest of the Sahel, the droughts of the 1 970s and 80s placed environmental concerns firmlyon the development agenda. In 1980, the Government organized a national seminar on anti-desertificationstrategies, after which, for the first time, the National Plan included reference to the broad outlines of adesertification control program. In 1984, CILSS (the Inter-Governmental Committee for the Fight againstDrought in the Sahel) sponsored a conference in Nouakchott to draw up a regional strategy for the fightagainst desertification. As a result, the Government of Mauritania creating a National Committee for theFight against Desertification (CNLCD), housed within the Direction de Protection de la Nature49, whichwas mandated with the task of developing a national Plan Directeur de Lutte contre la Desertification(PNLCD). The UN Sudano-Sahelian Office (UNSO) and CILSS provided support to this effort. ThePNLCD was finalized and approved by the Council of Ministers in July 1987. In 1990, UNSO wasrequested by the government to translate the PDLCD into an operational program, based on the experienceand lessons learnt from the pilot projects initiated under the original plan. UNSO supported thepreparation of a "Programme Multisectoriel de Lutte Contre la Desertification" (PMLCD) which wasapproved in 1991.

MUultisectoral Program for the Fight against Desertification (PMLCD)

122. The Multisectoral Program for the Fight against Desertification (PMLCD) is the mainenvironmental policy document in Mauritania which provides a framework for action to combatdesertification at the national and regional levels. The PMLCD provides a description of the naturalresource potential of Mauritania and the causes and extent of desertification - sand dune encroachment,wind erosion, water erosion, chemical degradation, deforestation, rangeland degradation and the impacts ofdegradation on agnrculture production. It puts forward a plan of action to address these problems whichprioritizes action according to their immediate, medium and long-term priority.

Immediate priority actions are:

* to slow down the most severe effects of desertification, identified as sand dune encroachmnent anddepletion of fuelwood supply;

* institutional and legislative strengthening to improve natural resource management; "responsibilisation"of local populations; and improving environmental information, inventories, studies and research.

Medium term priority:

* improve natural resource management in a manner that integrates agro-sylvo-pastoral resources

Long term priority action:

* establish conditions to ensure sustainable development in a manner that improves the utilization ofnatural resources and establishes national parks and nature reserves.

49In 1993 this was renamed the "Direction de l'Environnement et de l'Amenagement Rural".

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123. Seven action program areas are identified, including environmental protection, water, energy,natural resource management, and institutional and legal framework. Activities under each program areaare described. Detailed regional action plans were developed for nine of the country's twelve regions whichprioritize actions at a regional level and list proposed project interventions. The entire program calls for atotal investment of 15 billion UM ($124 million). A donor Round Table meeting on the PMLCD tookplace in May 1992 to discuss financing and implementation of the plan. UNSO, UNDP and IUCN are thedonors most actively supporting the PMLCD. UNSO and IUCN are currently working with the MDRE todevelop a more detailed proposal for the PMLCD institutional and legislative support program.

124. A more broad ranging policy document was prepared by the Government, with the assistance ofUNDP, for the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro in1992. This UNCED National Report identified the key problems related to environment and developmentas high population growth. migration to urban areas, rural poverty, and reduction of pastoral and forestresources, land degradation including sand dune encroachment, loss of soil fertility and salinization alongthe Senegal River, and industrial pollution.

125. These exercises represent important building blocks towards developing a nationalenvironmental strategy framework. However, neither has yet achieved some important objectivesdefined for the NEAP process. Notably, broad national participation has been quite restricted andthe programs appear more oriented towards preparing a list of projects for financing than on the keystep of addressing policy and institutional reform. Further, they have focused only on "green"issues related to land degradation, and not on "brown" issues, such as urban sanitation, and they donot clearly integrate and set environmental issues within the Government's overall developmentstrategy.

B. INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK

126. The Ministere du Developpement Rural et de l'Environnement (MDRE) has the most directmandate for environmental affairs. Responsibility for environmental issues falls under the Ministry'sDirection de l'Environnement et de l'Amenagement Rural (DEAR). DEAR has institutional responsibilityfor the coordination and implementation of the PMLCD and for environmental strategy-making andplanning. The CMLCD is presided over by an inter-ministerial committee and ultimately the President.Historically, the DEAR has been responsible for forestry and wildlife protection. It therefore lacksexperience in environmental strategy making and environmental impact assessment.

127. There are many other ministries and departments wvhose activities impinge on the environment.These include the Ministerc de l'Hydraulique et de l'Energie (MHE) which is responsible for establishingthe national water policy and the preparation and enforcement of water management regulations. TheDepartement de la Protection Civile et de l'Environnement within the Ministere de l'Interieur is responsiblefor marine pollution, the control of bush fires and regulation of waste disposal. The Ministere de la Sante(MS), through the Service d'Hygiene et d'Assainissement, is responsible for the planning andimplementation of wastewater and solid waste disposal programs, and the preparation and enforcement ofsanitation regulations. Another service of the MS, the Centre National d'Hygiene, operates a laboratory tomonitor water quality throughout the country, and to carry out public health research projects. TheMinistere des Peches et de l'Economie Maritime (MPEM) has overall responsibility for the fisheries sectorand the Ministere des Mines et de la Geologie is responsible for the mining industry.

128. Given that environmental concerns cut across sectors, it is to be expected that many ministries areconcerned about the environment. However, what is lacking is overall coordination of environmentalaffairs and an agency with a clear mandate for assessing, monitoring and regulating theenvironmental impacts of development programs. These institutional issues constitute a key constraintin responding effectively to the country's environmental concerns. A strong message from the highest levelsof Government that environmental concerns are to be considered integral components of planning would

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provide institutional impetus for reforms. The Government could then follow-up, perhaps as a part of theNEAP process, by clarifying lines of administrative responsibility. This may involve strengthening orrestructuring existing institutions and reassessing staffing and training requirements, both in centralGovernment and the regional bodies.

C. ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF PUBLIC INVESTMENT PROGRAM

129. Explicit consideration of the environmental impact of the public investment program is vital ifenvironmental concerns are to be adequately addressed. Specific environmental assessment (EA)guidelines do not currently exist in Mauritania. This is an important gap and merits priority attention. EAsare the most powerful regulatory tool available to reorient development activities towards being moreenvironmentally benign. The purpose of carrying out environmental assessments is to ensure that thedevelopment options under consideration are environmentally sound and sustainable, and that anyenvironmental consequences are recognized early in the project cycle and taken into account in projectdesign.

130. EAs provide critical information about environmental impacts. They ensure environmentalconcerns and mitigation measures are incorporated into planning from the start. Based on the informationthey provide, policy-makers decide whether the policy or project should be altered to take environmentalconcerns into account or whether some mitigating action should be taken. Many of the environmentalproblems faced by Mauritania highlight the need for environmental assessments. For example, given thesusceptibility of the region to sand dune mobilization, the environmental impacts of transport andinfrastructure projects clearly needs to be considered from the beginning of the planning process. TheAMEXTIPE project is initiating an environmental assessment process for its public works which representsan important step fonvard in institutionalizing environmental assessments in Mauritania. The Govermmentnow needs to take the lead on requiring environmental impacts of all projects in the Public InvestmentProgram and on ensuring measures are in place to tackle these concerns.

D. INFORMATION CONSTRAINTS

131. Data with which to monitor and evaluate the conditions of the Mauritanian environment arepoor and environmental information is an area in need of more systematic attention. Developmentpolicy and project decisions that could potentially affect the environment should ideally take into accountthe location, abundance and condition of the natural resources, their current uses, resource trends and thelikely impact of development on the resources' sustainability. This is currently seldom the case inMauritania. Despite the focus on desertification, there has been no systematic mapping of naturalresources in Mauritania and the examination of land use trends over the last few decades. The onlysignificant amount of work that has been done is in the Senegal River Valley but much of this informationis held by OMVS in Dakar and is not available in Mauritania.

132. The biggest problem lies on the demand side: the processes that should be using environmentalinformation are either not operative or are organized in such a way that they cannot use it. Information israrely, if ever, conceived or organized to satisfy specific operational management processes and objectives.It is designed to describe problems - desertification. overgrazing, deforestation - not to formulate orimplement solutions. For example, much good work has been done on describing dunal encroachment anddeveloping and implementing methods to fix dunes, yet the causes and long-term trends of duneencroachment are relatively unstudied and rarely addressed.

133. The lack of a common data architecture, including data standards, is a major constraint to the useof information from different sources. Maps do not use a common geographic base; vegetation coverassessments or soil maps use different and incompatible nomenclatures. Databases are incompatiblebecause they are tied to different platforms, are structured differently, and thus cannot be combined. As aresult, it is difficult to aggregate data from a larger to a smaller scale. Key infornation infrastructures are

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missing, the most important of which is a Digital Base Map Database (DBMD). The purpose of a DBMDis to serve as the common geographic support for thematic information, thus facilitating the overlay ofdifferent information layers, a crucial step in nearly all forms of environmental analysis and modeling.

134. Developing environmental information systems (EIS) in Mauritania is much needed. To date,environmental information-gathering exercises have been initiated in association with specific developmentprojects, yet rarely have these developed long tenn capabilities to manage and update the various types ofenvironmental information within the relevant institutions. Capacity-building for environmentalinformation management and analysis, both institutional and technical is a priority. A central aim isto develop a network among the producers and users of data on the environment through which datacompatibility and data sharing can be ensured. By tying individual project needs to broader nationalmanagement needs, the funds available for monitoring and evaluating individual projects can alsocontribute to building a functional national data system usable by all government agencies and donors.Several points are key to the functioning of such a system; that all data be public and shared, that new datato be collected must be compatible with what already exists, and that the type of data to be collected bedetermined by the clearly identified needs of data users rather than by the technical interests of datasuppliers. For the establishment of EIS to be sustainable it must be clearly linked to decision-makingprocesses and be tailored to meet the needs of policy makers. Until a demand for environmentalinformation exists, EIS initiatives are unlikely to sustainable.

E. LEGAL FRAMEWORK

135. The legal framework for environmental management in Mauritania is somewhat scattered andpoorly implemented. Many of the laws are based on the Islamic Shariah (Maliki school). Environmentally-related laws include the 1983 Land Law Reform, 1935 Forest Code (which is currently being revised), andthe 1975 Hunting Code and a Mining Code. The MDRE is considering developing an environmental code.This would be a legal framework that would include the newly-revised Forest Code and a pastoral codegiving increased legal rights to local producers over their natural resources. Several aspects ofenvironmental management still go unregulated e.g. waste disposal, and those that exist generally needstrengthening.50 Enforcement mechanisms are also weak. The country is vast with limited infrastructurewhich makes law enforcement particularly difficult. The vast majority of the population are unaware ofmany laws and, in practice, the majority of the rural population continue to regulate use of naturalresources according to customary legal systems.

Land tenure

136. Issues on land tenure are vital to natural resource management everywhere, and nowhere more sothan in places like Mauritania where land degradation is an immediate problem. Land tenure issues havereceived considerable attention in Mauritania. This attention has focused primarily around development ofirrigated agriculture in the Senegal River Valley. In 1983, a new land reform law was enacted. It set out tointroduce a 'modern' legal system of individual private property rights to Mauritania. To date, this law isonly being implemented on a test basis in a portion of the lower Senegal River Valley. Elsewhere, amixture of traditonal and Islamic tenure systems continue to determine access to land, forest resources andwater.

137. Traditional land tenure systems differ from one region to another, in accordance with the nature ofthe resource base, the ethnic group, production systems and religious and cultural factors. Land and othernatural resources are communally managed under most customary land tenure systems. Tribal leaderswere empowered to allocate use rights to land to members of the community or to outsiders, such as

50Mauritania's environmental laws and administrative regulations have been collected in CILSS (1988) anddiscussed in Colas-Belcour (1991).

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herders who were allowed to graze their cattle on the harvested fields. Payment of tithes to the tribal chiefto secure tenure rights ranging from "ownership" to temporary use rights was common. Most tenuresystems therefore were of a hierachical nature, closely linked to the hierachical structure of ethnic groups.

138. Political changes over the past few centuries, including the establishment of emirates, has resultedin a complex mixture of legal bases for land claimhs in Mauritania with some groups (e.g the Halpulaar-en)asserting land rights based on conquest and others (e.g. the Haratin) basing their claims on the Islamicprinciple of indirass, which recognizes rights established through clearing the land.51

139. French colonial laws firther complicated claims to land rights and relations between groups,adding colonial laws to the traditional and Islamic systems already in existence. The French governmentpassed a number of laws and decrees between 1830 and independence in 1960, which were applied to thewhole of French West Africa. These included the decree of July 24, 1906 which recognized the existenceof traditional forms of tenure and provided for their transformation into formal legal rights by a process ofregistration (immatrzculation). In practice, this process had little effect; few rural people registered theirland according to formal legal procedures.

1983 Land Law Reform

140. In 1983, the Government of Mauritania embarked on a bold land law reform which hasintroduced a new tenure system to Mauritania, that of individual private property rights. The lawwas largely designed to promote private investment in irrigation in the valley. Long-term investment in thevalley, it was felt, would be constrained by an unclear land tenure regime. Unless people had secure tenureto land they would not have the incentive to invest in developing it. The 1983 law (Ordonnance No. 83.127of June 5, 1983) therefore introduced a tenure system that established a system of individual privateproperty rights:

Article 1: The land belongs to the State and every Mauritanian, without discrimination of any kind,can, in conformity with the law, own land.

Article 2: The State recognizes and guarantees private property rights, which must, in conformitywith the Shar'iah, contribute to the economic and social development of the country.

Article 3: Traditional land tenures sytems are abolished.

Article 5: Land registrations made in the name of chiefs and notables are understood to have beengranted to their traditional associated collectivities.

In 1984, a decree was passed (Decree 84.009) which provided guidelines for the implementation of the lawincluding:

Article 2: To be legally protected, the development of a plot must include constructions, crops, ordikes for retaining water.

Article 21: Any collectivity that wishes to retain lands undivided must transform itself into a regularlyconstituted cooperative in which the members have equal rights and duties.

141. The legislation of 1983-84 established some specific requirements for implementing the law: allconcessions from 5 to 30 hectares in size had to be approved by the Finance Minister and those greater than30 hectares had to pass through the Council of Ministers. To expedite the application of the Land ReformLaw, in 1985 the Government issued an executive order which made it possible for local authorities todistribute large parcels of land in the Senegal Valley.

51Park, Baro and Ngaido, 1991. Conflicts over Land and the Crisis of Nationalism in Mauritania, Land TenureCenter, University of Wisconsin-Madison, p.ix.

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142. The law led to a far greater allocation of land than anticipated. Many private individuals regardedirrigation as a good investment, particularly at a time when the droughts had hit the livestock sector hard.During 1984-1989, approximately 35,000 hectares were distributed, primarily in the delta and SenegalRiver Valley, to private investors, who mainly came from outside the region. Traditional land rights werefrequently bypassed. Agricultural development schemes were set-up without compliance with theverification of ownership and compensation procedures of the 1983-84 legislation. This period of rapid butrelatively uncontrolled distribution of land was further aggravated by the 1989 conflict between Mauritaniaand Senegal during which time some 70,000 villagers lost their ancestral land when they were expelled toSenegal. The plight of those refugees -- their repatriation and retium of their land -- is still an unresolvedissue.

143. In 1990, the Government took measures to gain stricter control over the implementation of the lawand allocation of land. A new decree (Decree No. 90020 of 31 January 1990) was issued which replacedthe 1984 decree. This decree created a step-by step process by which people can file for acquiring formallegal title to land. First, a permit to exploit the land (autorisation d'exploiter) is granted. During this timeone has to demonstrate use of the land (mise en valeur) for a period of five years. After this time, providedthe land has been used effectively, a provisional concession is granted (concession provisoire) for a furtherfive years during which time the land must continuc to be utilized on a permanent basis. Only after this tenyear period is a definitive title (concession definitive) granted. The 1990 reforns also introduced a systemof "land reserves" and "vital spaces" whereby all communities of more than 50 dwellings will be grantedsufficient agricultural land for the use of present and future generations. This measure aims to safeguardthe customary land rights of local communities.

144. A pilot operation Nvas launched in Trarza-Est in 1989 (supported by the Bank and other donors,through the Agriculture Sectoral Adjustment Credit (AgSECAL)) to provide a test area for implementationof these measures and to ensure that local community rights were respected. Application of the law isbeing carefully monitored in this area by the government authorities. After a relatively slow start, theoperation started to make real progress in 1992. Under the direction of the regional Land Tenure Office(Bureau Foncier), the region is being mapped using aerial photography so as to establish the nature of landuse in the region and to enable mapping and monitoring of land claims. In addition, efforts are being madeto take a proactive stance to inform local communities of the law and their rights under it. Previously, fewlocal commnunities understood the law, and little effort was made to ensure they were aware of the legalprocedures and land allocations.

Issues and Implications

145. A system of private property rights is well-suited to irrigated areas where infrastructuredevelopment is required for agricultural production. However, such a system is not so well-suited toregions where a number of overlapping natural resource use rights exist, as in most of the Sahel. If isoften argued that lack of clear property rights is one of the main causes behind land degradation and lack ofinvestment in the land. However, experience throughout Africa demonstrates two key points. First,security of tenure is often not the main limiting constraint to investment in the land; other factors, such aslack of market demand, rural infrastructure, and extension services, are often more important. Second, asystem of individual private property rights is not necessarily appropriate to all forms of land use.Inadequate recognition is often given to the security communal tenure systems offer to a variety of usersand to their ability to adapt in the fact of increasing constraints. This experience suggests that a reviewof the 1983 land tenure reform and its application to non-irrigated areas both inside and outside thevalley would be beneficial. The complexity of traditional rights and uses demand further study so asto inform policy makers and project design. Given that competition for natural resources is likely toincrease in the future and that property rights issues will thereby become of increasing importance,clarifying the land tenure system and providing legal recognition of the rights of traditional land systems is

---------- - --------------- ---- ------------- _

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of vital importance. In particular, the application of the law to the pastoral areas and the oases deservesspecial attention.

146. In pastoral areas, the tenure situation is in a state of flux as pattems of herd ownership changeand new forms of organization emerge. A process is underway to try and clarify the situation. In 1987,under a program supported by the World Bank, the Governnent promoted the establishment of PastoralAssociations (PAs). The aim of the PAs was that groups of pastoralists who normally live and movetogether would formalize this interdependancy by the creation of a legal association. The grazing lands ofthe group would be identified, and the traditional rights of access by any third party would be recorded.Usufruct rights would then be allocated to the PAs by the Government, subject to the respect of the rightsof the third parties, in exchange for a commitment to manage the grazing land in accordance with soundpractices and the advice of the regional livestock extension service. Any third parties contesting theallocation or wishing to register its rights to use the area would have to apply to the local authorities.

147. In practice, implementation of this land tenure policy has made little progress and its relationshipwith the 1983 law reform remains unclear. A large part of the problem stems from the increasingcompetition for land between the traditional pastoralists and 'modern' absentee livestock owners, primarilyurban elites with sufficient money to invest in livestock. These absentee owners use the argument that therange should be managed under the Islamic shariah law which allows open access to all. According toIslamic law, natural resources, including land and water, are a gift of God to which anyone may haveaccess for himself or his animals. The pastoral associations argue that traditional communal systems, notthe Shariah, should be the basis of access rights. These issues are currently under discussion andresolution. Clearly, a communal system would be far more conduicive to improved range management thanan open access situation.

148. In the oases, most land is owned by a few traditional landowners. It is difficult for anyone who isnot a traditional landowner to purchase land or gain legal rights to land. In theory, the 1983 law reformwill change this situation as it abolishes traditional land tenure systems and provides all Mauritanians withthe right to own land, however, the law has not yet been implemented in the oases.

149. Another area that deserves a special look is women's rights. Though women may have equalrights under many formal and Sharia laws, in practice conservative customary practices often overridethese rights which places women at a disadvantage, particularly in relation to land tenure. This issuedemands increasing attention given the large number of female headed households in Mauritania and theirincreasing responsibility for agricultiral production.

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V. ENVIRONMENTAL PRIORITIES AND STRATEGY

150. The Bank's country assistance strategy, which is designed to support the Government'sdevelopment objectives, rests on four pillars: (i) human resource development and vigorous efforts toalleviate poverty; (ii) support for private-sector led growth; (iii) strengthening economic management,capacity building and governance and (iv) improving environmental management.

151. Environmental management should be central to the Government's development objectives,given Mauritania's large and special challenges. As briefly described in this paper, in virtually allsectors and development plans, the Government is confronted with issues of environmentalsustainability. Faced with such a complex array of problems and limited human and financialresources, priority setting and integration of environmental concerns into development planningbecome absolute necessities.

152. A key ingredient of several national environmental action plans has been the definition of a list of"franmework" projects to address environmental problems. This approach is not ideal, however, as itunderestimates the importance of the policy framework and also makes definition of priorities and linkagesdifficult. On the basis of the qualitative analysis in this paper and taking into account the ecological,social, economic and health costs of environmental problems in Mauritania and the economic costs andbenefits of addressing these problems, the following prioritization of environmental issues is given. Clearlysuch a prioritization is a simplification of the issues, however, it helps select where policy interventions canbest be directed given that there are limited resources and institutional capacity in Mauritania. Problemswith a high policy priority generally have some cost-effective means of dealing with them and will have thegreatest ecological, social and economic benefits; those of lowv policy priority are either not intrinsicallyenvironmentally significant problems, or have few available cost-effective interventions.

High Priority Moderate Priority Lower Priority

Ensuring the sustainable Sand dune encroachment Sewage disposal anddevelopment of the Senegal River pollution of urban waterValley supplies52

Overfishing Soil erosion, particularly in the Biodiversity ConservationGuidimaka

Household energy demand and Waste disposal Environmental impacts ofsupply management mining

Salinization of aquifers supplying Overexploitation of groundwater Coastal pollutionurban water in oases

153. Ideally setting priorities is a four step process that includes (i) collecting and analyzing data; (ii)setting criteria, (iii) making monetary damage estimates, and (iv) ranking problems.53 Possible criteria

52Sewage disposal and pollution of urban water supply is placed as a low priority as, unlike in many othercountries, lack of sewage treatment does not risk contaminating drinking water supplies as the groundwater belowNouakchott is saline and drinking water is supplied from the aquifer over 60 kms away. Untreated sewagedischarge near to the market gardening areas is used by informal sector market gardeners to irrigate food crops anddoes poses a health hazard. However, this issue is already being dealt with.

53World Bank, 1994. A Stocktaking of Key Elements and Best Practices in National Environmental Action Plans,prepared by the Environment Department: Land, Water and Natural Habitat Division.

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include human health effects, physical and natural capital effects, aesthetic value, irreversiblity, anddistributional equity. Monetary damage estimates can be made for human health effects and physical andnatural capital effects, as was done for example, in the case of Burkina Faso for the economic losses fromsoil erosion. The main problems with doing such valuation in the Sahel are (i) the lack of reliable data, (ii)the lack of well-established methodologies; (iii) the shortage of trained personnel who can carry out thiswork, and (iv) the time and resources required to do a proper analysis. The Bank is making efforts to helpbuild up national capacity to carry out valuation work in the Sahel. The Africa Technical Department, forexample, has designed and organized training courses in environmental economics in West Africaspecifically targeted at government staff involved in the NEAP process.

154. Solid analytical work is also essential to determine priorities for action. Faced with a complexarray of environrnental problems and limited resources, where should a government start? Lack of prioritysetting within action plans has been a weakness of many environmental planning exercises in the Sahel.Investment planning has not been based on a comparison of costs and benefits (economic, environmentaland social) among alternative investment programs, consequently environmental action plans have resultedin a "shopping list" of investment projects demonstrating a lack of inter-ministerial coordination or sense ofwhere the priorities lie. Identifying environmental issues and action in a more systematic way will be acentral challenge of the NEAP in Mauritania.

Strategic Framework

155. Improving education and the skills base of the population and slowing down the population growthrate are essential for sustainable development and improving environmental management. These arealready high Government and Bank priorities and will not be further examined in the context of this paper.

156. The following three-fold strategic agenda is proposed for Bank assistance to the Government ofMauritania:

* assist the Government in setting priorities, develop an enabling policy and legislative framework andbuild institutions for sound environmental management

- ensure that potential adverse environmental impacts of Bank-financed projects are addressed

* assist the Government to build on the synergies between poverty alleviation, economic efficiency andenvironmental protection through well-targeted investment programs

157. In Mauritania, public spending for the environment has often been directed to relatively large and"physical" projects, such as dune fixation, rather than more fundamental policy and institutional issues.This paper aims to launch a broader and more intensive dialogue on environmental issues from a policy andinstitutional perspective. The most effective vehicle for addressing environmental problems lies in thedomain of public policy and institutional arrangements. Weaknesses in both contribute to problems andimpede solutions. An overarching policy and institutional framework that clearly integrates environmentalconcerns into development planning is vital. Such a framework would not only guide public investment butit can channel private sector energies, which in Mauritania offer the potential for significant economicgrowth, within a framework of economic incentives and legal regulations that ensure this growth does nothave negative environmental impacts and is sustainable in the long-term.

National Environmental Policy-making Process

Policy Framework

158. Much valuable work has already been done on defining an environmental policy framework,particularly in regard to desertification under the PMLCD and through ongoing work to develop an actionplan to address overfishing. The next step in finalizing a NEAP will be to identify missing elements soas to complete a comprehensive national environmental strategy. In light of the vast array ofenvironmental concerns currently confronting Mauritania, selectivity will be of decisive importance in

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implementing a realistic and effective program. It is up to the Government of Mauritania, incollaboration with its donor partners, to identify areas it considers first priorities. The NationalEnvironmental Action Plan (NEAP), or its equivalent, should focus on making explicit the choices andtrade-offs between immediate economic gains and consumption and the long term benefits from the moreequitable and sustainable use of natural resources. More emphasis needs to be given to policy andincentives measures to encourage improved environmental management, rather than direct investmentprograrns.

159. Country ownership is essential for NEAP success. The Government should therefore focus on theprocess of developing the NEAP, ensuring that there is broad participation so as to build up ownership andconsensus among different stakeholders. Ultimately, the lack of an environmental policy with strongpolitical backing is one of the main constraints to environmental management. The NEAP process providesan opportunity to define such a policy and develop a national consensus as to where the priorities lie, asregards both the issues and the appropriate actions to take. Broadening of the environmental debate beyondthe Ministry of Environment to other Government agencies, local authorities, community and associativemovements will be a first step in the NEAP process.

160. The existence of a national environmental policy, supported and advocated at the highest level,would make a valuable contribution to raising environmental awareness at all levels of society and toproviding a sense of responsibility both within government and among the general public towardsprotecting the natural resource base. Countering special interests' claims tendencies to over-exploit non-renewable natural resources for economic gains is one of the greatest challenges Mauritania faces.Government intervention vwill be necessary in some instances to deal with special interests and marketfailures. In other instances, such as natural resource management, decentralizing control over naturalresources to local communities and providing them with support is perhaps the best path to take. Strongleadership and vision, committed to the values of sustainablc development, will be required.

Institutional Framework

161. The roles and responsibilities of the ministries and departments involved in environmentalmanagement overlap and need to be clarified, preferably by defining better mechanisms forcooperation and coordination among government entities instead of creating new structures. Oneagency could be restructured and strengthened as an inter-ministerial environment agency chargedwith formulating environmental policy and regulations, monitoring environmental standards,reviewing environmental impact assessments and coordinating environmental activities. The actualimplementation of programs and projects would continue to be achieved through the respective ministries.Such a restructuring would require high-level political support to ensure that the agency had the decision-making and regulatory power to influence development planning decisions. It would also require training innew areas of expertise, such as environmental assessments and environmental economics.

162. Developing a more integrated approach to natural resource management within the extensionservices is a major challenge. Both forestry and agriculture extension agents badly need more and bettertraining in available NRM techniques. Forestry agents have been trained in a paramilitary tradition whichemphasizes protecting the environment from local populations. Instead they should be trained how to workin collaboration with the local people under new forestry regulations granting local management rights.

163. One of the major challenges ahead will be raising environmental awareness and disseminatinginformation on appropriate technologies to improve soil and water management. In rural areas,populations are generally very aware of issues of land degradation, however, often they lack theknowledge or means (both financial and human) to tackle the problems with which they are faced. Anational "gestion de terroir" program, such as is currently being discussed with the Government, mayprovide the vehicle with which to target areas of particular concern and build-up local capacity to tackleproblems. Other ways of improving education and communication include functional literacy programs,

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farmer-farrner exchange visits and making use of local radio. In urban areas, awareness ofenvironmental problems is fairly poor. Many families have settled only during the past ten years andare confronted with new issues of waste management. Awareness of waste and sanitation issues andtheir health risks needs to be increased. This can be done through media campaigns, the extensionservice and formal and informal education of both youth and adults.

164. In the past, measures to address environmental problems have often focused on technicalinterventions, for example, dune fixation projects. These interventions have often been top-down and notdemand driven. Little attention has been paid to how problems are perceived at the local level and the mainconstraints people face. The issue is largely one of participation in decision-making and program designand implementation. The Government of Mauritania is aware of the issue and through its policy ofdecentralization of central government functions to the regional and rural commune level it aims toincrease popular participation in development efforts. The proposed Bank-supported Rainfed NaturalResource Management Project, which will build on the work done in empowering Pastoral Associationsunder the Livestock II project could help take this decentralization one step further and provide localcommunities with more responsibility and rights over their natural resource base and technical and financialsupport for the development and implementation of management strategies and measures to prevent landdegradation. These steps, however, will need to be examined in the context of the 1983 Land Law Reformand the policy on decentralization to rural communes.

Global Environment Facility (GEF)

165. The Global Environmental Facility (GEF) was established to support efforts to addressinternational environmental concerns: the loss of biodiversity, global warning and protection ofinternational waterways. In particular, it provides grants to projects that are in the global environmentalinterest though perhaps could not be justified from a national perspective. Mauritania has two naturaltreasures of international importance that deserve special attention under the GEF. The Banc D'Arguin isa coastal wetland that serves as an important stopover for migratory birds. It also supports a rich anddiverse concentration of birdlife, fisheries and marine habitats, including several endemic species exist.T-he IUCN is currently supporting projects in both areas. To date, it has received little internationalattention and its beauty and biodiversitv value are not well known outside of Mauritania. Though there isno immediate serious threat to the area, it needs to be put under careful watch to guard against futuredegradation. Given its high biodiversity value and the aesthetic pleasure it has to offer, the Governmentmay wish to consider developing a program with GEF financing to protect the park and develop eco-tourism. Increasingly, the GEF is only willing to fund projects that fit within a national environmentalstrategy. Therefore, support for such a project would only be possible if the Government clearly identifiesthis in a NEAP or its equivalent.

166. The problems of the Senegal River Delta provide a classic example of problem that might meritattention under the GEF. It is part of an international watenvay, the Senegal River, and is internationallyrecognized as a critical stop-over site for migratory birds. It supports large populations of fish and birdsand provides a breeding site for fish that are caught further up the coast of Mauritania. Deterioration ofthis ecosystem could undermine not just the biodiversity of the delta region but Mauritania's fishingindustry. The Government has taken steps to conserve the biodiversity of the region by establishing theDiawling National Park in 1991. The main challenges facing the park authorities are ensuring thatadequate water is allowed into the park area to sustain its wetland vegetation and large bird populations,and working with the surrounding local communities (approximately 17,000 people) to ensure that theyderive benefits from the creation of the park. Water management within the delta remains a problem andpark authorities argue that the water regulation gates are too small to allow for flooding of sufficientmagnitude to sustain the park's ecosystem. In addition, the villagers have been antagonistic towards theestablishment of the park. Traditional activities in the delta are livestock grazing and fishing. Lack offlooding has diminished the grazing areas available and many local fishermen have lost their livelihoods.

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167. IUCN is currently working with the park authorities to assist them develop an integratedmanagement plan for the park in collaboration with the communities which would zone the area intoprotected areas and grazing areas. Further support may be required to look at the problems of the deltaglobally and identify measures to improve water management. Such action would best be done in closecooperation with Senegal and suggests the need for closer collaboration between these two Governments,not just on the future of the delta, but on the development of the Senegal River valley as a whole.

Information Gaps and Areas for Future Research

168. From the analysis in this paper, it is clear that there are many areas on which data with which toanalyze and evaluate environmental conditions and trends in Mauritania are lacking. Below, is a brief listof issues where it appears further information gathering and investigation is warranted:

* the underlying causes and long-term trends of sand dune encroachment;

* the relationship between flood volume in the Senegal River valley, its duration, and cultivable landinundated;

* the potential for renewable energies in Mauritania;

* effect of reduced fish breeding in the Senegal River delta on the coastal fishing grounds;

* the extent of groundwater overexploitation in the oases;

* salinization;

pesticide and chemical fertilizer use and impacts.

VI. CONCLUSION169. The issues discussed in this paper pose a daunting agenda. The plentiful questions that remain tobe resolved are all the more vexing for their reciprocal and causal relationship with poverty. While thislinkage may complicate the situation, it can also facilitate solutions, since it suggests that environmentalconcerns will be best addressed as part of an integrated overall development policy. Correspondingly,incorporating environmental measures into the Government's central development designs serves toinstitutionalize those concerns and ensure them a permanent place in economic planning. In light of thevast array of environmental concerns currently confronting Mauritania, selectivity will be of decisiveimportance in implementing a realistic and effective program. It is up to the Government of Mauritania toidentify areas it considers first priorities, and, with the help of the international community, further developthe objectives and means by which it can pursue a development path that enhances the management ofnatural resources both through increased efficiency and improved equity.

170. Throughout this paper, recommendations are made as to how to integrate environmental concernsinto development planning. These focus on the areas of policy definition and action and the need for betterincorporation of environmental information into decision-making. For the Bank, they highlight the need tostrengthen policy dialogue on environmental issues and specific issues to be addressed in projectpreparation and supervision in the lending program. Working in close partnership with the Governmentand other donors on these issues will be essential.

AMNEX 1

RALNALL DISTBUTION BY REGION

WCAYA MCC*W{ATA = L dla m 103-2C MO 30 3ODa 400 5W

L.HM MMCA QW 117(a L 3 ismo 3A. _

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:L lsu <D4S1.4AX 53AW 3= CO

TIN7ANX LL10 L475 A All 4.OMKOSEN t 765 &765TAMlCHA T L3s6s 13 UtAIOUN EL AM=Ui 1uS9 16.9w 2a

I SSA 36.6 I?W 17.900nS 6 ME

.~~~~XNOS IOA 4-6a 6 f=ELAJL 7DM S n =c

aJERRW 3.6&0 3. 600 aFA 10.7m 3M 7.7

i ~~~~~~~BOUMDEXD 4.7m 4.7WS

4. eORoL 13.600 7-950 _5.650

KAZO *CC 3.OM 1-3MACLAAA2.50 2.350

MIBOUT 5.40: 3.400 XtboSJam 1550 1.550

S.BLa 33M0 4160 23M0 5.610

BOClEm L435 970 465 . ~~~~~~BAB S55t5

MBGN? 70 no0ALE 1:t 5A35 12. 35MS

1. !d~~~~~~AGTA LAW.R 14MS 4.160 IC.=

OLTAZ 67MO 45m0

KEUR EASN 2.2m 21. ~~~~~~ROSS Ua 1.3115_

MMMWRRA 7- 7.750R 'X &I 540 5.140OJAD NA- 19A35 I170 2-t<

. h~~~ ~~OUTU4T 31A75 27m 4.175

7. _DU 2= ila 225

. - s~~~~TAR 34m 34200

. ~~~~~AOUTEF T 3I.7X 31.700CGUEtIX 74.MO 7i4.700OCADAM 74.7W 74.7M

* =csNxr No4cu NOUADHIBOU 17m0 17 0 17m

*. TAcAr 95 773 MomD

MOUMDR1 1IQ940 1.740 7.2MTID=A 19.720 16 t0 3 6CTICHrT 64540 57-0 7.2M

.zL GLW 10 l 51X) 5i 4OM

SET 3AY 6.720 3= 3.7X0=JL YE!4G 3.58 5C0 Z7 300

IL MS 2DM 25J.5J0 z so

B R MtOCiREN 81.70 St.Mo_F 'DERICX 176J80 176SJ0

u. f4 AXJOUrT 46-Vo 46-_

MALMffAM ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1£.7 A96 1267X SA.W6 21.450 D

ANNEX 2

POPULATION DISTRIBUTION BY REGION

POPULAnOn. 198

. ?.AL L23AM JLIAL S M.AM

L mIo" am . ItW 1r..7 Ms 46M 162.= 14Lm 67m L14 2.6 S

. Dll~~~0JGUEM 3-9m 12 = 34m IL79

AMOW 9.= 40 iz 2. 4is

SASSOCOUNU 16.X Is=J 1S 1.D9TOMEDGUBA 9.1w 54.O 1a 44= 5S3

ME4A t 12= 440/m 32Z 4,40OU.ATA l3u.= & 6 6_ _

2.NKC .tLOI. S3.4W 5 33MJa .1j Ul.= 4L1 VIS * LASs s

724TANI 1.1i0 38o II.= 27 3,14KOWE4M V765 Ss.a 3 SM 5mo 6,67TAMCIAWM 13.565 1It= 3.m 13s L1s

-AOUH E. ATXOUs 1I.mo 39= LS= 24mD 2D5

. FAUA 36.6W 161= 39ma L s 236. 243 4.40 +, 2. s

KLA XOSSA 10a.6 463= 3.m 433m 4.39

AJOL 7= s33 331a 4.71

GUa ROU 34C 243W II= L3.OM 6n)a"A 10a. 493W 24W 25mo . 4A3

3OUhDm 4.7m 7=W 73 L60

4.oooL 13.C ISO=D 45mo L15. I6ds 14 1 .2A + 1.7 %

XAEDC 4= 59. 2L.SW 3L 13J4

MAGHAMA 2-3D IL= 7.0 31. 1617M3OUr SAC 67.00 S= 62 1:2.-mm L550 1is. 43W 1oJ 9.6

i XNA 33M 18 n 35mo 1513W 162.sW 235. 5.64 1.9V

BOG-di 1.U35 51 1. Z3W 31-5W 35.54LALA.3 85 25.5 &w 17.5 27.49

M'AQE rs0 303W 3.= 27. 3&61ALEGC 15.35 47= &o 39= 3.01MAGTA LAMAR 14.sS 34.m 5= 2SO 2.38

T. n73W z_WO 72ma 1213 176X0 23. 2.95 -Ca-

aUR MASS5M 2.2 170 171 7.54ROSO L3W 53Ml 32 21mo 40461

~D EtA Fw73 23m 73o 163W 3.045.140 33M 5 4 6.42

.OUAD AGRA 19.m 14= 14.71

.So0uTDT 311751 ama 2L 32. U9

t ADAA 2.1m Gi3 313mo 30m3 563W 5= , .9-

ATAR ' 343W 31 25mo 6 WI91

ACUJFr 31.= 16MO 16mo am0'4cuEzrt 74.5W 0om3 GM 43= 0.13

OUADAX! 74.57 4.m 4=m 0m5

* 0ACL CT _ N4OUADRBOU 173 60W 5303 I0. = 59ma 1337 , V. *

9. TAQ f0 65mo 93W 56 .7 7.5sm 0X.6 - 1L23 %

MtOUDERA 10940 26 2. 23 2.3ST=D=JA 19.730 3= 6.5m 2I5 1.77McKr r o4540 4.o 4.m GA6

QL in_XA 10.30 117=W 1.5W 1 19.50 7.55 1136 + 315 %

_ . S=E..AY 6.7m *3W0 lom 733mW 135OULD TEVC! 3 34M sm 29o 9. sO

u. zm _m 258.583 34m3 23mW 6.0m 3Il3 3.cm 03 * 3175 s

Bsa MOCG7N 31.70 23W 2= 0.

F 'DWCK 176.J8 3O3W 28.3W 4.. 0o.8

UL AYJO= 464 3 14mo 9=o 5.0 .. 2.03 0.30 - 2.5 %

_ALMJTM~ 1.0)3.705 1.1263W 3)3.m)3 1.0263W LL60m6 z3a I.77 * 2.5 s

ANNEX 3: LAND USE IN MAURITANIA

Wilaya Total Agricultural Potential Sylvo- Classifie OtherSurface (lm2) pastoral d forests(km2)

Rainfed Flood Oasis Irrigatedrecession

District of 120 - - 120Nouakchott

Hodh ech 182,700 700 80 - 35, 000 - 146, 920

Hodh El Gharbi 53, 400 420 160 5 30, 000 15 22, 800

Assaba 36, 600 150 85 15 - 25, 000 160 11,190

Gorgol 13, 600 250 200 - 105 11,000 45 2,000

Brakna 33, 000 130 430 350 13, 000 90 19, 000

Trarza 67, 800 - 165 - 550 10, 000 85 57,000

Adrar 215,300 - 280 20 - - - 215, 000

Dakhlet 17, 800 - - - - 17,800Nouadhibou

Tagant 95, 200 - 125 1 5 7, 000 60 88,000

Guidimaka 10, 300 550 25 - 7, 000 25 2, 700

TirisZeGnmour 258, 580 T - - - - 258,580

Inchiri 46,300 - - l - 46,300

lMauntania 1,303,700 2,200 1,550 55 1,005 138,000 480 887,410

Source: MDREIUNSO, Program Multisectoriel de Lutte contre la Desertification, 1991.

ANNEX 4: PROTECTED AREAS IN MAURITANIA

MAURITANIA - PROTECTED SITES

NationaVlinternation Name Manageme Commentsal designations nt Area

(Iha)

National Park/ World Banc d'Arguin 1,173,000 See text.Heritage Site/ RamsarSite

National Park Diawling 13,000 Major wetland of west Africa.An important breeding site forfish and bird populations.

Faunal Reserve Reserve de Moufflon Created in 1982 to protectmountain sheep.

Integral Reserves Baie du Levrier (Cap Blanc) 310,000 Supports an importantpopulation of monk seals andfour species of turtle. Itsintegration into Banc d'Arguinhas been reconmmended.

lies Mauritaniennes Established in 1962, thisreserve protects fish breeding

___________ __ __ areas and nesting birds.

Las Cuevecillas Contiguous with Banc d'Arguinl______________ .._______ and is important for waders.

Partial Faunal Reserves El Agher 250,000 Established in 1937, thisreserve is one of the lastwildland areas of typical

L_____________________ ______________________________ _____________ Sahelian flora and fauna.

ANNEX 5 CLASSEFIED FORESTS

FORETSWLAYA Nr DE'GArON _

TRARZA I For6t de Boo Haim 320 ha2 Kbur Maur 450 ha3 Caui 2.=0 ha4 M-Barwudi 486 haS Dioldi 627 ha6 Komdi 4.470 ba

BRAKNA 7 Tenem 453 ba8 Mboyo 2.90 ha9 Dar el rha 328 ba

10 Olo OloSo 217 ha11 Sdb 2.736 ha12 Aia+ Toocidiexi 507 ha + 62 ha13 LApel 582 ha14 IGan 600 ha

GORGOL - 15 Diotbivol 754 ha16 Dinde 395 ha17 Dao 958 ha18 Yamc NDuaye. 530 ha19 NGoye 1.825 ha

GLUMAKA . 20 Melgue 606 ha21 Seydou 320 ha22 Bouli 600 ha23 Kalmioro 610 ha24 Oued Jdd 115 ha

ASSABA 25 Nehame 13.040 ha26 Mxni Sedcr 3.065 ha

TAGANT 27 E Machn 450 ha28 Lqdcim 550 ha29 Tem 4.995 ha

HODH EL GHARBL 30 Tamoi de Tcmc s L.60 ha

NATIONAL PARKS AND RESERVES

DAXHTI NOUADHMOU Pam Nationlet lCHnlI du Banc CAZSuin LSO0.000 ha (envio)

HODH EL GHAPBI Ricrve de FaccdS_Aga 270.000 ha

PRE;IADRAR Pamc Natioal de Ouadan

HODH EC4 CHARGTI Rcsave de Faumede Trdemsi 700.000 hi

TRARZA Parc Nationaldc Diawlmg 17.000 ha

ANNEX 6

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Backgroundd

Carr, David, 1984. "Difficulty of restoring economic viability with lopsided development: the MauritanianCase". Journal of Developing Areas. No. 18, April, 1984, pp. 373-86.

Chassey de, Francis, 1984. Mauritanie 1900-1975: Facteurs economiques, politiques, ideologiques eteducatifs dans laformation d'une societe sous-developpee, L'Harmattan, Paris, 1984.

Conde, Julian and Pap Diagne, 1986. South-North International Migrations -A Case Study: Malian,Mauritanian and Senegalese Migrantsfrom Senegal River Valley to France, Development Centre Papers,OECD, Paris, 1986.

Courier, The 1986. Mauritania: outposts of the desert, No. 98, July-August 1986, pp. 40-56.

Gritzner, Jeffrey, 1981. Environmental Degradation in Mauritania, Board on Science and Technology forIntemational Development, National Academy Press, Washington D.C. 198 1.

Kane Amadou Hadya, 1993. Situation des Ressources Naturelles et Propositions d'Amelioration desConditions de leur Protection, Exploitation et Utilisation Durables, prepared for the Ministre du Ministeredu Developpement Rural et de 1'Environnement (MDRE).

Kawalec Aleksander 1992. Reflexions sur les Orientations Methodologiques pour la Preparation desProjets de Gestion des Ressources Naturelles/Gestion des Terroirs Villageois en Afrique Soudano-Sahelienne, Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), Rome.

Ludwig D., R. Hilborn and C. Walters, 1993. "Uncertainty, Resource Exploitation and Conservation: Lessonsfrom History", Science, Vol. 260, 2 April 1993, p. 17 & 36.

R6publique Islamique de Mauritanie, 1989. Programme de Consolidation et de Relance (1988-1991),prepared by the 2e Groupe Consultatif pour la Maun'tanie, Paris, July 1989.

Schissel, Howard, 1983. "Drought strikes again in Mauritania", West Africa 21 February, 1983 pp. 457-459.

South Dakota State University, Remote Sensing Institute, 1982. Resource Inventory of SouthwesternMauritania, financed by USAID in cooperation with the Government of Mauritania.

Spurling, Daphne, 1993. Sahelian Countries: Agricultural Extensionfor Women Farmers: The WorkingPaper on Mauritania, prepared for AF5AG, The World Bank.

Suter J., 1993. Drought in the Sahel: A Concise Statement on Current Understandings and Prediction andMonitoring Capacity, Sahelian Department, The World Bank.

United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, 1992. Agenda 21, Chapter 12: ManagingFragile Ecosystems: Combating Desertification and Drought.

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 1992. Programme-Cadre de Developpement Rural:Document de Reference.

USAID, 1980. Women in Mauritania: The Effects of Drought and Migration on their Economic Status andImplicationsfor Development Programs, prepared by Melinda Smale.

USAID/Islamic Repub!ic of Mauritania, 1982. Rural Assessment Manpower Survey (RAMS project).

Demography

Ignegongba Keumaye, 1992. Mcondite et Ethnie en Maurilanie, preface de Yves Charbit, Centre d'ttudes etde Recherche sur la Population pour le D6veloppement (CERPOD), Bamako, Mali.

Ministere du Plan, 1988. Resultats Prioritaires du Recensement de la Population et de l'Habitat 1988,Office National de la Statistique.

Senegal River Valley and the Guidimaka

AGRER S.A., 1993. Etude Macro-conomique d'un Programme de Developpement Integre du Bassin duFleuve Senegal, prepared for l'Organisation Pour La Mise en Valeur du Fleuve Senegal (OMVS).

BDPA-SCETAGRI, 1993. Schema d'Amenagement de l'Espace Rural dans le Delta du Fleuve Senegal:Dossier Definitif, funded by the Caisse Francaise de Developpement, prepared for the Ministere duDeveloppement Rural et de l'Environnement (MDRE).

Bradley P., Raynaut C., Torrealba J., 1977. Le Guidimaka Mauritanien: Diagnostic et Propositionsd'Action, a study financed by War on Want (UK).

Darghouth, Salah, 1990. "Private Irrigation Development in the Senegal Valley" in Irrigation in Sub-aharanAfrica: The Development of Public and Private Systems, eds. Shawki Barghouti and Guy le Moigne, WorldBank Technical Paper No. 123.

Diawara, Georges, 1992. Irrigation and the Soninke People: Organisational and Management Problems:Current Situation and Prospects, ODI Irrigation Management Network Paper No. 16, July, 1992.

Euroconsult/RIN, 1990. Profil de l'Environnement de la Vallee du Fleuve Senegal, pp. 19-20.

GERSAR, 1988. Creation de P6les Verts sur les Deux Rives du Fleuve Senegal: Rapport Finald'Evaluation du Suivi des Operations, Paris.

Horowitz, Michael, 1989. "Victims of Development", Development Anthropology Network, 7:2, pp. 1-8.

Horowitz, Michael and Muneera Salem-Murdock, 1990. The Senegal River Basin Monitoring Activity: APhase One Synthesis, Institute for Development Anthropology, Binghamton, New York.

Horowitz, Michael, 1991. "Victims Upstream and Downstream", Journal of Refugee Studies, Vol 4. No. 2,1991 pp. 164-181.

Horowitz M. and Salem-Murdock, M, 1993. "Development-Induced Food Insecurity in the Middle SenegalValley", Geojournal, 30.2 pp. 179-184.

King, Jack, 1990. Agropedology of the Middle Senegal Valley, Senegal River Basin Monitoring ActivityReport, Binghamton, NY, lnstitute for Development Anthropology.

LeMarquand, David, 1990. "Intemational Development of the Senegal River", Water International, 15(1990) pp. 223-230.

Ministere du Developpement Rural et de l'Environnement et Ministere du Plan, 1993. Atelier sur leDgveloppement Agricole de la Vallee dans le Contexte de l'Apres Barrages: Rapport de Synthese.

Organisation Pour La Mise en Valeur du Fleuve Senegal (OMVS), 1983. Seminaire sur la Gestion del'Environnement dans le Bassin dzi Fleuve Senegal: Aspects Suirveillance, financed by USAID.

Organisation Pour La Mise en Valeur du Fleuve Senegal (OMVS), 1992. Termes de Ref6rence pourl'Elaboration d'un Etat de Lieux et d'un Plan d'Action pour la Protection de l'Environnement et la Protectiondes Ecosystemes du Bassin du Fleuve Senegal

Organisation Pour La Mise en Valeur du Fleuve Senegal (OMVS), 1992. Document du Projet: Assistance aI'OMVS pour la Gesticn et le Suivi de l'Environnement et du Developpement par l'Utilisation de laTeledtection dans la Bassin du Fleuve.

Organisation Pour La Mise en Valeur du Fleuve Senegal (OMVS), 1993. Barrage deManantali: Etude duPlan d'Alerte (Premiere Phase), prepared by Groupement Manantali Ingenieurs-Conseils.

Republique Islamique de Maun'tanie, 1993. Atelier sur le Developpement de la Vallee dans le Contexte del'Apres-Barrages, 27-29 May, 1993.

USAID, 1983. Document de Projet: Projet de Developpement Integre USAID/OA4VS.

Sand Dune Fixation

Abderramhane, Mohamed Abdoullah ould, 1989. Role des Communautes Rurales dans la Reforestation et laProtection des Ressources Naturelles: Cas du Projet Lutte contre l'Ensablement et Mise en Valeur Agro-Sylvo-Pastorale.

Corera Alassane, 1992. Etude Technique de Protection de la Ville de Chinguitti contre l'Ensablement,prepared for the Ministere de Developpement Rural et de 1'Environnement.

FAO/CP, 1993. Lutte Contre l'Ensablement et Mise en Valeur Agro-Sylvo-Pastorale: Mauritanie -Conclusions et Recommandations du Projet. Rome.

Governrnent of Mauritania/UNSO, 1992. Protection des Routes contre lEnsablement: Techniques - Coats -Benefices: Etat des Connaissances, by Axel Martin Jensen.

Hanley Mary Lynn, 1989. "Anchoring the dunes of Mauritania", World Development, March 1989, pp.10-11.

Ministere du Developpement Rural, 1986. Plan Directe7ur de Lutte contre Ia Desertification.

Ministere du Developpement Rural, 1987. Projet PlNes Verts: Programme cd'Intervention 1988-1992,prepared by consultant mission, December, 1987 in cooperation wvith the Direction de la Protection de laNature.

Minist&re du Developpement Rural, 1989. Plan Directeur de Luette Contre la Desertification: ApprocheParticipative des Populations: Rapport Provisoire, prepared by Professor Cheikh Saad-Bouh Kamara,financed by UNDP.

MDR/FAO, 1990. Programme de Stabilisation et de Fixation des Dunes et Projet de Lutte Contrel'Ensablement et de Mise en Valeur Agro-Sylvo-Pastorale. Rapport de Fin de Mission en Mauritanie,prepared by Hajej Mohamed Sahbi.

Ministere du Developpement Rural, 1991. Programme Multisectoriel de Lutte Contre La DesertificationaPA4LCD), prepared by the Direction de Ia Protection de la Nature in cooperation with United NationsSudano-Sahelian Office (UNSO).

Ministere du D6veloppement Rural/Government of Germany/GTZ, 1992. Gestion Integr&e des RessourcesNaturelles de l'Est Mauritanien (GIRNEM).4 Plan d'Operatzon - Phase Pilote Avril 1991-Mai 1994,document elaborated at a planning workshop held April/May 1992 in Aioun El Atrouss.

Ministere du Developpement Rural et de l'Environnement (MDRE)IUnited Nations Sudano-Sahelian Office(UNSO), 1992. Experiences Mauritaniennes de Protection des Routes contre L'Ensablement.

Ministere du Developpement Rural, 1992. Rapport dEvaluation de la Table Ronde Internationale desDonateurs sur le Programme Multisectoriel de Lutte Contre La DJsertjfication (PMLACD), Nouakchott, 2-7May, 1992, Direction de la Protection de la Nature, Secretariat Permanent du Comite de Lutte Contre laDesertification.

Ministere du Developpement Rural et de l'Environnement, 1992. Projet de Lutte Contre l'Ensablement et deMise en Valeur Agro-Sylvo-Pastoral (PLEA'fVASP). De la Strategie Participative a la Perspective deResponsabilation Communautaire. Prepared by Dr. Taher Moustapha ould Saleh, FAO Consultant.

United Nations Sudano-Sahelian Office (UNSO), 1991. Sand Encroachment Control in Mauritania,Technical Publication Series.

World Bank, 1993. L ¶Etude Routier et l'Environnement, Sahelian Operations Review, InfrastructureDivision, Sahelian Department.

Pastoralism

Cheikh, Abdel Weddoud ould and Pierre Bonte, 1982. "Production Pastorale et Production Marchande dans laSociete Maure" in Contemporary Nomadic and Pastoral Peoples: Africa and Latin America, Studies in ThirdWorld Societies, No. 17.

Shanmugaratnam N. et al., 1991. Resource Management and Pastoral Institution Building in West AfricanSahel, report to the World Bank, prepared by NORAGRIC.

Oases

Food and Agriculture Organisation/ Centre d'Investissement (FAO/CP), Projet de Developpement des Oasis -Phase II: Rapport de Preparation, Programme de Cooperation FAO/FIDA.

Urban Environmental Problems

D'hont, Olivier 1986. "Les kebe (bidonvilles) de Nouakchott", Afrique Contemporaire Vol. 23 pp. 36-55.

Schissel, Howard 1984. "Nouakchott: Capital or Cancer?", West Africa 19 March, 1984

Societe de Construction et de Gestion Immobiliere de Mauritanie (SOCOGIM) et al., 1988. AmenagementdeTerrains Urbains: Nouakchott, Nouadhibou, Rosso, Koedi, Kiffa, by Daffa Bakari and Serge Theunyck.

World Bank, 1993. Staff Appraisal Report: Construction Capacity and Employment Project, ifrastructureDivision, Sahelian Department.

Coastal Fishing

African Business, 1982. "Mauritania, Senegal Push Fishing Rights," Vol 49 (September), pp. 49-55.

Gibbs, David, 1984. "The Politics of Economic Development: The Case of the Mauritanian FishingIndustry", African Studies Review, vol. 27, no. 4, December 1984, pp. 79-93.

Water

BURGEAP, 1988. Etude d'une Stratigie d'Alimentation en Eau en Milieu Rural, prepared for the Ministerede l'Hydraulique et de l'Energie.

Energy Conservation

Ministere du Developpement Rural, 1989. Etude Socio-Economique sur la Diffusion des Foyers Amelioresen Milieu Urbain: Cas de Nouakchott, prepared by Projet Diffusion des Foyers Ameliores.

United Nations Development Programrne (UNDP)/World Bank Energy Sector Management AssistanceProgranime (ESMAP), 1985. Republique Islamique de Mauritanie: Problemes et Choix Energetiques.

Biodiversity

Dugan Patrick ed., 1993. Wetlands in Danger, New York: Oxford, pp. 136-137.

IUCN, 1992. Mauritanie. Strategie Nationale de Conservation, prepared for the Government of the IslamicRepublic of Mauritania.

IUCN, 1992. Coastal Assessment of Parc National du Banc d'Arguin, Mauritania, A Marine Conservationand Development Report.

Prevost Yves, 1986. Etuides sur la Faune Mauritanie: Bilan et Recommandations, Programme deCooperation FAO/Gouvemement, report prepared for the Gouvemement de la Republique Islamique deMauritanie.

World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1993. Ecologically Sensitive Sites in Africa, Volume V: Sahel,prepared for the World Bank.

Land Tenure

Bloch, Peter et al., 1986. Land Tenure Issues in River Basin Development in Sub-Saharan Africa. LandTenure Center Research Paper No. 90. University of Wisconsin-Madison.

Grayzel, John, 1988. "Land Tenure and Development in Mauritania: The Causes and Consequences of LegalModemization in a National Context", Land and Society in Contemporary Africa, 1988, pp. 309-339.

Ministere du Developpement Rural et de l'Environnement, 1992. Bilan et Plan d'Action 1993-1997Reorganisation Fonciere et Domaniale.

Park Thomas et al., 1991. Conflicts over Land and the Crisis of Nationalism in Mauritania. Land TenureCentre, University of Wisconsin.

Environmental Legislation

Colas-Belcour, Francois, 1991. Elements de Propositions pour une Revision du Droit de la Protection de laNature de la Republique Islamique de Mauritanie, in cooperation with IUCN, Ministere de l'Environnement(France) and le Conseil National de la Chasse et de la Faune Sauvage (France).

Comite Permanent Inter-Etats de Lutte Contre la Secheresse (CILSS), 1988. Recueil des TextesReglementaires et LUgislatifs en Matihre de Gestion des Ressources Naturelles: Volume 7 -Mauritanie,published by le Service Ecologie Environnement Secretaniat Executif du CILSS, Burkina Faso.

MAP SECTION

IBRD 25383

12- MOROCCO _

MAURITANIA -ALGERIA

AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES SPRANI -

NATIONAL PARKS MAURITANIA

No-kd °tl AI

AGRO-ECOLOGOCAL ZONES: ' , I' MALI

SENEGAL RIVER AREA THE SENEGA,L NCAMBIA--,M.- NG

RAINFIELD AGRICULTURE GUNEAJl , FAS

28° FLOOD RECESSION AGRICULTURE MOROCCO u GLSNEA_. i

OASIS AGRICULTURE -28_ LEONE CEE )AN

PAVED ROADS _

- -- -* PAVED ROADS UNDER CONSTRUCTION

LATERITE/EARTH ROADS

------- TRAILS ALGERIARAILROADS

4 INTERNATIONAL AIRPORTS - -

PORTS

- - - INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES To. jBir lhrein

- - - - - INDICATES THE TERRITORY OF THE \ ,FORMER SPANISH SAHARA - - - - - -FO~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~N(WESTERN SAHARA) r MEr

-2A4 SPANISH ! -- --I24' -

0 50 100 150 200 250 SAHARAI I I I I I . .

KILOMETERS

MALI

--- - !v-- ---

La Guerroo' h v,R,fOucdone

BANC D'ARGUIN t Cingu ti

-20° >t /5O W->s 20'

fToa -, ;ITichitt

NCOJAKCHOTT .- ,

sol.. . CcongorCt UMec

5 , .ov~~~~~~~~~~~Tamchakett Ol

. 1<z-hR, , 9 -7Alog < ,j ~~~~~~~ ~ - .~A'q el Atrouss

D1AWLUNG0/Ro -_ -. i lc

16c~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1'

\ ' \( 0' °Nioro du Sohel M A L I

S E N E G A L - op do no,.Vpy, - dw p.rl f Th W-ld &-k Gp -yjudgrnon on tA. 6go sbIos of -oy Mrr,boy or any -ndorwn.nn or

j ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ocopbnc.o of such boondor,.s

16 12° 8.

NOVEMBER 1993