REPOR T RESUMESED 018 132 EM 006 189RADIO AND TELEVISION IN THE SERVICE OF EDUCATION ANDDEVELOPMENT IN ASIA. REPORTS AND PAPERS ON MASSCOMMUNICATION, NO. 49.UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL SCIENTIFIC AND CULT.ORGREPORT NUMBER B.-2266 PUB DATE 67

EDRS PRICE MF -$0.50 HC -$2.44 59P.

DESCRIPTORS- *EDUCATIONAL RADIO, *EDUCATIONAL TELEVISION,*DEVELOPING NATIONS, *PLANNING, RURAL DEVELOPMENT, ECONOMICDEVELOPMENT, LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT, VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT,EDUCATION, ADULT EDUCATION, ADULT FARMER EDUCATION,UNIVERSITY EXTENSION, *CONFERENCES, ASIA

PLANNING AUTHORITIES IN THE COUNTRIES OF ASIA SHOULDPLAN TO USE THE WIDE, INSTANTANEOUS RANGE AND INTIMATE APPEALOF BROADCASTING TO LIFT THE LOW LEVELS OF HEALTH, EDUCATION,PRODUCTIVITY, INCOME, MOTIVATION, AND NATIONAL INVOLVEMENT OFTHEIR PEOPLE. IN PLANNING FOR ITS USE IN FORMAL EDUCATION,THEY SHOULD ANTICIPATE NEEDS IN SCHOOL- BUILDING DESIGN,TEACHER EDUCATION, AND UNIVERSITY -TYPE BROADCASTS. INPLANNING FOR INFORMAL EDUCATION AND PROGRAMS OF NATIONALDEVELOPMENT, LISTENING CLUBS AND TELECLUBS SHOULD BE. PLANNEDFOR AND RECEIVERS MADE AVAILABLE. PROVISION SHOULD ALSO BEMADE FOR TRAINING IN EDUCATIONAL BROADCASTING AND FORINTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE OF PROGRAMS. THIS DOCUMENT ISAVAILABLE AS B.2266 FROM NATIONAL DISTRIBUTORS OF UNESCOPUBLICATIONS OR FROM THE DIVISION OF FREE FLOW OFINFORMATION, UNESCO, PLACE CE FONTENOY, PARIS.-7E1 FRANCE, FOR81.00. (MF) .

Rep

orts

and

Pap

ers

onM

ass

Com

mun

icat

ion

ED

0181

32

O. C

DM <

00

13) g 0-

to sv

z co 0) 0. 0) a. E

r+, M g

WI° o'

m cD 0

-cmpnapupmttaamopr"-

This series of Reports and Papers on Mass Communication is issued by the Division of FreeFlow of Information. Unless otherwise stated, the reports may be reproduced in full or in part,provided credit is given to Unesco. The following reports and papers have so far been issued andare obtainable from National Distributors of Unesco Publications or from the Division of FreeFlow of Information, Unesco, Place de Fontenoy, Paris-7e.

REPORTS AND PAPERS ON MASS COMMUNICATIONNumber

11 Paper for Printing (other than Newsprint) and Writing -1929.1931 Trends. March 1954 (out of print).12 Paper for Printing and Writing -Tentative Forecasts of Demand in 1955, 1960 and 1965. April 1954 (out of print).13 Tentative International Bibliography of Works Dealing with Press Problems (1900-1952). September 1954 (out

of print).14 Catalogues of Short Films and Filmstrips - Selected List. February 1955 ($0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 1 F).15 Catalogue of French Ethnographical Films. May 1955 ($0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 1 F).16 Television and Tele-Clubs in Rural Communities . July 1955 ($0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 0,50 F).17 International Rules for the Cataloguing of Educational, Scientific and Cultural Films and Filmstrips. Preliminary

edition, May 1956 (out of print).18 A Manual for Evaluators of Films and Filmstrips. May 1956 ($0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 1 F).(out of print).19 List of Films Recommended for Children and Adolescents up to 16 Years Following Selection made in 22 Countries.

June 1956 (out of print).20 Catalogue of 50 Popular Science Films. July 1956 (out of print).21 Current Mass Communication Research I - Bibliography of Books and Articles on Mass Communication Published

since 1 January 1955. December 1956 ($1; 5/- (Stg.); 2,50 F).22 Periodicals for New Literates: Editorial Methods. June 1957 ($0.75; 3/6 (Stg.); 1,50F).23 Cultural Radio Broadcasts. Some Experiences. December 1956 ($0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 1 F),24 Periodicals for New Literates. Seven Case Histories. November 1957 ($1; 5/- (Stg.); 3F). (out of print).25 Adult Education Groups and Audio-Visual Techniques. 1958 ($0.75 ; 3/6 eStg.); 2 F).26 The Kinescope and Adult Education. 1958 ($0.75; 3/6 (Stg.) ; 2 F), (out of print).27 Visual Aids in Fundamental Education and Community Development. 1959 ($0.75; 3/6 (Stg.); 2,50 F).(out of print).28 Film Programmes for the Young. 1959 (out of print).29 Film-making on a Low Budget. 1960 (out of print).30 Developing Mass Media in Asia. 1960 ($1.50; 7/6 (Stg.); 5,25 F).31 The Influence of the Cinema on Children and Adolescents. An Annotated International Bibliography. 1961

($1.50; 7/6 (Stg.); 5,25 F).(out of print).32 Film and Television in the Service of Opera and Ballet and of Museums. 1961 (out of print).33 Mass Media in the Developing Countries. A Unesco Report to the United Nations. 1961 ($0.50 ; 2/6 (Stg.); 1,75 F).34 Film Production by International Co-operation. 1961 ($0.50 ; 2/6 (Stg.); 1,75 F).35 World Film Directory. Agencies Concerned with Educational, Scientific and Cultural Films. 1962(81; 5/- (Stg.);3, 50 F).36 Methods of Encouraging the Production and Distribution of Short Films for Theatrical Use. 1962. ($0.50; 2/6 (Stg.);

1,75 F).37 Developing Information Media in Africa. Press, Radio, Film, Television. 1962 ($1; 5/- (Stg.); 3,50 F).38 Social Education through Television, 1963 ($0.50; 2/6 (stg.) 1,75).39 The Teaching Film in Primary Education, 1963 ($1 ; 5/- (stg.); 3,50 F).40 Study of the Establishment of National Centres for Cataloguing of Films and Television Programmes , 1963 ($0.50;

2/6 (stg.); 1,75 F) (out of print)41 Space Communication and the Mass Media, 1964 ($0.50; 2/6 (stg.); 1,75 F).42 Screen education.Teaching a critical approach to cinema and television 1964 ($1.00 5/- (stg.); 3,50 F.43 The Effects of Television on Children and Adolescents, 1964 160.75; 4/- (stg.);44 Selected List of Catalogues for Short Films and Filmstrips. 1963 Edition. 1965 ($0.75; 4/- (stg.); 3F).45 Professional Training for Mass Communication. 1965 ($0.75; 4/- (stg.); 3 F).46 Rural Mimeo Newspapers. 1965 ($0.75; 4/- (stg.); 3 F).47 Books for the Developing Countries: Asia, Africa. 1965 ($0.50; 3/- (stg.); 2F).48 Radio Broadcasting serves rural development. 1965 ($0.75; 4/- (stg.); 3F).

"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS

a6-0. AlaovECOPYRIGHTED MATERIAL HAS BEEN RANTED

Printed in the Workshops of theUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

Place de Fontenoy, Paris -7e

MC. 66. XVII. 49 APrinted in France© UNESCO 1967

Radio and televisionin the service ofeducation anddevelopment in Asia

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION & WELFARE

OFFICE OF EDUCATION

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE

PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT. POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS

STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDUCATION

POSITION OR POLICY.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE

THE CONTRIBUTION OF RADIO AND TELEVISION TO EDUCATIONAND DEVELOPMENT IN ASIA

FOREWORD

5

I. THE SITUATION IN ASIA . . 9

Broadcasting 9

The needs of education 9

II. THE APPLICATION OF BROADCASTING TO EDUCATION ANDDEVELOPMENT 12

Broadcasting, a public responsibility 12

Broadcasting as an instrument of education 13

Regional and world-wide co-operation 19

21

Structure of broadcasting organizations 21

Technical perspectives 22

Use of the media 23

III. GUIDELINES FOR ACTION

BROADCASTING IN ASIA - A SURVEY OF ITS USE FOREDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT

I. THE STATE OF BROADCASTING IN ASIAN COUNTRIES 29

II. THE STATE OF EDUCATIONAL BROADCASTING 31

Time devoted to educational broadcasts 31

Co-operation between broadcasting organizations andgovernment bodies 35

Group reception 35

36

38III.IV.

THE PRINCIPAL NEEDS

THE OUTLOOK FOR THE FUTURE

FINAL REPORT OF THE MEETING ON BROADCASTING IN THE SERVICEOF EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT IN ASIA

INTRODUCTION 40

41

The new approach 41

7 BROADCASTING AND NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 42

11. BROADCASTING AND EDUCATION 43

Formal education 43

Out-of-school education 45

III. STATUS AND ORGANIZATION OF BROADCASTING 46

IV. THE AUDIENCE 47

V. TRAINING 48

VI. INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION 50

ANNEX LIST OF PARTICIPANTS 53

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

PREFACE

This issue of the Reports and Papers on Mass Com-munication is devoted to the place of broadcastingin society, with special reference to the contribu-tion of broadcasting to social and economic develop-ment in Asia. The paper deals with the work of theMeeting on Radio and Television in the Service ofEducation and Development, convened by Unesco atBangkok, Thailand, 16-23 May 1966. It reproducesthe Conclusions and Recommendations of that Meet-ing, as well as the two working paper prepared forit which cover the subject in greater depth. Thetext of the two working papers was amended andapproved by the Meeting itself.

The subject covered is of conctries which seek to integrate the r

ern to all coun-esources of radio

and television into the planning and operation ofdevelopment and education programmes, and istherefore expected to be of interest beyond the re-gion which examined these issues with particularreference to its own problems.

The Bangkok Meeting was organized under theresponsibility of the Department of Mass Commu-nication, but conducted in close co-operation withthe Department of Education. Care was taken toinvite to the meeting not only personalities respon-sible for broadcasting but also outstanding educatorsfrom Asia. The recommendations are thus the out-come of a frank and fruitful dialogue and reflectthe views of both partners in the process of apply-ing radio and television broadcasting to education.

5

THE CONTRIBUTION OF RADIO AND TELEVISIONTO EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT IN ASIA*

FOREWORD

The purpose of the meeting convened at Bangkok wasto provide for those who are responsible for broadcast-ing, education and development in Asia, an opportunityto take a "new look" at the contribution which radioand television can make to the important tasks fac -ing them in their countries . The present documentpresents and analyses conditions and experiencesthroughout the world with respect to the application ofbroadcasting to education and national development,and raises issues for examination by the meeting.

The aim has been to indicate certain trendsand to open up a number of avenues for thought and

action. The document does not pretend to be ahandbook and does not propose any final solu-tions or propound any one doctrine. Neitherdoes it cover the technical aspects of broadcast-ing, which are primarily the responsibility ofthe International. Telecommunication Union, norattempt a factual survey of the present applica-tion of broadcasting to education and developmentin Asian countries, which is the subject of thesecond working document prepared on the basisof a survey undertaken in Member States

*This is the principal working paper distributed inadvance of the meeting.

7

I. THE SITUATION IN ASIA

BROADCASTING

In the countries of Asia, radio and television broad-casting has reached many different levels of develop-ment and shows numerous variations in organizationalstructure and programme content. In some countriet: ,radio broadcasting is still in its beginning and hard-ly reaches the outlying rural areas. In others, notonly radio but also television are firmly established.Twelve Asian Member States, however, are wellbelow the accepted minimum of 5 radio receiversfor every hundred people, and of the twelve Mem-ber States that have introduced television, only onecountry is well above the "Unesco minimum" of 2sets for every hundred people. Japanhas reachedthe impressive figures of 20 radio sets and 18 tele-vision sets for every hundred people.

As to the structure of broadcasting, we find alltypes of organization and financing represented inAsia. Many countries operate radio stations aspart of government departments . Yet in Japan andthe Philippines, numerous radio stations are con-trolled by private enterprise and non-governmentalorganizations . In television, the higher cost andimpact of the medium has led to an even greaterrange of variations, from governmental servicesas in Malaysia and India, to a public corporationoperating television in competition with commer-cial enterprise, as in Japan. In Thailand, televi-sion stations are operated by government depart-ments along strictly commercial lines, while incountries like Iran and the Philippines, televisionis primarily a field for private enterprise.

With regard to programming, the primary pur-pose of broadcasting stations everywhere appearsto be to attract the largest possible audience throughthe dissemination of information and entertainment.Such programming unquestionably contributes tobroadening the horizon of the audience, acquaint-ing it with national and international events and fa-miliarizing it with cultural life and technologicalprogress. But the deliberate, systematic use ofradio and television broadcasting for educationalpurposes is relatively scarce. In Japan, separate

broadcast channels are devoted to education andmany additional educational programmes are dis-seminated over networks serving the public atlarge. Many radio stations on the continent ofAsia disseminate regular programmes of agricul-tural information to rural audiences. The experi-mental television station in Indiais devoted entirelyto educational purposes and television in Malaysiacarries some 5 hours of broadly educational pro-grammes a week, devoted particularly to secondaryschool education and to the social education of adults.

Reports gathered for and at the meeting will nodoubt bring forth further information on specificeducational uses which are made of the broadcastmedium. Yet it would appear that in none of theAsian countries are the majority of programmehours aimed at promoting social and economic de-velopment and the expansion and improvement of theeducational system.

These manifold forms and uses of radio andtelevision broadcasting in Asia must be seen againstthe pressing economic and educational needs whichthese countries are facing.

THE NEEDS OF EDUCATION

Generalizations covering the educational and econo-mic situation of a region as vast and diversified asAsia are exceedingly difficult, and the present sec-tion attempts no more than a summary statement ofcertain salient features.

Density of population varies over a wide rangein Asia, but the average is higher than in any othercontinent. Although demographic data show seriousgaps for many countries of the region, it is likelythat some of the highest birth-rates in the world areto be found in Asia, and the general picture is oneof accelerating population growth resulting fromlarge reductions in mortality while birth-rates re-main high. This is directly reflected in the agestructure of the population, some 40% of which isunder 15 years of age, as compared with correspond-ing figures of approximately 32% and 26% in North

9

America and Europe respectively. Two of the con-sequences of this situation are of direct interest tothe present meeting: the size of the economicallyactive population is small in relation to the totalpopulation, thus making economic developmentmore complex and difficult, and at the same timethe education systems of the region carry a heavyload, given the fact that the school-age population(6-21 years) is some 35% of the total.

The developing countries of Asia have all adop-ted a policy of rapid economic growth, inparticularthrough industrial development, and while thereare wide national differences, the economies of theregion have since the fifties shown an average ann-ual growth rate of some 4%, or nearly four timesas fast as in the first half of the century. The mag-nitude of this change is the more impressive whenseen against the weight of the agricultural sector,which is so great in most of these economies thatits slow growth tends to depress overall nationalgrowth rates, and also against the falling worldprices for primary products, which in turnsevere-ly limit the possibility of importing capital andother goods required for development.

The social situation shows the same significantbut uneven progress, with considerable differencesnot only between countries but also within individualcountries, where there are indications that certainimportant and long-standing socio-economic inequali-ties may have widened in spite of the progress notedabove. It is beyond the scope of this paper to em-bark on a detailed analysis of these or of the widerquestion of social constraints on development towhich they point. In general terms, however, itmay be urged that one of the major tasks facingcountries in the region is that of revitalizing andrestructuring the human and social framework with-in which the development effort takes place.

This brings us immediately to the r8le andpresent situation of Asian education, as a majorfactor in social and economic change in the area.Primary, secondary and tertiary enrolments arenow roughly at the level of those in Western Europeat the beginning of this century. To take another com-parison, in 1962 the estimated number of studentsenrolled in Asia as a proportion of total populationwas 12%, whereas in 1955 (the nearest year for whichsuch data are available), the equivalent figures forNorth America, Europe and the USSR, were already23%, 15% and 16% respectively. Over the last tenyears enrolments have grown at all levels in theregion, with a number of spectacular increases atprimary level and a perceptible beginning of ashift of effort towards secondary and higher educa-tion, although it is at these latter levels that thedifference between the developing countries of Asiaand the developing countries of other regions re-mains the most significant (secondary enrolmentsas percentages of total population in the developedcountries elsewhere are 3 to 4 times higher than inthe region, tertiary enrolments 5 to 9 times higher).

10

Within these global figures, a number of prob-lems may be noted. Throughout the region, thedistribution of educational facilities and opportuni-ties is markedly irregular, not only between butalso within countries. The urban-rural imbalancein education works heavily in favour of the citiesand towns, and a negative attitude towards the edu-cation of girls and women is still prevalent in somecountries. The presence of poverty and attendantpoor health and nutrition, inability to buy schoolclothing and supplies, child labour and family dis-organization accelerated by internal urban emigra-tion all combine to exclude large groups of the eligiblepopulation from school attendance.

The preceding paragraphs on education dealwith enrolment and the distribution of educationalfacilities. Important though these considerationsare, they should not obscure one of the centralproblems for Asian education, that of wastage. Ithas been estimated that for the region as a whole,of 100 children who enter grade I only 40 reachgrade V, and at secondary level, only 50% to 55%of those studying in the terminal grade graduatesuccessfully. Solution of the problem depends ona number of factors, including training of teachers(and teacher-educators), curriculum development,texts and materials (including audio-visual aids),promotion and examination policy, educational re-search, buildings and equipment. To take the prob-lem of teacher training alone, the school-levelteaching force is estimated to have increased overthe last decade at a rate significantly lower thanthe rate of increase of enrolments . Further, fig-ures available for 9 countries of the region (coun-tries which however account for some 75% of schoolenrolments therein) show that around 1961-1962 anaverage of some 30% of the primary teachers and23% of the secondary teachers had received no pro-fessional training. An even higher percentage hadreceived only partial training. In both cases theporportion was highest in rural areas.

The foregoing deals with formal education asat present established in the region. To this shouldbe added all those educational activities which maybe loosely characterized as education out of school,including adult and youth education, and educationfor literacy, and which are themselves other as-pects of that integrated educational process whichhas been summarized in the phrase "continuing edu-cation". Here significant statistical data arelargely lacking, although the magnitude of the prob-lem is apparent (estimated unenrolled children,youth out of school and adult population, age-group6-50 in 1962: 513 million), as well as its signifi-cance for the overall social and economic develop-ment of the region. Among the immediate tasks inthis respect are those which stem from the highnumbers of illiterates at present, the additionalilliterates who are to be expected from among thoseyoung people who may not have access to formal edu-cation over the next two decades or more (or who

leave school prematurely), and the young peoplewho leave school inadequately prepared for lifeand work (or those, together with adults, who needretraining or upgrading). To these more imme-diately vocational concerns should be added thetask of cultural preservation and social adaptationthrough continuing education, including inter aliathe creation of a climate favourable to socialchange and capable of softening its harsher inci-dences. Over the whole range, because of themagnitude of the problem, a selective strategy isrequired initially, aimed at identifying those sec-tors of the population where personal and socio-economic motivation is strongest.

At the recent Conference of Ministers ofEducation and Ministers responsible for EconomicPlanning of Member States in Asia (Bangkok,22-29 November 1965), the Ministers examinedthe quantitative educational targets established atthe preceding meetings in Karachi and Tokyo,

within the framework of overall social and eco-nomic development plans and possibilities. Inaddition, they singled out for close attention andfor future action certain matters more closelyaffecting the quality and content of education, in-cluding the training of teaching and supervisorystaff; research; adult, youth, family and literacyeducation; the education of girls and women;vocational and technical (including agricultural)education; and curriculum development, includingscience education. Considerable emphasis wasalso laid on research into and development ofaudio-visual techniques which because of theirpedagogical efficacy and their possibilities oflarge-scale coverage were considered essentialto a prompt, economical and effective solution ofthe quantitative and qualitative problems outlinedin the course of this section. These considera-tions are of particular interest, and pose a mostappropriate challenge, to the present meeting.

11

II. THE APPLICATION OF BROADCASTINGTO EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT

There seems little qu ltion that radio and televisionbroadcasting are capable of making a significantcontribution to solving some of Asia's pressingproblems . But such a contribution presupposesnew approaches to the basic purposes of broadcast-ing, the development of thebroadcast media them-selves and consistent, expanded application of themedia to educational objectives.

BROADCASTING, A PUBLIC RESPONSIBILITY

Broadcasting may be used for many sectional pur-pos .;3 . It maybe the exclusive tool of the governmentor the party in power; it may serve primarily poli-tical and propaganda purposes; it may be a domainfor private commercial enterprise; it may onlyprovide entertainment; it may be exclusively anagency for information and education; it may be apower for centralization, or it may in turn be en-tirely local in scope and organization; it may pri-marily transmit programmes produced in othercountries, or it may have a purely national or re-gional character .

None of these partial utilizations responds tothe overall potential of broadcasting. Each utiliza-tion may be justifiable in its own right, but over-riding them all is the right of the public to be served .Just as a system of roads in a given country cannotbe limited to exclusive use by government vehiclesor tourist traffic, to local communications or trans-country traffic, broadcasting should be available tomeet the overall needs of the nation and its citizens .

Today, it is necessary to consider broadcast-ing as part of a country's so-called "infrastructure".While it is firmly accepted that harbours, roads,railways, waterways, electricity, post, telephoneand telegraph services belong to this infrastructure,for which funds must be invested which do not neces-sarily yield immediate and clearly identifiable re-sults, it is not generally recognized that broad-casting, and in particular educationalbroadcasting,belongs to the same category. Like schools, whichare the subject of public policy and whose signifi-cance is not judged in terms of immediate profits,

12

_vamoupmmimmimigigf, Offeffer

the establishment and use of broadcasting facilitiesrepresent a long-range investment expected to con-tribute to the promotion of the human and materialresources of a nation. Like investment in educa-tion, these resources should be expected to yieldresults in the form of an infc.med, motivated andskilled public, and in the increasing availability ofproductive manpower .

Public concern and responsibility for broad-casting do not imply any particular form of owner-ship, management or control. They mean no morethan that the organization and operation of broad-casting should be so designed as to meet the bestinterests of the citizens. In other words, that itshould be a force for the change and evolution ofsociety.

As we shall discuss more fully in subsequentchapters, such public concern maybe applied to alltypes of broadcasting organizations; governmentowned, public corporations, private enterprises,or blends of any of these . Each structure bringswith it the danger of broadcasting serving partisanor partial interests, and failing to be available forthe manifold purposes it is able to fulfil . Each formof ownership or control may run counter to the pub-lic nature of broadcasting which is inherent in itsvery technological and social foundations .

The number of frequencies available for thetransmission of radio and television broadcasts islimited. Only orderly control and assignment canavoid chaos and interference . Broadcast frequen-cies are therefore considered a basic national pro-perty which may be assigned to particular agenciesfor temporary use subject to considerations of na-tional policy. The nation can never divest itself ofits primary right to one of its essential and limitedresources.

Broadcasting takes place in the public marketand has a profound impact upon individuals andsociety as a whole . No public activity of this kindcan escape public concern, for the essence of astable society is the proper adjustment of its forcesso that none will encroach excessively upon thepublic and private interests of its citizens . This

notion is well recognized in many other fields .Commerce and industry, conditions of work andhealth, urbanization and the use of water, the edu-cation of children and even the moral behaviour ofthe individual are all subject to social controls inthe public interest. It is difficult to see whybroad-casting should escape this general rule which isapplied to all societies, whatever their social struc-ture, for the evident reason that without such con-trols society would break down into chaos .

Broadcasting has a profound impact on the eco-nomic life of the country . Not only is it an importantindustry in its own right, but its impact on the eco-nomy is inevitable and profound . It constitutes oneof the nerve centres of a modern industrialized andcommercialized society . It can stimulate and guideproductive activities . Its use for commercial pub-licity has a direct impact on production and conesumption, on import and foreign exchange .

Broadcasting is a powerful force in the politicallife of a nation. The constitution of a country, theworking of its political machinery, the rights andduties of the citizen, are everywhere recognizedas matters of supreme national significance . Therole of broadcasting in political life and in the for-mation of a national and international society thuscannot escape the domain of public responsibility.

The educational significance of broadcastingis only one of the factors calling for public policytowards it . Education has long been recognized apublic responsibility. Failure to apply broadcast-ing systematically to the needs of education anddevelopment means failure to meet this responsi-bility, recognized by governments and nationseverywhere.

BROADCASTING AS AN INSTRUMENT OFEDUCATION

Education a life-long process from early childhoodto mature age, is of direct concern not only to thoseattending institutions of formal instruction but tothe population at large. The fact that broadcastingis a mass medium, the impact of which is not con-fined to particular social strata or geographic areas,makes it an especially valuable tool in the pursuitof this life-long education, which Unesco's AdvisoryCommittee for the Advancement of Adult Educationhas defined as follows: "the animating principle ofthe whole process of education, regarded as con-tinuing throughout an individual's life from hisearliest childhood to the end of his days, and there-fore calling for integrated organization. The neces-sary integration should be achieved both verticallythrough the duration of life, and horizontally tocover all the various aspects of life for individualsand societies" .

What is needed is a completely new approach tothe problem of education . This need was stressed bythe Director-General of Unesco when he addressedthe Conference of Ministers of Education and Minis-ters responsible for Economic Planning of Unesco'sMember States in Asia (Bangkok, November 1965):

"The ever-changing conditions of our present civi-lization, as well as the unceasing expansion andrenewal of human knowledge, make it mandatoryfor every man and woman constantly to bring uptodate whatever he or she learnt earlier in life . Edu-cation therefore becomes less concerned with theteaching of a static content which would equip forlife once and for all, than with teaching how tolearn - and to learn continuously. Education isalso a continuing process in this sense that, beingat every point capable of being supplemented byfurther knowledge , it must be integrated, verticallyso to speak, through its various levels . The bar-riers between formal school education and otherkinds of education break down in this new approach;the educational process appears as a continuum,from literacy to higher education."

In this educational process, radio and televi-sion broadcasting have today a privileged, thoughof course not isolated or self-sufficient, importancein developing countries. Frequently they are theprincipal or only channel to reach the rural areasand illiterate parts of the population regularly.

While each medium has its own specific charac-teristics, assets and limitations, they share cer-tain common and peculiar features which placethem in a particularly favourable position to makea contribution to society:They are independent of traditional ground commu-nications and can reach any place anywhere (parti-cularly once space communications are being used),unhampered by mountains, swamps and deserts .Everyone can receive their message - literatesand illiterates alike - which makes their appealuniversal.Their instantaneousness and flexibility of produc-tion enable them to adapt themselves more thanany other medium to changing ideas and conditions .They address themselves to the entire personalityof the listener or viewer, as their programmingcan range widely over information, education andentertainment.They have both emotional and intellectual appealand can thus be powerful agents of motivation aswell as a information.They can be received both by individuals and bygroups, 'thus penetrating into the intimacy of thehome or acting as agents for group formation andcommunity action.Radic; is relatively cheap in production and recep-tion, and the latter is independent of the availabilityof electricity.Television, while more expensive, makes up for itthrough the more profound impact, thanks to thecompleteness of its audio-visual presentation, andits greater suitability for group reception to befollowed by group discussion and action.Radio, and especially television, are the most"personal" of all mass media of communication,as they establish an almost intimate relationshipbetween the speaker and the distant listener orviewer .Their wide instantaneous rangemakes them effective

13

agents of national and international co-operationand understanding.

Inevitably, these important assets are accom-panied by certain deficiencies. The broadcastmedia lack the spontaneous interaction of teacherand student; they lack the permanency of the print-ed work; they tend towards centralization and donot adapt themselves easily to local conditions andpreoccupations; they require a technical infra-structure and suitable maintenance. These andother limitations underline the importance of com-bining their use with other media of communication,and underpinning them with an organizational andmaintenance structure,

1. School education

primary and secondary school education, broad-cast media may fulfil four distinct though closelyinterrelated functions:(a) They may enrich the classroom lessorialivenby the teacher, provIzle illustrations, introducenew material not available La textbooks, and linkthe school closer with the outside world. Thishas been the first and by now almost traditionaluse of school broadcasting, based on the assump-tion that schools are adequately staffed with qualifiedteachers but that the 3e.arning process might wellbenefit from programmes which infuse interestand vitality. It is also practised in a number ofAsian countries, but there seems to be a growingfeeling that such use of broadcasting i a relativelyexpensive luxury and does not contribute sufficientlyforcefully to fulfilling the pressing needs of theeducational system.(b) Broadcasting may provide direct instruction,particularly in subjects where the school-teachermay be expected to have inadequate qualificationsor where educational materials are either lackingor outdated. Significant fields in which this ap-proach is now being applied to an ever greaterdegree - for instance, in countries as far apart ineconomic and educational development as India andJapan are the teaching of the natural sciences, ofmathematics, of geography and of modern languages.Such programmes, of course, also enhance the in-terest and visual perception of the students, pro-vide instruction where none might have beenavailable before and are also an efficient way oftraining teachers in service who view the programmes,with their class. The role of the teacher is vitalwith regard to both the enrichment and the instruc-tional programmes. It is his function to prepareand follow up the programmes in the classroomand to apply his pedagogical skills so that the infor-mation provided by broadcasting is assimilated bythe individual student.(c) The in-service training of teachers may beserved not only in this indirect way but may alsobe one of the main purposes of broadcast program-mes coupled perhaps with such techniques ascorrespondence teaching and programmed instruc-tion. Such use which is already practised in some

14

Asian countries serves the long-term improvementof education. Most countries of Asia suffer fromthe inadequate qualifications of teachers in ser-vice and require means to guide and instruct theseteachers, however remote their schools may befrom urban centres.

In addition, it is evident that many teachers,particularly in primary schools and rural areas,suffer from their isolation and are longing for op-portunities not only to advance their knowledgeand skills but to maintain continuous communica-tion with educators elsewhere. The use of radioand television to provide such in-service trainingand to be a forum for the discussion of issuesclose to the work and life of the teacher is hardlypractised in Asia, or even in most other parts ofthe world. Nevertheless, it may prove in thelong run to be perhaps the most effective educa-tional use of broadcasting, for while a programmebroadcast to schoolchildren will have to be repeatedyear after year for the same grade, programmesfor teachers have a multiplying, long-range andlasting effect. Broadcasting organizations maybe reluctant to schedule programmes for whatwould appear to be a relatively small number oflisteners or viewers, but the mass impact of suchprogrammes is likely to be much greater thanbroadcasts aimed at a far larger audience. Further-more, such programmes for teachers may also beemployed to guide them in the better use of othereducational programmes.(d) The use of broadcasting, and in particular oftelevision with its more complete impact, to createschools literally "out of the air" should be con-sidered as a fourth alternative. Points 1 to 3imply that schools with teachers exist in the com-munity and that broadcasting simply serves toitaprove instruction. In fact, however, manychildren have no opportunity at all to receive edu-cation because there are simply no schools.

The NHK Correspondence High School in Japanand Telescuola in Italy are significant new experi-ments in such conditions. It may well be envisagedthat classes in Asian countries will gather aroundthe television screen and that the bulk of instructionwill be provided over the air. To assure peda-gogical preparation, follow-up and supervision,literate monitors who do not have proper teachingqualifications may be sufficient. Such a systemwould have to be coupled with some elements ofcorrespondence teaching and correction of writtenwork at pedagogical centres.

It may be argued that a system such as thiscould not match the educational effectiveness of afully-fledged school system, but on the other handthe education provided in this manner might go along way towards closing the serious gap whichexists today and which needs to be bridged as rapidlyas possible.

Experience appears to indicate that the eco-nomical and effective use of radio, television andother audio-visual media in schools can only beaccomplished if they are given real importance in

the educational process and if the organization ofeducation and the facilities available permit theiruse. In this connexion, countries are giving in-creasing attention to two issues:(a) The construction of school buildings which areplanned in advance for the use of the media andprovide the kind of seating arrangement, electri-city outlets, darkening devices, etc., which makeit less costly to use the new media. Here is afield for wide investigation in both the developedand the developing countries.(b) The revision of the types of problems posedin examinations so that the particular contributionsof the new media can also* reflected in academicachievement. In India, for instance, it was notedthat as long as examinations in English emphasizedthe written word, the particular asset of televisionin improving speaking and comprehension of thewritten word was of little use to the student whoaimed at passing his degree. In other subjectswhere broadcasting can introduce up-to-date know-ledge, similar problems have been encountered.

2. University education

The use of radio and television as closed-circuitsystems within institutions is beyond the scope ofthis paper. What is of importance, however, istomake university teaching, particularly in the tech-nological fields, as widely accessible as possible,not only to students within a campus, but also toothers who cannot attend such courses becausethey live far away, or are at work, or simply be-cause universities cannot accommodate morestudents. It is herethat the establishment of uni-versity-type broadcast s , which disseminate instruc-tion in one or more subjects to students - who canalso be given opportunities for intermittent personalsupervision has particular importance. Currentexperiences with this type of university instructionin Japan, the U.S.A. and the USSR would seem toindicate that here lies a future for countries ofAsia also. Unesco is currently co-operating withthe Government of Poland in a nation-wide pilotproject to study the use of television for providingthe first two years of teaching in engineering andthe establishment of a complete university of theair is under active consideration in the UnitedKingdom.

In addition to such systematic courses, uni-versities play an important role in the dissemina-tion of knowledge and culture to a broader audience, asfor instance in the "University of the Air" broadcastby the Australian Broadcasting Commission.

3. Adult education

Practically all radio programmes have a certaineducational significance, if only in the sense ofconveying to isolated listeners in remote villagesor lonely mountain stations a sense of participa-tion. The feeling of being part of a whole makesfor a better citizen; in fact, it seems to be the

pre-condition for being a citizen in the politico-sociological sense of the word.

Broadcasting is also the main disseminatorof news and information. For people living indispersed areas, for illiterates, for the poor whocould not afford to buy a newspaper even if theycould read it, radio and potentially televisionbroadcasts are very often the only means of learn-ing what is happening in the world, including theirown country. Information influences and shapesthe opinion of people. The selection and presenta-tion of news is, therefore, more than any othertype of broadcast, a means of orienting and educat-ing people.

Practically all general programmes, such asmusic, plays and other forms of entertainmenthave a potential educational significance inasmuchas they acquaint the listener or viewer with theculture of his time and age, though they may equal-ly be debasing in their effect.

Yet it would be failing to use broadcasting asa precious national resource if no systematic,conscious effort were made to render adult educa-tion a component part of regular programming.

(a) Popularization of knowledge

Our era witnesses the breakdown of the monopolyof knowledge formerly held by certain social orintellectual classes, and even by certain countries.In the democratic process of providing access toknowledge and familiarity with the results ofscientific investigation to the public at large andto entire nations hitherto kept in ignorance,radio and television play a crucial role.

We live in an age of science and technology.In order that we may understand the world inwhich we live, the popularization of scientificand technical knowledge is indispensable. Tele-vision offers many opportunities to report,demonstrate and explain scientific achievementsand experiments, and to visualize even relativelycomplicated natural, physical and chemicalphenomena.

Among scientific subjects which lend them-selves to dissemination by radio, and in particularby television, we may, among others, retain thefollowing:

accomplishments in the application of scienceto industry and agriculture;

the results of scientific research in biology,zoology and geology, which provide familiarity withthe phenomena of plant, animal and mineral life,and enable people to cope better with tasks in ruralconditions;

new approaches in mathematics, from simplearithmetic to modern concepts;

physics and chemistry, whose accomplishmentsare changing the very environment of man and pro-viding him with new tools and materials.

In the Humanities , our knowledge and approachesare equally undergoing profound transformation,with which the general public must be acquainted so

15

that it may keep abreast of the changing pace ofsociety.

The political and social aspects of a developingcountry's own history are often less well known thanEuropean history and, in particular, the history offormer colonial powers. But nothing seems to bemore important for fostering a spirit of self-relianceand nationhood than a common awareness of the iden-tity and continuity of a historical process. With ar-chaeology, ethnology and anthropology expanding ourknowledge of social conditions of the past and present,more and more programme material becomesavailable to confront adult audiences with new histori-cal findings.

The geography of developing counneighbouring countries and of theithe subject of very attractive tparticularly if these depitures of the countriethere. Do cum enplaces are pathey entmos

ries, of theircontinents, can be

elevision programmes,t not only the physical fea -

but also the people who liveary programmes on people and

rticularly potent educationally becausertain while they educate. They are also

suitable for programme exchanges as they fostera spirit of mutual understanding and appreciation.

Human sciences, particulary sociology, philoso-phy, and the history of philosophical and political ideas,offer innum erable topic s for broadcasts and are in-dispensable in creating a spirit of citizenship andsocial responsibility.

(b) Civic educationFamiliarity with these advances in the Humanities isan essential foundation for civic education. Such edu-cation is vital in the process of forming national unityand a world society, and in enabling the people to par-ticipate actively and in an orderly manner in publicaffairs. Through its news reports, through documen-taries and through the presence in front of the micro-phone or camera of leaders in public life, broadcastingengenders awareness and understanding of thepolitical processes.

The presentation of the functioning of government-al institutions (parliament, government ministriesand the judiciary system) and of public services(schools, postal and medical services, railroads) ,tends to remove primitive suspicions and to createconfidence and a spirit of national or community pride,and involves the individual in public affairs, inducinghim to take an active part in them.

Thanks to the vividness of its presentation,particularly on television, broadcasting can dis-seminate rapidly and to avast public new approachesand practices in health and nutrition. Experiencesof the teleclubs in India and the Une s co pilot projectat Dakar, Senegal, in the use of television for theeducation of illiterates in new practices of healthand nutrition, testify to the potential effectivenessof the medium in this field.

The education of women is the key to improvingconditions of home life and practices in the raising ofchildren as well as in very many other aspects. Herebroadcasting, which is the only medium of communica-tion to reach the intimacy of the home of a largely

16

illiterate sector of the population, has an exceedinglyimportant role to play. Programmes for womenregularly received by groups frequently become trust-ed monitors who help wives and mothers to adapt them-selves to the changes in society around them.

When raising public issues of social significance,from the water supply to the planningof cities, fromthe education of children to providing for the aged,broadcasting not only informs but stimulates socialawareness and action.

Radio and television are popular among youngpeople and unquestionably exercise considerable in-fluence upon them, although the degree of their specificimpact is a matter of controversy. There is no ques-tion but that on the one hand broadcast programmesmay disseminate ideas and concepts which add to theproblems of youth, separate the young from the cultureof their parents, and produce harmful notions from amoral or civic point of view. On the other hand, thesemedia have particular value in opening the eyes ofyouth to national and world affairs, and in assistingthem to find their way both professionally and as citi-zens. How to develop the best programmes for youthwhile avoiding potentially harmful pitfalls is a majorissue of concern to broadcasters, educators andparents alike.

(c) Language teachingProgrammes in adult education may not aim at teach-ing people how to speak, but they can well teach peoplehow to speak with each other, I.2. teach them a com-mon language. This is of particular importance incountries where large minorities do not speak thenational language. Language courses on the radiohave been conducted throughout the world with greatsuccess. It has been fully established that radio is asuitable tool for language teaching and languagepractice.

Television, because of its visual component whichpresents sample situations with greater realism andenables students to watch the lip movements of the in-structor, is an even more effective medium of languageinstruction than radio.

Language instruction can well be combined with:literacy teaching; civic education; instruction invocational skills; in other words, it may become"functional" language teaching.

4. LiteracyRadio and television can be of considerable value inthe world-wide campaign to eradicate illiteracy.

The objectives of this campaign which aims firstof all at functional literacy in selected regions of par-ticular signficance to economic development, wereestablished by the World Congress of Ministers ofEducation on the Eradication of Illiteracy, convenedby Unesco in Teheran in September 1965. This con-cept of a selective strategy to achieve functional liter-acy underlies the first three experimental projectswhich are being launched with the assistance of theUnited Nations Development Programme in Algeria,Iran and Mali.

We may distinguish four distinct phases of this

campaign: public motivation, encouragement ofindividual learners, instruction in literacy work,achievement of functional literacy and follow-up.Radio and television can make specific contribu-tions to each of these phases:

Public motivationPublic motivation is a vital element in any literacycampaign. Literacy is of concern to the nation as awhole, literates and illiterates alike. A campaign canbe successful only when all sections of society areconvinced of its importance and are ready to makematerial and personal contributions. Only when theconsciousness of the nation is aroused can the cam-paign hope to succeed. Public motivation, therefore,is of importance for the literates, who can help in thecampaign, and for the illiterates, who should benefitfrom it. Radio and television, which reach the entirepopulation day after day, are among the primary toolsto arouse the nation to the importance of the literacycampaign.

Encouragement of individual learnersBeyond general motivation, individual learners mustbe encouraged to enlist in literacy classes and to per-sist in their attendance. Here, radio and televisioncan be particularly u seful as media around which lis-tening or viewing groups are constituted. Experienceshows that such groups, which at first may come to-gether primarilyto discuss broadcast programmesand envisage follow-up action on the community level,soon express the desire to receive literacy instructionalso, and that the regularity and interest of broadcastreception helps to counteract the wide tendency formassive drop-out of learners.

Instruction in literacy workWhile experience inthe use of radio for direct instruc-tion in the skills of literacy is inconclusive, the morecomplete medium of television shbws every promiseof becoming an important tool for the teaching ofreading and writing.

Achievement of functional literacyand follow-up

The many potential contributions of radio and tele-vision to social education and vocationalorientationand training, indicated elsewhere in this paper,demonstrate the value of the broadcast media inall efforts aimed at obtaining functional literacy.

In short, radio and television broadcasting,which appeal to the emotions and the reason of allmen irrespective of their degree of literacy, arewell suited to the education of illiterates and theiradaptation to a society in rapid change. Theycreate a climate of curiosity, of new attitudes ofmind and new practices, which are favourable con-ditions for a successful literacy campaign.

Audio-visual methods and television used inliteracy instruction relate it to the outlook andperception of the illiterate; they illustrate instruc-tion in reading, writing and arithmetic so that thelearner can make a transition from his previous

visual concepts to the new symbolism of the writ-ten word or figure. Broadcasting is also an ef-fective tool for the training and guidance ofmonitors, instructors or animators of a literacycampaign dispersed over a wide geographic area.

5. Training and guidance of educators

Not only teachers-in-service but also adult edu-cation leaders, group organizers, convenors,literacy monitors, social workers and others en-gaged in adult education, may receive trainingandguidance through broadcasting. As it is frequentlydifficult to gather such personnel for seminarsand training courses, particularly when they aredispersed over a wide area, their continuoustrair.-ing and guidance through broadcast media is ofparticular importance. Such guidance may alsoaim at improving the use that is made of adulteducational, programmes.

IMPACT OF BROADCASTING ONDEVELOPMENT

In national development, broadcasting can serveas an important agent of social change and action.Broadcasting may be expected to help accomplishthe transition to new customs and practices and,very often, to different social relationships. Be-hind changes in behaviour there always lie changesin attitudes, beliefs, skills and social norms.

To make a lasting contribution to development,broadcasting will thus seek to address itself to thelistener or viewer not only as a producer or agentof economic activity but as a whole man; it willhave to have both socio-psychological and imme-diately practical objectives.

To highlight the r8le of broadcasting in thepromotion of social and ecor,omic development, weshall limit ourselves to a consideration of someof its principal aspects.

1. Rural development

In rural areas, both radio and television haveclearly established themselves as powerful forcesof transformation. Evidence of this is the long ex-perience with rural radio forums in India, theimpact of rural teleclubs in Japan and the growthof agricultural broadcasts in many other Asiancountries. Programmes addressed to rural radioforums have proved effective because of theirpractical content, which stimulates the peasant toexplore new practices in agriculture, healthfamily relations and other fields of interest to hislife. Their particular significance lies in thefact that these programmes are received and dis-cussed in a group which may then decide uponcommunity follow-up action, and that channels areprovided so that the village can react back to thebroadcasting stations and the ministries co-operating in the production of the programmes.In this way; the villagers can put questions or make

17

comments based on their own experience and ideasand thus become an active partner in the introduc-tion of new practices. Thus the centralizedmediumof broadcasting may be adapted to local conditionsand the authorities are able to receive continuousreports on the practical effectiveness of the guid-ance they are providing at the village level.

Experience shows that peasants will adopt newand more efficient methods of production only whenthey are generally prepared to make changes intheir traditional way of life. Moreover, theirability to produce is closely linked with their con-ditions of health, the status of women, the educa-tion of children and other aspects of communityenvironment. By addressing themselves to thewhole man, and by reaching simultaneouslyhundreds of villages over a widely dispersed area,rural radio broadcasts prove to be the most ef-ficient form of education designed to increaseproduction and to improve conditions. Thesebroadcasts are not self-sufficient but requiresystematic organization of group listening and two-way communication; but once the system is at work,governments have at their disposal what is perhapsthe most efficient tool for the transformation ofrural society(1),

2. Industrialization

With regard to the introduction and development ofindustrialization, the impact of broadcasting is lessdirect. However, here too it may be of consider-able value. In a general way, it may be statedthatnation-wide broadcasting promotes national inte-gration and thus the creation of a national market.As a nerve centre of society, broadcasting assistsin the co-ordination of national economic activitiesand the promotion of a money economy. Broad-casting is both the result and the stimulator ofmodernization. It is part of an evolution towardsa way of life which includes the much wider use ofthe products of industrialization.

Of more specific importance is the use ofbroadcasting for vocational orientationand educa-tion. Radio and television can provide widespreadfamiliarity with vocational outlets for availablemanpower. By giving an insight into the activitiesof specialized workers, of trades and professions,these media provide orientation to the young andtopeople forced to change their occupation. Theyalso provide an opportunity for planning authoritiesto direct manpower resources towards desiredends.

Radio is limited in vocational training itself,but it may be applied to this end in combinationwith correspondence teaching, organized groupreception and local supervision. Television is al-ready proving effective in this field. Variouscountries are giving courses in cattle breeding andthe milking of cows, in the elements of electricity,in the handling of slide rules and the abacus: onemight well envisage instruction in many othermechanical trades, from plumbing to welding.

18

MINIIII1110awkww...--

One of the principal obstacles to the introductionof modern facilities in developing countries isfrequently the absence of craftsmen skilled in theirinstallation and maintenance. The application oftelevision to this field might thus have a far-reaching impact.

Finally, the existence of broadcasting is initself an economic enterprise of considerable im-portance. Broadcasting organizations are usuallylarge public or private enterprises which providejobs for thousands of highly skilled people andwhich use, and therefore have to buy, sophisticatedand expensive machinery. Broadcasting alsocalls for the creation of new industries, particu-larly in the production or assembly of receiversets. Together with the sales and maintenanceservices which have to be set up, this industry isan important economic factor.

To sum up, broadcasting can make importantcontributions to development because:

it contributes to the modernization of produc-tion methods, particularly in agriculture whereinnovations depend upon the willingness of individualpeasants to introduce them;

it increases the resources of productive man-power;

it promotes the establishment of new industrialand service organizations;

it may stimulate consumer demand and thetransition from a barter to a money economy.

3. Economic considerations

The foregoing section has indicated that radio andtelevision broadcasting can make a significant con-tribution to national development.

But what are the economic implications ofusing broadcasting for these purposes? What arethe costs to society as a whole and to individualgovernment departments? And what are the eco-nomic benefits which may be derived?

While it is not possible to give specific figuresapplicable to individual countries or conditions,certain general considerations may be of value tothose responsible for calculating the economicimplications of applying radio and television toeducational and development purposes.

The total cost of establishing and operating abroadcasting organization with its production,transmission and administrative facilities, itspersonnel and operating costs need be imputed toeducation and development only if they are non-existent today and will be used exclusively forthese purposes in the future. In actual practicethis is not the normal situation because:

radio broadcasting exists in all countries ofAsia;

television exists in some countries and isbeing introduced in others for commercial,

-03----"Radio Broadcasting serves Rural Develop-ment", No. 48 of Reports and Papers onMass Communication, Unesco.

political and entertainment purposes;application of radio and television to education

and development implies in most cases, therefore, nomore than an expansion of existing facilities (both pro-duction and transmis sion) , and operating budgetsforthe production of specific programme series;

an expansion of educational programming mightwell be undertaken at the expense of other programmeobjectives, and thus not require a corresponding budg-etary increase;

the principal expenditures on equipment for spe-cifically educational purposes consist in the installa-tion and maintenance of the necessary receivers.

Application of broadcasting to developmentimplies above all that it is available in the very areasrequiring its support; this may involve, for instance,extension of radio transmission signals to rural areascurrently poorly served. Such extension will bring tothese areas information and entertainment as wells.'educational programmes. In this, as in many other .cases, the extent to which investment is to beattribu-ted educational objectives will thus roughly dependupon the percentage of educational and developmentprogrammes carried by the broadcasting organiza-tion.

With regard to estimating the economic effective-ness of broadcasting, one may take three differentapproaches:(a) The use of broadcasting may be compared withother more traditional methods in education and acomparative estimate made as to the relative costofone method as against another. The advantage of thisapproach is that it compares broadcasting with arelatively known factor, namely the unit cost of tradi-tional forms of education. The disadvantage is thatsuch an approach does not allow sufficiently for thoseaccomplishments of broadcasting which exceed, ineither quantity or quality, those of other methods. Inother words, broadcasting may frequentlybring re-sources to the educational process which would notbe available in any other form .(b) The second approach, therefore, is primarilyto estimate the additional contribution which broad-casting makes to an established educational system(both school and adult education). Examples arethe value of in-service training given to teacherswho do not receive such training at the presenttime; the instruction of children in subjects whichare not adequately taught, or even the provisionof schooling for children in places without regularschools; the provision of adult education for lis-teners or viewers who have no other opportuntiesto receive such education.(c) A third approach is to estimate the impact ofbroadcasting on economic activity. This approachis of course only valid for programmes addressedto the productive and, therefore, adult section ofthe population. Here, however, it is possible totrace directly the link between the stimulus ofbroadcasting and follow-up action, especiallywhen it is undertaken by listening or viewing groups.

Unfortunately, our knowledge to date is inade-quate to provide precise estimates in any of these

three categories, but research currently carriedout by various international and national agenciesshould yield some results in the near future. Inany case, it appears already that any analysis ofthe economic effectiveness of broadcasting shouldpay attention not only to the first but to all threeof the approaches indicated Gbove.

One further lesson has been drawn by special-ists who have compared the experience of a num-ber of countries in the use of radio and televisionfor education; these media are relatively expensiveif they are used on a small scale and merelysupplement existing forms of school and adulteducation. Their unit cost drops sharply if fulluse is made of their principal asset, namely thatthey are mass media. There appears to be a"critical mass" in the use of these media as in theuse of atomic energy. Only when this criticalthreshold has been passed and when the mediaare given key importance in the educational pro-cess, does their use prove to beclearly economical.

This implies that while small experimentalprojects are extremely important in order to gainexperience and train personnel, the progress fromthere on should not be gradual but rather spectacu-lar. Once the technique has been mastered it willhave to be applied on a large scale, at least withina specific geographic area or special field, tomake real impact and to prove worth while fromthe point of view of society.

Finally, any economic evaluation of broad-casting must take account of the fact that theexistence of broadcasting in a country is in its ownright an economic factor of considerable weight.The broadcasting industry requires sound economicplanning, i.e. investment matched by results,expenditures matched by direct or indirect returns,and programme output matched by social benefits.

REGIONAL AND WORLD-WIDECO-OPERATION

Broadcasting offers manifold opportunities toweave a tighter net of regional and world-wide co-operation and understanding. While the majorityof radio and television stations serve exclusivelynational audiences, short- and long-wave trans-missions reach far beyond national boundariesand the signals of all broadcasting stations areregularly received in border regions of neighbour-ing countries. In their domestic programming,broadcasting stations make a continuous effort,within their limited financial resources, to reportevents outside their national frontiers and totransmit programmes or films produced in othercountries.

To promote co-operation, broadcasting or-ganizations have joined together in regionalassociations. The recently formed Asian Broad-casting Union (ABU) follows on the establishment ofthe International Broadcasting Organization (GIRT) ,the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and theAfrican Broadcasting Union (URTNA). Prototypes

19

of international materials for broadcasting comefrom the United Nations and from its SpecializedAgencies, in particular Unesco.

Multilateral efforts to promote internationalco-operation in programming are most valuableand require continuous promotion. However, theyshould be accompanied by programme exchangeson a bilateral basis. Regional broadcasting or-ganizations can encourage this practice by collect-ing information on programme material availableand suitable for exchange, and by distributing itto their members. This has proved to be a morepromising way of promoting international exchangethan attemptingto centralize programme exchangethrough the secretariat of regional broadcastingorganizations. The latter procedure would in-volve the adaptation of exchange programmes tothe specific requirements of individual broadcast-ing organizations and would place a very heavy andcostly workload on the shoulders of the secre-tarial staff of these organizations. The promotionof a better understanding of other countries andthe international sharing of educational materialshave a direct bearing on the application of broad-casting to education and development.

20

By presenting a sound or visual document orreportage from another country, broadcast pro-grammes familiarize the home audience withconditions elsewhere. Whether such reportingcontributes to understanding would seem to dependessentially on the spirit in which it is presented.

The vast range of educational tasks for radioand television, the costliness and scarcity ofmaterials, especially of visual materials suitablefor television, and the universality of educationalcontent in certain disciplines, create favourableconditions for international collaboration in thisfield. It is evident that education should be adaptedto the mentality and conditions of those to whom itis addressed. International co-operation may,therefore, frequently take the form of providingelements of instruction (kits) suitable for localadaptation and integration into programmes, ratherthan of fully produced and completed couiaes.

Technically, such co-operation may range allthe way from the provision of programme kits tothe supply of films and video - tapes, and eventuallyto the dissemination of programmes or programmeelements by transmission via communicationssatellites.

III. GUIDELINES FOR ACTION

STRUCTURE OF BROADCASTINGORGANIZATIONS

structure of broadcasting organizations showsa multiplicity of patterns throughout the world.Certain basic forms have evolved for radio broad-casting but the advent of television, with its con-siderably higher cost and greater impact, has furthercomplicated the picture. Basically, we maydistinguish the following forms of organization andcontrol:Government ownership and operation - broadcastingis the direct responsibility of a government depart-ment.Public Corporation broadcasting is a public en-terprise under the control of an independentcorporation charged under a charter to operate inthe public interest of the nation as a whole ratherthan of the government of the day.Private enterprise broadcasting is controlled byprivate interests and conducted for commercialprofit, under varying degrees of government licence(frequencies mainly).

Another way of classifying organizations isaccording to their sources of revenue:Government funds - allocation of funds by variousministries, provision of funds as part of the over-all national budget.Licence fees provision of funds from licencespaid directly to the broadcasting organization byowners of radio and television sets.Commercial publicity - revenues from the broad-cast of advertisements for commercial products.

With regard to the use of broadcasting for ed-ucation and development, we may furthermoreclassify the various structures from the point ofview of responsibility for educational programming:Broadcasting organizations are fully in charge ofsuch programming - the organization is respon-sible for the transmission, production and contentof programmes, possibly in consultation with anadvisory board of educators. Responsibility mighteven extend to the provision and maintenance ofreceivers, the supply of accompanying printed

materials and the training of educators in the useof programmes. Some of the latter functions,however, may be the responsibility of educationaland other administrations.

An educational administration has responsi-bility for content and production and, in some cases,even for transmission - in this case, allaspects ofutilization and reception naturally lie also in thehands of administrations concerned with education.

In actual practice we find a blending and inter-penetration of all these different approaches. Agovernment broadcasting organization or a non-commercial public corporation may, for instance,transmit a certain amount of commercial publicityand derive revenue therefrom. A private com-mercial organization may devote part of its outputto non-commercial public service broadcasts. Aneducational administration may prepare programmesbut leave their production and transmission to apublic or private broadcasting organization.

The structure of a broadcasting organizationhas profound political, social, educational andeconomic implications. The multiplicity of pat-terns is the result of national conditions, interestsand resources. It would appear that there is nosingle pattern which could give the most satisfac-tory results in different countries.

The issue is, thus, how best the public inter-est, particularly the service to education and de-velopment, may be assured, whatever the particularnational structure of radio and televisionbroadcasting. It might be useful to draw up somegeneral guidelines with a view to assuring thatbroadcasting fulfils the tasks arising from its publicnature and responsibilities. This involves on theone hand recommendations concerning the integra-tion of broadcasting into the planning and applicationof education and development and, on the otherhand, the provision of suitable conditions for theeconomic viability and overall service to the nationof radio and television, without necessarily pro-nouncing on the basic structural principles.

21.

TECHNICAL PERSPECTIVES

Technical developments in broadcasting's half-century of existence have been rapid and, in retro-spect at least, often spectacular. Consideringtheimpact of the vacuum tube, the superheterodynereceiver, the tape recorder and television, itwould perhaps be rash to select one invention whichhas most affected the course of broadcasting'sdevelopment. In the most contemporary terms,however, broadcasting is well advanced into theera of solid-state electronics and it is the transis-tor which clearly dominates current technical de-sign.

For the broadcaster the transistor has a specialsignificance: coupled with improved printed circuitsit means a whole new range of compact, morereliable and more readily-maintained equipment.But it is on the reception end that the transistorrevolution has made its greatest impact and wherethe ironies of underdevelopment have persistentlyblocked the possibilities of the transistor radio asa truly universal instrument.

Apart from variations upon the theme of com-plexity, there is, according to all evidence, littlereason to expect that any significant change willappear in the transistor radio within the foresee-able future. Loudspeakers and power suppliesremain the impediment to further practical minia-turization. Under these relatively stable condi-tions, however, a long-term commitment toreceiver production is not likely to be overtakenby sudden obsolescence. At least one majorobjection to the establishment of a radio industryis, therefore, largely overcome.

Receiver production, organized on a signifi-cant scale, however, presents difficulties whichalso vary enormously among Asia's developingnations. Where the need is greatest, it is appar-ent that only a major effort on the part of thenational government is likely to provide a solution.Foreign exchange controls, customs and tariffinterventions, together with development priorities,are conditions imposed by governments. Only ifand when these conditions are favourable will theage of the transistor really begin in much of Asia.But as receiver production is inhibited by all theconditions that characterize underdevelopment,and as receiver design is inescapably linked withtransmission conditions, it is apparent that presenttechnology offers no simple solution to the needfor more and better broadcasting, particularly foreducation and development. Great care and detailhas gone into the examination of these problems bythe joint Unesco /ECAFE/ITU Survey Mission onthe production and marketing of low-cost receiversin Asia.

Transmission difficulties, the report pointsout, are of both an international and a nationalnature. In some national situations there is atendency for chaotic crowding of the medium wave-bands in a few urban areas to the exclusion of anyform of reliable rural service. Elsewhere the

22

vast areas to be covered present the most formid-able difficulty. In other words, the present cover-age of Asian countries by broadcast transmissiondoes not seem to provide an adequate infrastructurefor the use of broadcasting for education and de-velopment. Frequently, the very areas where suchuse would seem most important are the most poorlyserved by radio and television transmissions.

Internationally, the report emphasizes, thetrends towards a state of anarchy in the short-wavespectrum can only be averted by internationalagreement, under the aegis of the world-wide body,the International Telecommunication Union.

But while harassed radio engineers may lookin despair upon propagation charts of chaotic con-gestion on the one hand or insurmountable gaps onthe other, the forerunners of an entirely new epochin broadcasting are to be found in the airless realmsabove the earth.

The relaying of broadcasts via communicationssatellites began less than nine years .ago. In theopinion of the world's experts the next ten yearswill provide the knowledge and experience to makedirect broadcasting from satellites an operatingreality at an as yet unspecified date.

Until the day when a single transmitter inspace can produce a signal directly available tohome receivers, there is the more immediate as-surance of a satellite application of special signi-ficance to Asia at an earlier stage.

Specifically, the distribution satellite mayprovide a better and much more economical alter-native to extensive microwave, VHF or cableinstallations on the ground.

Whether in a high, synchronous orbit whichmakes its signal continuously available to an areawhich can include up to a third of the world's sur-face, or a lower elliptical orbit which offerseconomy and greater signal strength but shorteravailability, the distribution satellite is designedto provide reception through a system of amplifyingand distributing relay points. At least one nationalapplication of this type is already under development .

As long as only two or three nations have thecapacity to build and launch communications satel-lites, the notion of their use by developing countriesmay seem more remote than justified. Whereinternal communications are already highly developedas in North America and much of Europe, thefirst and certainly most impressive application ofsatellites has been in transoceanic communications.There is good reason to believe, however, that theconceivably most important use of satellites fornational and regional broadcasting could and shouldtake place in a developing area. Large areaswithin the Asian region, such as the sub-continentembracing India and Pakistan, where the establish-ment of an adequate system of ground communica-tions faces considerable obstacles but where thereare urgent requirements for greater applicationof broadcast media, would seem to offer an excellentfield for the employment of a distribution satellitefor a multitude of purposes including radio and

television broadcasting. Radio in particular maybe the immediate practical application of the firstAsian satellite, because it would offer good qualitysignals, with lower power and band width require-ments, throughout an area where radio receptionseems more immediately needed and feasible forteachnical and economic reasons.

The price of an "Early Bird" type of satellite,"parked" in a synchronous orbit was estimated inearly 1966 at $10 million. The more elaboratedistribution satellite may, as far as present know-ledge indicates, cost more, although price esti-mates in this field are likely to be soon out of date.There are also the costs of ground installationswhich may well be higher than those of the satelliteitseff. Three factors, however, should tend tomake the communications satellite an increasinglyattractive possibility: the first is additional ex-perience in building and launching; the second, theincreasing number of countries with satellitecapability; and the third, the feasibility of two ormore countries using a single satellite on a sharedbasis.

At the Meeting of Experts on Space Communi-cations, convened by Unesco in Paris, December1965, several important recommendations weremade regarding Unesco Is future programme in thisfield. Not the least of these was the proposalthatUnesco should study the feasibility of supportinga pilot project for the use of satellites in develop-ing countries with large populations, particularlyfor the purpose of educational and cultural broad-casting. Guidelines for this pilot project arepresently being mapped out by a panel of experts.

Modern equipment offers the technicalmeansof providing a wide choice of radio and televisionprogrammes for all the people of the world. Con-tinued development promises even greater reli-ability and alternative means of meeting variedtechnical requirements.

USE OF THE MEDIA

Whatever the structure of broadcasting, it is oneof the major national resources to be used in aspirit of public responsibility. Yet there is often,and for basically excellent purposes, a tendencyfor broadcasting organizations to lead an existenceof their own and to have little contact with thevarious governmental departments, or with privateor semi-private organizations, which are activelyengaged in public affairs. The use of radio andtelevision for education and development, however,is only possible if there is close integration of theefforts of all concerned on the three levels of plarrning, production and reception of broadcast pro-grammes.

1. Planning

The use of radio and television for education anddevelopment requires that programming be inte-grated into educational planning. In school

education, radio and television are bound to re-main incidental and relatively expensive tools untilsuch time as the educational planning authoritieshave determined the principal contributions whichthe media are able to make under specific nationalconditions, and the role they are required to playat all levels of the educational process. The useof broadcasting requires considerable initial in-vestment and continuous operating expenses forpersonnel, programmes and receivers. Suchexpenditure is justifiable only if it promises toyield important results which could not be obtainedby other means. The promise of such resultsmakes it possible, on the other hand, to restruc-ture education so that it may make the maximumuse of these additional facilities. Some countriesof Asia have found, for instance, that televisioncan play a significant role in the teaching of scienceand mathematics and that it may be worth while toreorganize primary and secondary education to thepoint where television will provide significantelements of instruction and demonstration, natur-ally in conjunction with the appropriate utilizationof the classroom teacher. A similar restructur-ing of schooling might be advisable in other fields,such as language teaching, geography and history.

The methods of teacher training (both pre-service and in-service) will also have to be re-examined in the light of these new resources. Ifthere is assurance that young teachers who leavetraining colleges will find opportunities whereverthey are working, for continuous in- service trainingby radio andtelevision , coupled with correspondenceteaching, the pre- service training may be shortenedand reoriented.

An even more radical approach, which edu-cational planning authorities might take into con-sideration, is to meet the pressing lack of teachersand schools in certain geographic areas throughthe creation of schools organized around a televisionreceiver which provides the main burden of overallinstruction, along the lines of the school systemin Western Samoa, the Television High School inJapan, or Telescuola in Italy.

In adult education, such co-ordination is moredifficult to assure because it rarely disposes ofthe same institutionalized structure as school edu-cation, where responsibility normally lies with asingle ministry. In the absence of such a structure,co-ordination at an early stage by the educationalplanning bureau is even more desirable and urgent.When the bureau envisages a number of fields ofadult education, such as literacy, social education,provision of educational opportunities for adults,the development of a national language, etc., itwill necessarily have to examine the various re-sources which might be brought to bear upon thesetasks. These resources will include professionaleducators but will also involve other ministries(agriculture, health, community developmentetc.) and the mass media, particularly broadcast-ing. In short, adult education will have to be partof overall national planning.

23

On the other hand, when adult education agen-cies (both governmental and non-governmental)examine how they may attain their objectives mosteffectively and reach the widest possible public,they will have to take note in their planning of theparticular contribution of broadcasting and deter-mine the most suitable forms of co-operation withbroadcasting organizations.

From the point of view of broadcasting organ-izations, the educational programmes will equallyhave to be planned in co-ordination with admini-strations responsible for education and development.Only in this way can broadcasters hope to obtaincollaboration in the form of financial assistance,the presentation of content in programmes and theutilization of these programmes, including theprovision of receivers.

In addition to these three key forces thenational planning agencies, adult education agenciesand broadcasting organizations we may also en-visage the participation of other government de-partments in this planning process. The Ministriesof Health, Agriculture and Labour will wish toexamine in their planning what contributionbroadcasting may make to their work. TheMinistries of Communication and Information willin turn have to study how the facilities under theircontrol might best contribute to the overallnation-al effort. The technical infrastructure, thetraining of personnel and the organization of broad-casting can then be planned with a view to attainingthe broad national objectives.

Experience seems to show that all efforts toapply broadcasting to the tasks of education anddevelopment remain haphazard and, frequently,stillborn as long as there is no provision for funds,equipment and personnel, nor for an organizationalstructure assuring interdepartmental co-operation,in the national plans which determine the future.

Sound planning will save both money and man-power in production and application. It is in theplanning process that answers will have to befound to such questions as:

What investment in installations and. equipmentis required to assure the availability of broadcast-ing for educational purposes?

What legal, administrative and financial pro-visions should be made to facilitate close co-operation between broadcasting organizations andagencies of education and development?

What training programmes must be envisagedfor broadcasting personnel skilled in the presenta-tion of educational programmes and for personnelin other agencies so as to familiarize them withtheproduction and utilization of broadcast programmes?

What organizational infrastructure is neededto ensure co-operation between broadcasting andother educational efforts in all their phases, frompresentation to utilization?

What provision will have to be made in indus-try to ensure the supply and maintenance ofreceiving equipment.

24

2. Production

Co-operation between broadcasting organizationsand agencies of education and development in theproduction of programmes is both essential andfrequently difficult to attain. A number of pre-liminary questions will have to be answered whichare linked to the very structure of broadcasting:

Which organization or institution is providingthe facilities for the production of programmes(studios, technical personnel, creative talent,film facilities)?

Where does responsibility lie for the contentof the programmes?

What organization or agency carries the bud-get for the necessary staff and operational ex-penditure s?

What provisions are made, and by whom, forthe training of staff skilled in the presentation ofeducational content?

In answer to these questions, different patternshave evolved throughout the world, depending onthe structure and financing of broadcasting organ-izations, the range of responsibility of educationaland development agencies, the importance attachedto the production of educational radio and tele-vision programmes, and, therefore, the quantityof programmes which must regularly becompleted.

In some cases, the entire responsibility restswith broadcasting organizations, which assureliaison through consultative bodies of educators.In other cases, educational authorities take overcomplete responsibility, which may go all the wayfrom conception to production and to transmissionitself (stations serving exclusively educationalpurposes). Then there are intermediary patterns:broadcasting organizations may assure the tech-nical production of programmes, which are plan-ned, written and produced by outside agencies;educational agencies may produce programmes inwhole or in part for transmission by the broadcastingorganization; educational authorities may makeavailable to the broadcasting organization, fundsand staff for the production of educationalprogrammes.

Whatever the particular pattern adopted, cer-tain general rules would seem to apply, whichinclude:

The need for professional staff skilled inbroadcasting and familiar with the content andmethodology of educational presentations.

The continuous availability of production ser-vices specifically earmarked for educational pur-poses.

Machinery for close liaison between thevarious agencies responsible for education anddevelopment, and broadcasting organizations.Such liaison is required even when educationalauthorities operate a broadcasting station, becausethe field of adult education extends considerablybeyond the normal competence of educational ad-ministration.

Certain psychological obstacles have to be

overcome in addition to the material and organiza-tional problems involved in close co-operation inthe field of production. It is normal for profes-sionals in the field of broadcasting to assume thatthey are specialists in the presentation of in-formation and entertainment, that they know bestwhat will appeal to the audience and how the re-sources of the medium should be employed. Pro-fessional producers are reluctant to relinquishtheir creative responsibility to others. Specialistsin education and development, on the other hand,stress with confidence that they must be the solejudge with regard to the content of programmes.Content and form, however, are so closely inter-twined that fruitful results will, in the long run,only be obtained through a staff which is thoroughlyfamiliar with broadcasting techniques, educationalmethodology and, to a certain extent, educationalcontent (the latter may be enriched through re-source persons in various fields). The emergenceof the "amphibious" educational broadcaster as adistinct new profession has been observed in manycountries, even though he frequently faces theproblem of public recognition for his new speciality,a prob2em which has implications for his personaland administrative status.

The application of broadcasting to educationand development thus requires specific, nationallyconditioned answers to the basic question of howbroadcasting techniques and educational contentmay most effectively be blended in the productionof programmes.

3. Reception

Educational broadcasting works in a vacuum aslong as conditions of reception are inadequate. Tocreate favourable conditions calls for co-operationbetween:

The Ministry of Communications, which mustassure adequate broadcast coverage of the areas tobe reached by educational programmes.

Industries producing receivers and their com-ponents, which must assure an adequate flow ofradio and television sets at reasonable cost andsuited to educational use.

The financial authorities of the country, whichshould examine how customs and tax levies can bearranged in such a manner as to favour the edu-cational use of broadcasting.

The broadcasting organization, which willseek to arrange its programme schedules so that asufficient number of programmes at suitable timesof the day are broadcast to make it worth while topurchase receivers for educational use. In manycases, broadcasters may also be called upon tosupply the very equipment required for the recep-tion of their educational programmes.

Agencies of education and development, whowill wish to assure the proper conditions of recep-tion so that they can make use of educationalbroad-casts for the accomplishment of their tasks.

In countries of Asia, the use of radio and in

particular, of television, for the education of alarge portion of the population, seems possibleonly under conditions of group reception. Thisis obvious in school education, as such educationis normally conducted in classrooms and requiresthe personal contact between a teacher and a groupof students, not only for instructional but in par-ticular for pedagogical purposes. In adult educa-tion, group reception fulfils both an economic andan educational role. Experience shows that learn-ing, thinking and a change of attitude are accom-plished far more effectively in groups than underconditions of individual reception.

Supply and continuous maintenance of receiversis an essential pre-condition. This involves themass production or import of low-cost receiverssuitable for educational purposes in both electri-fied and non-electrified areas; It also calls forfavourable conditions for such import and relativelylow taxation of receivers serving educational de-velopment. Of particular importance is adequateprovision for the distribution and maintenance ofreceivers. Experience in Asia shows that fre-quently receivers distributed by governmentalauthorities have a short life dueto lack of provisionfor repair and replacement of batteries.

Responsibility for the production, supply andmaintenance of receivers cannot in most cases beleft entirely to the initiative of commercial en-terprises or government departments in charge oflight industries. They are also of direct concernto the broadcasting organization and to educationaladministrations. They form part of what might betermed in a wider sense Audience Relations.

Such audience relations include other aspectswhich may be kept in mind in recommending guide-lines for future action:

(a) Promotion and organization oflistening and viewing among popularaudiences

This involves the training of group leaders (whoshould be literate) in techniques of organization,directing discussions and reporting, and the col-laboration of all existing organizations involved ineducation and development in the constitution ofsuch listening and viewing groups.

(b) Provision of written material toaccompany broadcasts

The use of the fleeting message of the radio ortelevision programme under the guidance of ateacher or group leader is far more effective if itis supported with accompanying written material.These permit adequate preparation for the pro-gramme as well as follow-up, including theanswering of questions.

25

(c) Establishment of feed-back channelsfrom the audience to broadcastingorganizations and educational agencies

Broadcasting unquestionably suffers from thehandicap of being a one-way channel of communi-cation, from the centre out to a dispersed audience.But in group reception, trained teachers or groupleaders can transmit regularly to the broadcastingorganization written reactions, questions and com-ments, which in turn may be answered in subse-quent programmes. Such feed-back enables thebroadcaster to adapt himself better to thepreoccupations of the audience and providesinformation on local conditions, which is of greatvalue to all co-operating agencies. Even moreimportant, it gives the audience a sense of parti-cipation; rather than being a mere object forbroadcasts from authorities far removed, the lis-tener or viewer senses better his own share in thecommon effort if he can react to programmes andif this reaction is heard and commented upon.

(d) Audience research

In addition to this continuous flow of reactions, amore general systematic sampling of both individ-ual and group audiences, which gives not onlyquantitative results but also an insight as to thecomprehension of programmes, is vital for theuse of broadcasting. Such research might beundertaken by the broadcasting organizations them-selves but is frequently the responsibility of inde-pendent agencies or academic institutions.

(e) Experimentation and evaluation

Finally, investment in such important uses ofbroadcasting is justifiable in the long run only ifperiodic evaluations show the results and indicateweaknesses.

The field of reception is frequently the mostneglected aspect of broadcasting. Practice shows,however, that it is perhaps the most important, asthese brief indications will have shown.

TRAINING

Training of personnel is an indispensable part ofthe development of broadcasting.

The form and intensity of this training varieswidely in Asia, as in the rest of the world. Majorbroadcasting organizations, such as NHK and AllIndia Radio, have established permanent institu-tions which train both technical and programmingpersonnel. Some organizations which dispose ofsubstantial resources of personnel with appro-priate technical and creative backgrounds havelimited themselves to on-the-job training as themost obvious and economic solution to staff re-quirements. In other situations, technical insti-tutions, universities, broadcasting training schools,technical assistance experts or overseas centres

26

have separately or collectively contributed tobroadcasting's need for skilled and imaginativepersonnel. The importance of each serious train-ing effort cannot be minimized. Broadcasting'sfull potential as an instrument of education, how-ever, can only be realized when training is success-ful on four levels:(1) General training of professional broadcast-ing staff.(2) Special training of broadcasters in theproduction of educational programmes.(3) Training of educators in the organization andproduction of programmes.(4) Training of teachers, adult educationleaders and others in the utilization of pro-grammes.

As training in all of these categories must bedesigned to achieve a common goal, it follows thatit should be based on fundamental agreement andthe recognition that educational broadcasting canbe successful only through close co-operation ofall concerned.

The best training environment is one whichmost closely simulates the actual broadcasting orreception situation. At the production end thismeans studios, equipment and classrooms wherepractice in techniques and an appreciation of theoryand purpose can be gained in a balanced curriculumwhich is based on actual needs and conditions.

The training of teachers or monitors in theutilization of broadcast programmes will also,ideally, include some experience in the productionstudios. Familiarity with production techniquesis not only of value in appreciation of the pro-grammes which are broadcast but also in providingthe important sense of participation in educationalbroadcasting. The further benefit of educatorsand broadcasters meeting on the common groundof training will invariably be felt in future col-laboration.

The training location has three separate butcomplementary possibilities: national, regionaland foreign, each with particular advantages.

National training is the fundamental require-ment. It may take many different forms, such asad hoc training courses organized by national staffor foreign experts, a permanent training institutionattached to a broadcasting organization or an edu-cational establishment, or training within theframework of a university as part of its programmefor instruction and research in mass communica-tions.

Within the concept of a national training policy,however, there is room and often a necessity fortraining of a more localized nature and the oppor-tunity for several types of organizations to fill thelocal training requirements. Training of commuirity audience leaders, for example, can be under-taken by touring teams or through local seminarsand short courses.

Regional training, i.e. training to meet theneeds of a number of countries in a given region,should preferably be built upon a national foundation.

A substantial domestic objective can alone pro-vide a sound basis for a training institution, whichcan then expand to serve regional purposes overan extended period. Given this national basis,regional training has the advantage of financialsaving through the centralization of resources,justification for a better and larger staff, a strong-er appeal to international aid sources and theopportunity to develop regional exchanges of ex-perience and programmes.

Foreign training, i.e. training in countriesoutside the region, has a particular function in thedevelopment of international broadcasting standards,the interchange of ideas and in furthering the pro-fessional concept of broadcasting. It is generallyagreed, however, that a student can only fullybenefit from foreign training when he has a goodbackground in his home broadcasting situation.Unrealistic concepts, frustration and even aliena-tion are too frequently the product of prematureoverseas training.

These four possible forms of training mayalso be seen not as separate alternatives but asprogressive stages in a broadcaster's development.Intervals of on-the-spot experience between thevarious stages can best ensure that the traineeremains conscious of the problems and possibili-ties in the day-to-day business of broadcasting.

Training for the educational use of broadcast-ing must obviously call for instructors with a fullunderstanding of the broadcast media and the edu-cational process. It does not follow, however,that the most expert specialist has the ability todevelop a training didactic or to impart his broad-casting knowledge in an organized fashion. Here,the question of the instructor's background is es-sentially academic; ideally he will be both abroadcaster and a teacher and the order of hisexperience is not important. In areas of instruc-tion that are essentially technical, a broadcastingbias may be preferred. In questions of utilizationthe professional teacher will probably make thebest instructor.

In addition to programmes aimed specificallyat professional training in educational broadcast-ing, certain related projects can make significantlong-range contributions and create a pool ofpersonnel from which professionals may subse-quently be drawn. In the field of education, train-ing through the broadcast media in actual use isbecoming gradually a regular feature of teacher-training institutions. In the school systems anduniversities, practice in the use of film, taperecorders, radio and sometimes even televisionwithin individual institutions (closed circuit) canprovide not only familiarity with techniques, butcreate early awareness of these media as formsof modern expression and possible careers in thefuture. In this connexion, the very use of broad-casting in the educational process helps to condi-tion both teachers and students totheirimportanceFamiliarization with audience research throughcourses of a social science character cap also

bring about a wider understanding of the implica-tions of broadcast programming.

INTERNATIONAL ACTION

While the application of broadcasting to nationalneeds is a matter of national concern and decision,international co-operation and assistance maymake valuable contributions to such efforts.

In the light of the varying applications of broad-casting to education and development discussed inthis paper, and of the principal practical obstacleswhich appear to stand in the way of a fuller use ofradio and television, the following fields might betaken into consideration for international action:(1) Production and marketing of radio and tele-

vision receivers, or of certain componentparts.Investment in broadcast station and trans-mission facilities.Survey missions to advise governments on theplanning of broadcast facilities and their inte-gration into educational and development plans.

(4) Training of broadcast and educational person-nel through:ad hoc seminars and training courses ofnational or regional scope on topics of directconcern to education and development;assistance to long-term training institutionsto meet national needs and to provide trainingfacilities for fellows from other countries inthe region;fellowships for training in other countries ofthe region and suitable placements elsewherein the world;expert missions for the training of nationalpersonnel and the development of educationalprogramming.The production of educational programmesand, in particular, programme elements (kits)suitable for broadcast or adaptation in a num-ber of countries of Asia.

(6) Fully evaluated pilot projects in the applica-tion of radio and television to such pressingneeds as the in-service trainingRf teachers,the teaching of modern languages and thenatural sciences, the extension of school facili-ties beyond present limitations, the teachingof functional literacy in both urban and ruralareas of economic significance, and the test-ing of new equipment suited to the educationalneeds of Asia.Careful study and dissemination of the resultsof present experiences and new projects, andexamination of the potential applications ofbroadcasting to specific educational and de-velopment tasks of countries of Asia.Co-operation in applying the future facilitiesof satellite communication to countries ofAsia through feasibility studies, examinationof their educational implications and practicalpilot projects.Each of these possible fields for international

(2)

(3)

(5)

(7)

(8)

action is, first of all, of direct concern to thegovernments and professional institutions and or-ganizations of Asia. They may also find supportfrom the United Nations family (United NationsDevelopment Programme, Unesco, InternationalTelecommunication Union, Unicef, , the World Bank,and others) from the Colombo Plan and from gov-ernmental and non-governmental bilateral aidprogrammes. Due to their varying competencesand material resources, these different agencies

28

are not in a position to make the same kind anddegree of contribution to each of the above fields.But common action, in which each governmentand each agency contributes its share accordingto its particular competence, qualifications andresources, can greatly enhance the efforts of thecountries of Asia to place radio and televisionbroadcasting forcefully in the service of educationand development.

BROADCASTING IN ASIA

A SURVEY OF ITS USE FOR EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT

I. THE STATE OF BROADCASTING INASIAN COUNTRIES

Broadcasting has made rapid progress in recentyears in Asia. Radio services have been set upthroughout the region. Television has been intro-duced in 12 of 20 Asian Member States: Cambodia,China, India, Indonesia, Iran, Japan, KoreaMalaysia, Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore andThailand.

In general, the increase in the number ofradio stations has been followed by cirtrffroductionof a greater number of receivers. In some coun-tries, the increase has been remarkable duringthelast five years: e.g. 350,000 radio receivers werecounted in Korea in 1960, which grew to some1,380,000 sets at the end of 1965; during the sameperiod domestic listening in Thailand jumped from250,000 to 1,600,000 receivers. The spread ofradio listening in Asian countries is mainly due tothe marketing of transistor receivers. The aboveexamples and figures, however, can give only aslight and somewhat wrong idea of the presentsituation of radio broadcasting in Asia. The num-ber of receivers is relatively small compared tothe population in each country. As will be seenfrom Chart No.1 only seven countries out of 20reach the percentage of five sets per 100 inhab-itants which, in the view of Unesco, is a minimum foradequate coverage. In certain countries, how-ever, the shortage of receivers is compensated toa limited extent by the organization of listeninggroups, some of which make a significant contri-bution to mass education campaigns. It is in thisconnexion that radio broadcasting in India fulfils

important tasks in social education, communityand national development, although the total4,315,242 receivers in the country do not repre-sent more than 0.9 sets per 100 people. Thehighest percentage is to be found in Japan (20.4sets per 100).

Some Asian broadcasting systems must servelarge populations using no generally-accepted com-mon language. All India Radio, which providesprogrammes for 440 million people, broadcasts h51 languages and 82 tribal dialects.

In general, most broadcasting progress hasbeen made in transmission. Japan, for example,has 400 transmitters, compared with 195 in 1953;Iran, 22 (5 in 1953); and the Philippines, 127 (9in 1953). China has 68 radio stations as comparedwith 16 in Iran. Korea has an intricate wiredradio system with "some 17,000 speakers" scatteredthrough the villages. These are served by some4,000 amplifying units. However, the density ofcoverage is frequently very unequal between urbancentres and rural regions.

As for television, although the number oftransmitters in Asia has increased from 1 to 170since 1950, many stations are still experimentaland few outside Japan can be viewed by people whodo not live in major cities or their surroundings.

Furthermore, 127 main stations are concentratedin Japan which also operates 92 auxiliary and 4experimental stations. It is also Japan which hasthe highest rate of reception as far as television isconcerned, with some 17,500,000 sets, or 17.8per 100 people. The next ranking Asiancountries are Thailand, with 250,000 receiv-ers (0.83 per 100 people) and the Philippines,

Note: The information in this report has been obtained through questionnaires sent by Unesco to broad-casting services in Asian Member States, prior to the "Meeting on broadcasting in the service ofeducation and development in Asia", as well as through written and verbal reports by participantsat the meeting.

In addition, Unesco publications and reports on previous meetings, as well as articles and otherpublications, have been consulted to complement the information.

29

with 200,000 television sets (0.66 per 100people),

The majority of radio broadcasting servicesare owned and operated by government depart-ments and financed from public revenues and/orthe collection of licence fees and frequently alsofrom commercial revenues. In addition, thereare commercial broadcasting organizations inChina, Japan, Korea and the Philippines.

In television, the picture is reversed, and themajority of Asian countries have some form ofcommercial operation. This may be due particu-larly to the higher cost of television and its greaterpotential impact. Television is government-owned and non-commercial in Cambodia, India,Indonesia and Malaysia. NHK also operates on anon-commercial basis, but is in competition withimportant commercial networks. Elsewhere,too, publicly-owned or government stations com-pete with commercial broadcasting or operatethemselves (as in Pakistan and Thailand) on

commercial lines. Iran has, as of this date only aprivately-owned commercial, television network.

Asian broadcasting services are operated byrelatively well-qualified technicians and program-me producers. However, the number of radio andtelevision specialists is still small compared withthe needs, and training programmes are being en-visaged or run in some of these countries. Inmany cases, moreover, this personnel operatesunder difficult conditions, owing largely to a lackof adequate equipment. But there already existgood schools within and outside the countries forstaff training, and in some cases on-the-job training systems provide for more qualified radio andtelevision staff. This personnel, however, israrely specialized in educational programming oreducational programme reception, which does notenable radio and television to play their role ef-ficiently as educational media in countries wheremass education is more and more becoming theanswer to illiteracy and underdevelopment.

Chart No. 1

Country Population RadioReceivers

per 100 TVReceivers

per 100

Afghanistan 13,800,000 40,000 0.29

Burma 24,200,000 256,852 1.06

Cambodia 6,000,000 300,000 5 6,000 0.1

Ceylon 10,624,507 619,000 3.93

China 12,429,083 1,270,126 10.21 45,661 0.36

India 440,000,000 4,315,242 0.9 2,000 0.0004

Indonesia 96,000,000 823,000 0.9 40,000 0.04

Iran 22,523,039 1,600,000 7.1 100,250 0.4

Japan 97,960,000 19,982,835 20.4 17,502,542 17.8

Korea 27,763,000 1,379,934 4.9 50,000 0.1

Laos 4,000,000 50,000 1.25

Malaysia 7,500,000 322,123 4.29 114,000 1.52

Mongolia 937,000 25,000 2.3

Nepal 9,500,000 40,000 0.42

Pakistan 98,612,000 871,000 0.8 14,000 0.002

Philippines 30,241,000 1,225,000 4 200,000 0.66

Singapore 1,800,000 148,000 5 68,659 2.6

Thailand 30,000,000 1,610,000 5.3 250,000 0.83

Viet-Nam 14,000,000 150,000 1ON 4

30

II. TIIE STATE OF EDUCATIONALBROADCASTING

Many Asian broadcasting services have broadcasteducational programmes over their networks. Insome of the countries, school and out-of-schooleducation by radio or television is regularly pro-grammed and the percentage of these educationalbroadcasts compared with the total broadcastingtime is in some cases very high. The followinggives an account of the present state of educationalbroadcasting in various Member States.

TIME DEVOTED TO EDUCATIONALBROADCASTS

Burma: The Burma Broadcasting Servicedevotes nearly three hours to education and asmuch to national development every week. As faras school education by radio is concerned, specialattention is paid to the use of broadcasting in sec-ondary schools (25% of the total educational radiotime) and in vocational training (28%). Out-of-school education consists of programmes on ruraldevelopment (32%), civics (37%), the populariza-tion of science and art (23%), health and hygiene(8%).

Ceylon: In Ceylon there are 46 hours of edu-cational broadcasts on the air weekly, out of a totalof 245 hours of national broadcasting per week.The programmes deal with both school and out-of-school education. Primary schools are given 11%

of the educational broadcasting time, while sec-ondary programmes cover 45.5%. Teacher train-ing (11%) and university teaching (3.5%) are othersubjects dealt with by educational broadcasting.Radio Ceylon also produces programmes designedfor adult education. These concern rural develop-ment (five hours per week, or 11% of the timedevoted to such educational programmes) healthand hygiene, literacy teaching, civics, and thepopularization of science and art for generalaudiences.

China: The Educational Broadcasting Stationin Taipei, Taiwan, transmits 70 hours per weekof programmes serving education and national de-velopment. The broadcasts are designed for pri-mary school education (10%), secondary schools(30%), vocational training and teacher training;university teaching programmes held 10% of thetotal broadcasting time. Adult education broad-casts include health and hygiene, literacy program-mes, civics, and popularization of science andart for general audiences.

India: For the students in schools and collegesbroadcasting has not only to supplement the class-room education, but to provide a sense of purposeand direction so that students grow upto be respon-sible members of society. Of 367 radio hoursof educational programmes per week All IndiaRadio devotes, however, only 17% to school broad-casts, as the main emphasis in educational radiobroadcasting is now on out-of-school programmes.

The use of radio broadcasting for adult edu-cation in India finds its most important expressionin the "Rural Radio Forums". Special mentionof these will be made later in this paper, whengroup reception is dealt with. Besides, All IndiaRadio operates an experimental television stationin New Delhi which also broadcasts the schooltelevision service . It was inaugurated in September1959, as part of a Unesco-AIR project to studytheimpact of television as an educational aid. One-hour programmes, designed for communityviewing,have been transmitted twice a week since 1960.They are mainly informative and educational incharacter and include illustrated talks, interviews,discussions, documentary films, ballet and lightand classical music.

All India Radio's school television servicewas started in 1961. Its 16 hours per week carryinstructional programmes to students in middleand higher secondary classes in Delhi. Thesetelevision lessons are part of the established cur-riculum and cover physics, chemistry, generalscience, English and social studies.

Japan: The oldest broadcasting service inAsia is that of the Japanese Broadcasting Corpora-tion NHK, the Fortieth Anniversary of which wascelebrated in 1965. NHK's educational program-mes were started in 1935. Today, over 99% of allschools are equipped with radio receivers. Radioschool programmes are broadcast to primaryschools (12%), secondary schools (20%) and uni-versities (8%). Also vocational training (1% ofthe total educational time) and pre-school educa-tion (1 %) are dealt with by radio. Besides, anumber of programmes on subjects relating tonational development are broadcast . Ruraldevelop-ment (10% of the total educational time), healthand hygiene (5%), civics (22%), popularization ofscience and art for general audiences may be men-tioned. School broadcasts and out-of-school pro-grammes are transmitted through three radionetworks: Radio 1st Network devotes 9% of itstransmission time to education: Radio 2nd Networkbroadcasts 54.6% of educational programmes; thethird Network is an FM one, which gives 19.7%of its time to educational programmes.

Two NHK television networks broadcast educa-tional programmes: 12h 30 min. or 9.9% a weekin the General Television Network, and 85h 35mins. or 81.6% in the educational television net-work (1). School programmes on television aredesigned for pre-school education (10%), primaryschool education (15%), secondary school education(20%), vocational training (3%), teacher training(2%) and university teaching (5%). As for out-of-school education, the distribution is as follows:rural development (5%), health and hygiene (2%),civics (25%), popularization of science and art forgeneral audiences (15%).

(1) These figures do not include the educationaltelevision programmes in colour as do thefigures shown in Chart No. 4.

Laos: Six hours per week are devoted to edu-cational broadcasts. Half of this programme timeconsists of school broadcasts, aimed so far onlyat primary schools. Extension to secondaryschools is envisaged. The other half is devotedto adult education, rxwering such subjects as ruraldevelopment, health and hygiene and civics inequal parts (10%), popularization of science (5%)and literacy programmes (10%). Considerableextension and improvement of educational broad-casts, particularly to schools, are foreshadowedin a three-phase plan. In its last phase the planprovides for the extension of school broadcasts tosecondary schools, treating in its daily two-hourtransmissions such subjects as French and Englishlessons, literature of the world, economics foradvanced students, and current affairs of Laos andSouth East Asia.

In Malaysia, a "pilot project on educationaltelevision" was organized by the television ser-vice in 1965. The latter project consisted of tenhalf-hour lessons on Form II science, telecast tosome 100 Malaysian schools. The service in-tends to double the number of lessons in 1966 andto conduct a survey to assess the usefulness ofthe project. In the meanwhile, about eight hoursper week are devoted to television programmesserving national development, comprising ruraldevelopment (50%), health and hygLene (10%),literacy teaching (5%) , civics (10%), art and science(25%), while other broadcasts are produced forsecondary school education. Also radio program-mes for schools are regularly transmitted. Atotal of five hours a week is produced to serveeducational purposes.

In Mongolia some 31 hours of educationalradio programmes are broadcast every week,covering a wide range from pre-school educationto university teaching. Efforts, however, areparticularly concentrated on primary (8%) andsecondary school education (6.4%). Rural de-velopment (24.1%) and other aspects of adult edu-cation, such as health and hygiene, civics, andthe popularization of science and art (12.9%) arealso areas in which radio broadcasting plays aleading part.

Radio Nepal has no specially organized edu-cational service, but a number of broadcasts areconceived in a way to provide educational materialsto listeners.

In the Philippines the government radio net-work, the Philippine Broadcasting Service, broad-casts educational radio programmes concernedwith rural development or the popularization ofscience and art for general audiences. In addition,it provides school broadcasts in joint partnershipwith the Bureau of Public Schools for a total of61/2 hours of programmes a week. Of this, 72%is for elementary school education, 16%for teachertraining, .08% for out-of-school education, and.04% for the pre-school level. All these broad-casts are aired over the seven medium-wave andtwo short-wave stations constituting the Philippine

32

Broadcasting Service Network.Educational television is under the auspices

of the Metropolitan Educational Television As-sociation (META), Inc., an association composedof educational institutions, both public and private,as well as government agencies having a stake inthe development of this medium. The Director ofPublic Schools is chairman of the Board ofDirectors. U sing the facilities of the closed-circuittelevision system of the Ateneo University, theMETA produces programmes for secondary schools,which are aired on a commercial station. Theseprogrammes are received by more than 50 publicand private high schools in the Greater Manilaarea and the neighbouring provinces. The mainobjective of the programme is to introduce andestablish the use of television for in-school in-struction in the Philippines.

In Pakistan, radio is entirely a public serviceorganization. The broadcasting policy of RadioPakistan, as announced by the Minister of Informa-tion and Broadcasting, states that "radio time ispeople's time and must be used in the best inter-ests of the people" in order to serve education andsocio-economic development. In a country of100 million people, where literacy is approximatelyonly 25 per cent, and where 80 per cent of thepopulation lives in villages inaccessible to printedmatter, radio has to assume the functions of edu-cator, informer, and socio-economic reformer.It is estimated that five million people regularlylisten to one or other programme of Radio Paki-stan.

Pakistan is experiencing what may be termedan education explosion. To meet educational needs,ill-equipped schools are springing up and ill-equipped teachers are taking charge of students.To help the educator in his difficult task, RadioPakistan is broadcasting direct instructional andenrichment programmes. At present, seven regionalstations of Radio Pakistan are putting out 210minutes of school broadcasts on all working days.They are imparting direct instruction based on theschool curriculum in 6 subjects, i.e. history,geography, general sciences, civics, home eco-nomics and health and hygiene, and are teaching inthree languages, namely, Urdu, Bengali andEnglish. In addition to these programmes, allstations of Radio Pakistan broadcast college anduniversity programmes and it is proposed to starta 30 minute daily programme for the universitystudents from Lahore and Dacca.

In 1965, the radio authorities established aDirectorate of Educational Broadcasts at theDirectorate-General of Radio Pakistan, which in-dicates the importance attached to this field ofbroadcasting.

As to television in Pakistan, a beginning wasmade late in the year 1964 with the setting up oftwo stations at each provincial capital, Dacca inEast Pakistan and Lahore in West Pakistan. Thismarks the first step towards the introduction of aGeneral Purpose Television Service in Pakistan.

Each station is producing approximately 18 hoursof programming a week. The programmes consistof informative talks, features, news commentaries,interviews, sports, music, plays and programmesfor special audiences e.g. women, children andyouth. 35% of the programmes are recordedmaterial and 65% live. The programmes also in-clude an average of 10 minutes of advertisingtimeper hour. The transmitting of strength of eachstation is 300 watts, with an effective radiatingpower of 550 watts each.

Singapore. Two new television studios arenow being completed at the Teachers' TrainingCollege, Singapore. The purposes of these studiosare:

(a) to originate closed-circuit transmissionswith the college campus as part of teacher-training programmes;

(b) to record school programmes and havethese transmitted via T.V. Singapura's (Ministryof Culture) transmissions service.

The educational television service will be runby the Ministry of Education. Production of bothclosed-circuit and schools' programmes will becentred at the expanded Audio-visual Unit of thecollege. The closed-circuit facilities (includinga mobile unit) within the college will be used torecord and relay lectures, demonstrations andspecial programmes for about 14 subject depart-ments of the college and for classroom teaching

observations and child study sessions.The Ministry of Education of the Government

of Thailand owns and operates a radio stationwhich, since 1954, has broadcast to home listen-ers and teachers, and since 1958, to schools.Numerous difficulties, however, impede the effec-tiveness of the station, among which the competi-tion from other, commercial stations, withpowerful transmitters, appears to be the mostserious. At present the Ministry of Education islooking forward to the installation of a new 10kwtransmitter. Another problem, since the creationof educational radio in Thailand, arose withschedules. Schools do not observe the same time-tables, and when two subjects are broadcast con-secutively, there is often insufficient time to movea receiver or shift students from classroom toclassroom. This problem was met by broadcastingeach programme four times a week at differenthours. Programmes are designed for primary(43%) and secondary school education (18%) as wellas teacher training. Other broadcasts deal withhealth and hygiene, or with literacy teaching,civics, popularization of science and art for gen-eral audiences.

The following tables (Charts Nos. 2, 3 and 4)will give an idea of the amount of pre-school,school and out-of-school educational programmesbroadcast in some Asian countries, in comparisonwith the total broadcasting time, in hours per week.

Radio Chart No. 2

Country

cu

M4., ,tlag. a)

cL,

tiCd PI W0 0 u2

lig PI 02 2 E4 sgt

V. 6oE-1

to

,...1

to .)

0 P..PI PI414 CD

rg g140 4+3 g0 ao

Po41

gFi 384Z r..> piw wV PI1 2gg1 6

Percentage of school programmes

'4 ci,8 tc9 cmj

r 14a)Pi 2Pk 41

1-4004c) cilwocdkccl.0

Cd

E 2Pk 4:2

004c.)

ul ulr4vm

gc: 'V0 ala; P4ria 42

1.(ri .1+aSI .

8 4, +,

.§Po

1:

wC.)cd

0)E-1

Ma)

-It' El.mr4

PIa) Et

on2

0 124

Burma

Ceylon

China

India

JapanLaosMongolia

Pakistan**Thailand

75.15245.50*

273

410

63

147

770

2.4046

70

639

6

31

93

41

3.10

350

1

4.51

11

10

12

50

8

43

25

45.530

10

20

6.492

18

28

5

5

1

3.7

11

2

1

5.9

7

3.510

1

8

3.74.5

xc us ve of 215 hours by commercial stations** Nine regional stations 33

Radio Chart No. 3

Country

Adult EducationPercentage of Educational Programmes

RuralDevelopment

Healthand Hygiene

LiteracyProgrammes Civics

Popularizationof Science

Burma 32 8 37 23

Ceylon 11 2 5 3.5 7.5

China 5 2.5 5 5

India 55 10 10 15

Japan 10 5 22 20

Laos 10 10 15 10 5

Mongolia 24.1 1.6 3.2 12.9

Pakistan* 46.8 10.5 10.5 10.5

Thailand 1 6 10 15

Nine regional a ons

Television Chart No. 4

Country

a)

to 4...

p?.1)

ca

P0 WRI C140

"P., 21.0 dE-1.i4

a)..w0 w

Po 5 g.)1 4 --,

b49 6g ).4 a'

cti tj 0cj w 0

ig , 8 cep.,

0 °. 5Fl W rcl 44

Percentage of Educational ProgrammesSchool Out-of-School

fI

0 Vr 82 4p4 ci,

,4

4C.)

cd ggi 0E 4Pa w

r-4

t a

Po gg 08 4a)

tti .

8 1,,,bi'5 80 4.)

46

ra r9,., il),

g w.. iv

lig

1 'aA) p._, . .

faa)

4 tw1 R

gi

0

too

v 0c)-- ,,,A4

CI

8 Fri:01

ce,

...I0ta

c,40 48

IndiaJapan (NHK)

Malaysia

Pakistan(3)

Thailand

23

252

28

770

112(1)

16

112

13

44,0 (2)

1.4/2hrs. permonth

10

.03

15

33

66

20

40

11.8

33

3 1

.55

5

30

6.1

7

1

8

1.3

3

17

25

8

1.3

33

10

15

10

1.3

(1) Thai Television Co. Ltd. and The Army Television HSA-TV Networks(2) By the Education Broadcasting Service - Ministry of Education(3) Nine regional stations

CO-OPERATION BETWEEN BROADCASTINGORGANIZATIONS AND GOVERNMENT BODIES

In Burma, educational programmes are plannedwith the Ministry of Education, while national de-velopment programmes are planned in conjunctionwith the government departments concerned, suchas the Agricultural and Rural Development Cor-poration, Health, Department, Union of BurmaSports and Physical Education Committee, etc.Co-ordination is assured through a School Broad-casting Advisory Committee.

In Ceylon, rural broadcasts are planned andinstituted in conjunction with the departments ofAgriculture, Health, Land Development, etc.Some of these departments have set up publicitydivisions to handle radio broadcasts. School pro-grammes are planned on the advice of education-alists drawn from the Department of Education.Co-ordination between broadcasting and theadministration is maintained in various ways:(i) through advisory committees; (ii) throughinterdepartmental consultation; and (iii) on directapplication made by other departments for specificprojects.

The educational broadcasting station in Chinaplans its programmes of language teaching (Ger-man, French and Spanish) within the frameworkof overall educational planning which aims at ex-tending European languages in China. The station,on the other hand, has an Educational ProgrammeDesign Committee composed of college professors,school-teachers, sponsors of specific programmes,officers of the Ministry of Education, etc. Thecommittee co-ordinates the activities of the stationand the administration in charge of school andadult education and of national development.

In Japan, NHK's school broadcasts, agricul-tural programmes, and other educational broad-casts are planned and produced in close contactwith the Ministry of Education, Ministry ofAgriculture and Forestry and other governmentalagencies concerned. Experts of these government-al agencies are members of a committee for theplanning and production of educational programmes.

Rural broadcasts in Nepal are made in con-junction with the government development projects.General and adult education programmes areplan-ned and produced by the Department of Educationunder the supervision of Radio Nepal. Nationaldevelopment broadcasts are run by Radio Nepalitself. Its programme section deals with allspecific programmes including educational ones.

In Thailand, the school radio programmes areplanned in conjunction with the national scheme ofP'lucation which forms part of the overall nationaldevelopment programme.

GROUP RECEPTION

The production of educational broadcasts must beplanned together with the organization of groupreception in order to assure the effectiveness of

the programmes despite the lack of radio or tele-vision receivers. In some Asian countries, re-ception groups have been formed as from the verybeginning of educational broadcasting. Schoolprogrammes are received through group listeningand some radio and television stations keep closelyin contact with their school audiences.

In Ceylon, reception groups have been organ-ized in two different ways: (a) clubs, formed ina particular district for a given period under theimmediate supervision of the agriculture depart-ment, for the purpose of intensifying agriculturalpromotion; (b) rural listener clubs, formed on anall-island basis, with a view to giving rural lis-teners the opportunity to participate in rural pro-grammes. Reception groups channel their questionsand comments, through the agricultural departmentrepresentative, or through the rural programmeproducers who periodically tour the variousdistricts. Apart from this, there is direct com-munication between reception groups and stationproducers. Apart from the above types of grouplistening, schools and training colleges also havereception groups and they are guided in their lis-tening by the schools service time-tables issuedto them.

In China, the educational broadcasting stationat Taipei makes a survey of audience opinion everyyear. This provides the principal material to helpthe programming progress, but there is no groupreception organized within the educational broad-casting system.

India, a well known example of group receptionis given by the Indian rural radio forums, whichstarted some ten years ago and have made steadyprogress ever since. At present, some 12,500rural radio forums are functioning in India. Thefollowing main reception groups have also been or-ganized: community listening groups for listenersin tribal areas; industrial listener forums forindustrial workers; lister.ing clubs for women;listening clubs for childrel; secondary schoollistening groups; university students' listeninggroups.

This form of community listening encourages,at the listening end, discussion of the programmesbroadcast, followed by communication of commentsand suggestions to the radio station. The processexercises a direct influence on the planning andproduction of programmes in accordance with thelisteners' comments or preferences expressed.

In Japan, some 40,000 primary and lowersecondary schools belong to the National Associa-tion for Research on Educational Broadcasts, whichis organized voluntarily by teachers who utilizeschool broadcasts. Besides, many listeners andviewers belongtothe women's classes (24, 000)which are organized to utilize NHK's women'sprogrammes, and agricultural groups who utilizeagricultural broadcast programmes. The NationalAssociation, women's classes and broadcast agri-cultural groups hold their respective study meet-ings and courses for training leaders. The results

35

of such meetings and courses are reflected in theproduction of NHK's educational programmes.

In Thailand a number of schools have beenselected which are requested to fill in a question-naire after listening to each broadcast and returnit to the division of educational information. More-over, seminars and conferences for educationalauthorities, supervisors and teachers are held atregular intervals all over tho country, which givethe programme specialists an opportunity to hearthe comments of the audience. There is, however,no such organization in the Thai television service.

III. THE PRINCIPAL NEEDS

One of the most pressing needs, in many AsianMember States, seems to be the training of edu-cational broadcasters. While general broadcastingcan benefit from the qualifications and experienceof good specialists, from both the programmingand the technical points of view, education by radioand television very often is conducted either byeducationists with no background in broadcasting,or by radio and television producers whose experi-ience in teaching is insufficient. Occasionally,however, there are national or regional trainingcourses organized with a view to developing edu-cational broadcast production. In some countriessuch courses are replaced by the provision of fel-lowships for studies abroad.

One of the questions that Unesco asked Asianbroadcasting services prior to this meeting relatesto staff training. "What provisions are made fortraining in educational broadcasting: (a) trainingof producers for educationalprogrammes; (b) train-ing in the use of educational programmes (teachersdiscussion leaders, etc.) ." Below are quotationsfrom answers to this question:

Burma. There is no particular provision assuch for educational programmes. However,government scholarships are given to staff mem-bers to study broadcasting in general at the BBC,Radio Australia or NHK.

Ceylon. At the moment there is no trainingscheme for producers of educational programmesexcept for occasional offers from friendly coun-tries like Japan for participation in seminars anddiscussions. There is no scheme of training inthe use of educational programmes, owing to lackof staff.

China. Some colleges have a department ofbroadcasting where most of the educational radioproducers are trained. In addition, regular on-the-job training helps to increase the number ofspecialists.

India. All India Radio runs two staff schools,one for the programme staff and the other for thetechnical staff. Staff training school (programmes)provides training to newly-appointed producersand programme staff, as well as refresher coursesfor those already in service. All India Radio or-ganizes courses in "Radio in education" in theteacher-training schools. Special seminars of

36

teachers and members of the staff are also or-ganized at All India Radio stations to exchangeviews and to discuss the aims and objectives ofeducational broadcasts, such as classroom utiliza-tion of educational broadcasts, planning of pro-grammes, their assessment and evaluation.

Japan. Training of NHK's producers of edu-cational programmes is conducted at NHK's centraltraining institute. NHK also accepts trainees fromcountries of South East Asia, Africa and otherregions. Leaders and teachers are trained atstudy meetings and training courses of the nationalassociation for the research of educational broad-casts.

Laos. One producer is being trained at theBBC, one producer is untrained, three formerteachers are working full-time as editors but theydo not have any training in radio production, twountrained editors are working part-time, thespeaker/actor has also no formal training.

Malaysia television. Producers are being sentoverseas to specialized training centres like CETO,NHK, CBC and Australia. Training in the use ofeducational programmes is not being done yet, butit is proposed to hold seminars with teachersduring the school holidays to acquaint them withthe use of these media.

Mongolia. Special provision is made in Stateplans to train national specialists, among themspecialists in radio broadcasting with an education-al background.

Nepal. Nepal does not have regular trainingin educational broadcasting, but sometimes of-ficers are sent abroad to more developed radiostations for observation tours and bring back in-formation on new techniques of educationalprogrammes.

Pakistan. Among the problems to be solvedare:(1) How to motivate the class teacher to utilizeschool broadcasts.(2) How to get resources for printing advanceschool broadcast schedules and teacher guides.(3) How to organize reception where classeshave no separate rooms.(4) How to organize reception in one-teacherschools.(5) How to organize reception in overcrowdedschools.(6) How to survey scientifically the extent ofschool broadcasts utilization.(7) How to organize a regular system of feed-back.

Philippines. There is no provision for formaltraining in educational broadcasting.

Thailand. Producers are trained on the jobas well as at some institutions in more advancedcountries, e.g., the ABC, NHK, the BBC andseveral universities in the United States of America.Seminars and courses are organized for teachersand education supervisors in different parts ofthe country. Instructions on the use of broadcaststo schools are published in handbook form. Three

times a week, talks are given on the radio in aprogramme called "Teacher's Hour".

The training of qualified staff, therefore, ismost urgent for many broadcasting organizationsin Asia and, in particular, to their education pro-gramme departments. This problem is veryimportant because broadcasting programmes areexpected to serve the principal needs of society.

Asian broadcasting services have particularlyspecified the following needs in education anddevelopment which radio and television are expectedto meet.

Ceylon. The principal needs in educationwhich radio is expected to meet are: broadcastingto schools and training colleges as a supplement-ary medium; language teaching; broadcasting touniversities, based on the university syllabuses;adult education through programmes intended inparticular for listeners in rural areas, on agri-culture, industry, rural development, health andhygiene, national development, art, and first prin-ciples of science.

China. To extend school education in order tosolve the present problem of deficiency in facultyand scarcity of classrooms, to eliminate illiteracyand advance the national standard of civilization,to enlighten the general public on the national heri-tage and help them enhance their knowledge.

India. Elimination of poverty and illiteracy,developing an agro-industrial economy and bring-ing about national integration and solidarity; forthe students in schools and colleges, not only tosupplement classroom education but provide a senseof purpose and direction so that they grow up to beresponsible members of society; for the villageswith their multiplicity of dialects, customs andtraditions, broadcasting has to be a guide in theirdaily profession of farming as well as the sourceof entertainment and of much-needed relaxationafter their hard day's labour; other segments ofthe community, such as industrial workers, tribalpopulations, children and women, have an equallyimportant need for education and development, andfor all of these broadcasting has to provide specialprogrammes and services.

Japan. Radio and television are playing agreat role in promoting equal educational oppor-tunities and in raising the educational level of thepeople.

Laos. In view of the lack of enough qualifiedprimary school teachers, radio is expected to sup-plement instruction in such basic subjects as arith-metic, elementary science, hygiene, agriculture,history and geography. It could provide materialand documentation in such fields as ethics and music.Radio can develop a sense of unity among school-children living in remote villages and strengthentheir sense of perception of the outside world.

For adults, radio programmes could renderuseful service in the fields of literacy, agriculture,health, sense of national unity and religion.

Malaysia. Television is expected to providegood educational programmes intended for schools

in the form of straight instruction, as well as asupplement for the classroom work of the teacher.In the field of national development, it will pro-vide the people with information and is also ex-pected to arouse their desire to help themselves.

Mongolia. Mongolian radio services attachgreat importance to the raising of cultural andeducational standards by popularizing the achieve-ments of world science, art and culture. Atpresent, efforts are being made to apply theseeducational and cultural aspects of radio broadcast-ing to the task of the new national developmentplan of 1966-1970.

Nepal. Radio is expected to help in educatingthe people in various ways: programmes forschools, including lessons in the curriculum, pro-grammes to teachers in the classrooms, etc.

Pakistan. The complexity of undertaking atelevision project might be summarized as follows:

(a) Time involved in the survey, selectionand acquisition of sites.

(b) Availability of trained personnel to mantelevision stations. Each station would require atleast 90 programme and engineering personnel.

(c) Shortage of trained and experienced de-signers and planning engineers.

(d) Delay in the procurement of equipmentfor television stations,

Philippines. Television in the Philippines isexpected to assist in filling the gaps in the presenteducation and training programmes for critically-needed manpower through classroom type pro-grammes, which will help intensify education,supplement instruction of children at the elementary,primary and secondary levels, complement thecollege curriculum and raise the literacy rate ofthe people. It will also bridge the gap between theneed for competent teachers and the resourcesavailable through mass instruction. Other needsthat television is expected to meet are diseaseprevention, health promotion, and the developmentof cultural activities, e.g., through concerts anddrama. Its assistance in community developmentthrough civic-oriented type programmes is one ofthe most important aspects of its utilization ineducation . It is, finally, expected to discuss issuesof national concern and attempts at reform by thegovernment, as they affect the nation's objectives,for the purpose of soliciting the co-operation of thepeople.

Radio broadcasting, although less effectivethan television where in-school instruction andeducational programmes are concerned, can reacha wider audience; its function is to develop an en-lightened and co-operative citizenry through broad-casts of an educational and informational character.

Thailand. Dissemination of information;literacy programmes, promoting public awarenessof trends in development; supplying broader edu-cational background; training and upgrading ofteachers and balancing their inadequacy in special-ized fields; popularization of science and art - theseare the various needs that radio and television are

37

expected to meet, though the latter medium isstill at an exploratory and experimental stage.

The above answers show that many Asianbroadcasting services have similar needs andproblems, the solution to which may be partiallyenvisaged on a regional basis. More details ofthese issues are given in the last part of the pre-sent document, which will deal with the outlookfor the future and the main problems impeding in-tensified use of broadcasting for education anddevelopment.

IV. THE OUTLOOK FOR THE FUTURE

The last question ("What is the outlook for thefuture and what are the main problems impedingintensified use of broadcasting for education anddevelopment? ") brought in these answers:

Afghanistan. Afghanistan is in the process ofstarting a special broadcasting programme forschools in co-operation between the Ministry ofEducation and the Ministry of Culture and Infor-mation.

School broadcasting will help to fulfil thefollowing tasks:

(1) Provide in-service and pre-service train-ing for teachers;

(2) enrich and supplement the work of theteacher in the classroom;

(3) provide direct teaching, following thegeneral outline of the syllabus;

(4) improve opportunities for adult education.Burma. The Burma broadcasting service in-

tends to expand its programmes as soon as possible.One factor which impedes the intensified use ofbroadcasting is the lack of sufficient numbers ofradio receivers, particularly in schools.

Ceylon. The main problems impeding intensi-fied use of broadcasting for education and develop-ment are: (i) lack of equipment and personnel forcloser contact with listeners and listening groups;(ii) lack of trained personnel who have specializedin the techniques of broadcasting for educationaldevelopment. Most of our trained broadcastershave gone through the general course offered bythe BBC, which of course is limited to generaltheory and practice of broadcasting; (iii) theamount of co-ordination, particularly with recep-tion groups in rural broadcasting and with schools,is insufficient.

China. In the near future, the educationalbroadcasting station in Taipei will set up a pro-vince-wide network which can help in solving theproblems of shortage of teaching staff and lack ofclassrooms, which are caused by increase inpopulation. The main problems impeding the in-tensified use of broadcasting fo.h. ,duc n anddevelopment are of a budgetary na re.

The Broadcasting Corporation of China hasthe intention and willingness to step up programmesin the field of education and development but hiringcapable personnel, increasing radio power andprinting textbooks all cost money to carry out.

38

India. For a country with gigantic problemsof illiteracy and social transformation, broadcast-ing is the only source of information, educationand entertainment for large numbers of people invast areas who are sometimes without any othermeans of contact or communication. Developmentof broadcasting is linked with the economic plansof the country as a whole. The fourth five-yearplan will begin in April 1966. Some of the targetswhich All India Radio will seek to achieve throughthis plan are:Radio

(1) Coverage of at least 95% of the countryfor the programme service on medium wave.

(2) Improvement and expansion of the meagreprogramme production and staff training facilities.

(3) Extensive and intensive service for ruralaudiences. In order to achieve this the durationof rural broadcasts which was 30 to 45 minutesper day, was raised to 11/2-2 hours by 15 August1965. A new "Farm and home unit" was createdto disseminate scientific information with regardto agricultural activities.

(4) Provision of at least one communityreception set for each of the 568,000 villages inIndia (at the moment there are about 200,000 com-munity receivers).

Individual listening can grow only when aperson of modest means is in a position to buy areceiver; thus All India Radio is faced with a two-fold problem: to expand and increase communitylistening and, at the same time, to provide forthe day when individual listening becomes univer-sal.

(5) Provision for increased activities inaudience research to find out actual listener pre-ferences. Just recently listener research unitswere set up at the headquarters of All India Radioas well as at the regional stations.Television

In the fourth five-year plan provision has beenmade for the setting-up of television studios infour major cities, viz. Bombay, Calcutta, Madrasand Kanpur. An adequate supply of television setsas well as technical equipment are the immediateneeds and as soon as these facilities are availableAll India Radio will launch two projects throughtelevision: (a) a literacy campaign; and (b) farmeducation.

Japan. Educational broadcasts are expectedto be developed further in the sense that suchbroadcasts help to promote equal educational op-portunities, raise the level of education and miti-gate the shortage of teachers. One problem whichhinders the use and development of educationalbroadcasts is the fact that radio and televisionreceivers have not yet been installed in all schoolsand educational institutions, In Japan, there isa problem in the relationship between the formula-tion of school curricula and the arrangement ofsubjects for school broadcasts. It is thereforedesirable that courses in audio-visual educationbe established in teachers, colleges and in the

education departments of universities, so as toraise the interest of future teachers in educationalbroadcasts.

Laos. The improvement of educational broad-casting is envisaged in three phases:

(1) Extension of the daily services from oneto two hours and the hiring of more staff.

(2) One and a half hours of educational pro-grammes every morning for secondary schools.

(3) Extension of school programmes from oneand a half hours to two hours daily.

The main handicaps are the lack of trainedstaff and the difficulty in communicating directlywith schools which receive the programmes. Itis also difficult to establish effective maintenanceservices and to provide for spare parts.

Malaysia . The lack of good television teacher sand writers who understand the use of the mediumand the lack of funds are the main problems whichimpede the intensified use of broadcasting for edu-cation and development, but the outlook for thefuture is very good because all concerned are en-thusiastic about their work.

Mongolia. Radio broadcasting is steadily im-proving and plans are under wayto build Mongolia'sfirst tele-centre in the near future.

Nepal. A 100kw high-power transmitter willbe installed in the near future which will enablebroadcasting hours to be extended and reception tobe improved throughout the country. More re-ceiving sets are necessary for schools and institu-tions and when these two problems have been solvedschool programmes will be broadcast moreeffectively.

Pakistan. The plan for the General PurposeTelevision Service in the country has been so workedout that strain on foreign exchange resources isavoided as far as possible. It is for this reasonthat the proposed Television Corporation will beauthorized by government to accept equity participa-tion by foreign firms engaged in equipment manufac-ture andprogrammeproduction, so as to meet asubstantial part of the requirements in equipment andprogramming without expenditure in foreign exchange.The majority of shares in the Television Corporationwill, of course, be held by the government. It ishoped that the Corporation will attain self-sufficiencythrough sale of advertising time, which has been

,IMICEWNIMINIFINEFalIMCM/RMIIIM

fixed at a maximum of 10 minutes per hour.Philippines. Organization of reception groups

is the next important task. The main problem im-peding the intensified use of radio for instructionaltype programmes is the fact that such programmescan only be really effective with the help of audio-visual aids. A centre for educational televisionat Ateneo University was established two years agoand the services of the Ateneo closed-circuit tele-vision network have been extended beyondthis net-work in as many as 50 public and private highschools in the greater Manila area by the MetropolitanEducational Television Association Inc.

The benefits and the need for educationaltelevision has been demonstrated to Philippineeducators and the future of ETV in the country iscertainly assured. A survey of ETV in South EastAsian countries has already started.

The main problems impeding the intensifieduse of television for education and development isfinance and the lack of competent teachers andspecialized personnel. It is believed, however,that with the continued support of Philippine edu-cators and of civic-minded individuals, organiza-tions and financial institutions in the country andabroad, educational television in the Philippineswill forge ahead to become a valuable tool ineducational and national development.

Thailand. The main problem impeding theintensified use of television for education in thiscountry is the fact that the people are not yet fullyprepared for the potentialities of this medium. Touse television effectively in schools a full under-standing of the possibilities, and limitations of themedium on the part of those who make and usetheprogrammes is essential. The outlook for thefuture is very hopeful and the use of television inschools is envisaged within two years from now.

The answers to the questionnaire show that theconcept of using radio and television for educationand national development is gaining support amongbroadcasters, educators and development specialistsbut that the main limitations are financial andbudgetary. The situation can be summed up in asentence contained in one of the replies to thequestionnaire:

"The potentialities of broadcasting are limit-less, but the resources are not".

39

FINAL REPORT OF THE MEETING ON BROADCASTINGIN THE SERVICE OF EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT IN ASIA

INTRODUCTION

1. The Meeting on Broadcasting in the Serviceof Education and Development in Asia was convenedby Unesco at Bangkok, Thailand, 16-23 May 1966,under the United Nations Development Programme(Technical Assistance Sector).

2. The Meeting was attended by 38 participantsand 8 specialists in the fields of broadcasting andeducation from 18 countries of the region. It wasalso attended by 8 representatives of the UnitedNations and the Specialized Agencies and by 12 ob-servers from Member States outside the region andnon-governmental organizations.

3. The Meeting was inaugurated by H.E. Mr .Mom Luang Pin Malakul, Minister of Education ofThailand. The following Bureau was elected:

Lt. Gen. Kricha Punnakanta (Thailand),Chairman

Mr. Aziz Hamid (Afghanistan), Vice-ChairmanMr. K.S. Mullick (India), Vice-ChairmanMr. P.S. Raman (Singapore), Rapporteur

40

Mr. Bounthamaly (Laos), Chairman, WorkingGroup No.1

Mr. Masud Qureshi (Pakistan), Chairman,Working Group No.2

4. In seven plenary sessions and four sessionseach of the two working parties, the Meeting dis-cussed the role of broadcasting in economic andeducational development. It concluded that radioand television have a vital contribution to make and

. that this should be fully recognizedthrough integra-tion into national plans, priorities and allocationsfor social, educational and economic development.

5. So that governments, and their authoritiesconcerned with social and educational developmentplanning, may draw the best advantages frombroadcasting, the Meeting unanimously adopted thefollowing Conclusions and Recommendations:

* See list of participants in Annex

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

THE NEW APPROACH

6. Development is the key-note of the countriesof Asia, even though they have reached varyingstages ranging from insufficiently developed coun-tries up to highly developed societies. In general,Asian countries face serious problems created bylow levels of national income and consumption,inadequate productivity, underdevelopment of edu-cation, high rates of illiteracy, low standards ofhealth and a general apathy of the people who arepoorly motivated.

7. These problems are of massive dimensionsin a region of large and rapidly increasing popula-tions. The developing countries of Asia have nowa population of 935 million which is estimated toincrease to 1,370 million by 1980.

8. in the last two decades Asian nations havemade progress in coping with these problems, andthere are signs of valiant achievements consider-ing the size of the problems. Nevertheless, if weare to eliminate speedily the struggling poverty ofthe people of the region progress should be morerapid.

9. Experience has shown that the human factoris crucial in development. Unless the quality ofits productivity is increased, all'the material in-vestment that may be made will prove ineffective.We have to transform the people of Asia if we areto transform Asia. We have to make our workingforce more productive since large sections of thepopulation are illiterate, disease ridden, ignorantand of poor motivation.

10. What is needed now is a gigantic effort totransform the peoples of Asia so that they can ef-fectively contribute to the development of theircountries. This is an educational effort oVLIn-mense dimensions which can be tackled only by anew technology in education and the employment ofall available resources.

11. It is, however, felt that generally in mostof the developing countries of Asia, the planningauthorities responsible for social developmentschemes do not sufficiently seethe enormous poten-tialities of both radio and television to aid economic,social and educational development. Insufficientpriority is given to broadcasting in any nationalplan. There is also inadequate provision madefor suitable machinery to co-ordinate the needs of

broadcasting with such plans and to make it moreeffective.

12. It is recognized that the role of broadcast-ing is only an auxiliary in social development,though of great significance. For the success ofany social and economic development scheme, com-munication between the planners, their agents andthe people is of the utmost importance. In thisnecessary communication, broadcasting can be ofimmense value. It has the ability to reach vastnumbers with a powerful impact; it can give accessto regions which are otherwise difficult to reach;it can help to overcome shortage of trained per-sonnel; it can operate in conditions of urgencywhenever there is need for a change in traditionaloutlooks and acceptance of new values and attitudes,and for the acquisition of new knowledge and skills.

13. Properly utilized, broadcasting can leadthe people to the recognition of the need for change,can arouse their interest in new ideas, and canhelp to apply those ideas within the context of anyparticular group.

14. It can achieve these results in all fields ofsocial and economic activity, in rural and agri-cultural development, in the establishment of anindustrial society, in vocational education, women'seducation, youth training, general adult education,or informal education.

15. The use of radio and television for formaleducation requires that they are integrated at allthe three levels of planning, production and recep.-tion, with the general educational structure of thesociety in which they operate. It may, however,be necessary to restructure educational systemsto get the maximum benefit from these media - toprovide specialized instruction, to overcome shortage of teachers, to obtain access to remote areas,to give refresher and in-service trainingtoteachersand so on.

16. In the light of the above remarks, the meeting, having taken into consideration the views ofparticipants and specialists in the fields of broad-casting and education invited from different partsof the region, has arrived at the following threeprinciples:

17. First:That broadcasting is basically a public trust

and responsibility placed on all those who organize,operate and control radio and television.

41

Second:That in order to enable radio and television to

discharge this fundamental obligation in a truly ef-fective and purposeful manner, it is imperativethat broadcasting must be recognized and support-ed by all governmental as well as non-governmentalagencies as a vital and indispensable force in thefurtherance of the basic objectives of all Asiannations to establish and sustain a modern,progressive society.

Third:That broadcasting has great potentialities to

transmit knowledge, to disseminate informationand to influence public opinion in positive and con-structive directions; and that these potentialitiesshould be applied to create the social climate andto communicate the skills required for buildingthis modern society.

I. BROADCASTING ANDNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

18. If the social and economic developmentplans of various countries in Asia are to bearfruit it should be recognized that the broadcastmedia of both radio and television have a signifi-cant contribution to make. They should be con-sidered part of the country's basic facilities, likeharbours, roads, electricity, for the provision ofwhich funds are invested not merely for immediateand identifiable results, but which are rightly be-lieved to promote a long-term increase in nationalproduction. As with investment in education,broadcasting resources should be expected to yieldresults in the form of an informed, motivated andskilled people, leading to the increased availabilityof productive manpower whether in urban or ruralareas.

19. It is recommended therefore, that even atthe planning level for any project or an entire de-velopment plan, consideration should be given bythe planners to the contribution and needs of broad-casting so that it may play its part in the promotionof the plan by creating the psychological and intel-lectual conditions that are so necessary for thetraining and mobilization of human resources in thecountry. Otherwise for sheer lack of communica-tion and the resultant inability to obtain the co-operation of the people the success of the plan maybe jeopardized.

20. As far as human resources are concernedthe problem in most countries of Asia is mainlyone of rural awakening and motivation to infuse anew confidence and energy; here experience hasalready proved that radio and television are power-ful forces of transformation. Facilities have tobe provided, with a high degree of priority, includ-ing the provision of transmitters of sufficient powexappropriate programmes, and an adequate numberof low-cost receivers to effectively reach the ruralpeople through the media of radio and television.

21. Appropriate programmes are those that will

42

lead to a change in the traditional attitudes of therural people, make them accept the necessarychanges in attitudes, and enable them to acquirethe necessary skills that are implied in progress.Moreover as their ability to produce is closelylinked with their conditions of health, the status ofwomen, the education of children and other aspectsof their social environment, a variety of program-mes is necessary and facilities for this should bemade available.

22. Evidence of the rural radio forums organ-ized in India and rural teleclubs organized in Japanshow that any programme that leads to discussionin organized listening or viewing groups in ruralareas is able to instil a sense of participationamong the people leading to more fruitful results.But to achieve this there should be an adequatemachinery for the organization of such groups, forthe training of their leaders from among the ruralpeople themselves, and for fruitful cross-stimula-tion that will ensue between the broadcaster andlistener thanks to the existence of such organizedlistening or viewing groups. There should alsobe facilities for the follow-up of particular pointsby more information and visuals in the form offilmstrips, charts, flannelgraphs and simple reading materials.

23. For rural people particularly, attemptsshould be made to give a comprehensive service thatwill stimulate them in all aspects of their life andappeal to them as total personalities rather thanmerely addressing them e.g. as farm workers, asilliterates, or as people with families which aretoo large. As they have fewer distractions broad-cast programmes will have particularly great ef-fect if well presented. Broadcasts should coverproblems of youth and women's problems, weatherand market reports that affect their interests,programmes of general educational and informativecontent, programmes that teach how to utilize en-forced seasonal leisure fruitfully, and generallyprogrammes that will make people more aware oftheir larger national environment so that they arehelped to get out of a mood of rural isolation andrecognize themselves as participants in the greateradventure of the whole development of the nationand of Asia.

24. Similarly in urban areas programmes shouldbe planned that will appeal to urban workers as in-dividuals who have their own chances to realizetheir own potentialities by acquiring moreknowledge,new skills and constructive attitudes. This willlead to greater efficiency, increased productivityand more harmonious relations with their neigh-bouring communities, an increase of civic pride,greater cleanliness and on the whole the creationof a better environment for all. Vocationaltrain-ing programmes that will augment their productiv-ity and chances for a better life are speciallyrecommended.

25. Most social and economic developmentplans in Asia depend a great deal on the co-operationand readiness of their urban population to develop.

Appropriate attitudes and skills for developmentcan be promoted by broadcasting and through theorganization of listening clubs and community pro-jects, leading to discussion and action as groups.

26. Any broadcast programme, whether forurban or for rural people, should be presentedregularly over a long period, Its usefulness maybe gauged by the extent of listener participation,whether in groups or otherwise, and in particularby the degree to which it is accompanied by facili-ties for feed-back between audience and broadcaster.

27. In the exercise of all these "development"functions, broadcasting can be effective only iflisteners/viewers are not looked upon as an amor-phous mass, but as specific groups of people, eachwith its ownewoblems and anxieties, attitudes andmental equipment, habits and potentialities; theyhave to be approached as specific groups in themanner most appropriate to each of them. It istherefore recommended that in a large country itis necessary to have many low-powered stationsparticularly in rural areas which can reach thepeople in their own appropriate ways and adapt pro-gramming to local conditions.

28. In the exercise of its multifarious functionsin regard to development, a broadcasting organiza-tion cannot and should not act in isolation if it wantsto be effective. In the formation of listening clubsco-operation has to be sought from communitycentres and similar organizations. Rural pro-grammes can be produced only in association withagencies responsible for rural development. Pro-grammes for urban workers need the assistanceand co-operation of unions. Adult education pro-grammes should seek the co-operation of adulteducation associations. Youth programmes needthe assistance of youth clubs. Group discussioncan be followed in association with newspapers.There should be a total mobilization of all the re-sources of a country including the media of com-munication for development to be speedy andfruitful.

II. BROADCASTING AND EDUCATION

29. The use of radio and television as a resourceof education requires that they be conceived as anintegral part of educational planning and admini-stration at every level. Such integration shouldreflect itself in the national allocation of financialresources and manpower, as well as in the day-to-day implementation of educational plans.

30. The requisite machinery will vary fromcountry to country, and indeed in some cases thetwo fields already come under one ministry. Wherethis is not the case, arrangements should be suchas to permit an active and continuous collaboration.

31. Inter-ministerial committees where they donot exist should be established for the implementa-tion of co-ordinated programmes.

32. Within the structure of the Departments ofEducation, Agriculture, Health and others, broad-

casting liaison units should be established in orderto facilitate administration and supervision as wellas detailed planning and execution of programmeactivities.

33. Advisory groups should be established atnational, regional and sub-regional level as ap-propriate, consisting of representatives of broad-casting, education, development agencies and otherrelevant interests.

34. When an educational service is started inany country on radio or television, provision forthe purchase of receivers should be included in theplan cost.

35. The financial provision for recurrent ex-penditure in connexion with educational broadcastingshould be adequate not only for the actual broad-casting services but also for the supporting ser-vices which are necessary for an effective educationalprogramme, the maintenance of receivers, theprinting and distribution of teachers notes, follow-up material, listener research, etc.

FORMAL EDUCATION

36. Considering the immense potential of radioand television in contributing to the solution of thepresent problems of qualitative improvement andquantitative expansion based on the educationalsystems in Asia, it is recommended that broad-casting be recognized in national education policiesas a teaching resource of great value in the areasof pre-service and in-service education of teachersand supervisors, in school instruction, includingvocational and technical education, and in highereducation.

37. In the use of these media it is to be bornein mind that they are essential aids to extend therange and effectiveness of the teaching and learningprocess. The role of the teacher remains vitaland will continue to be of central importance in pre-paring pupils for and following up the programmesin the classrooms and adapting them to the pupils'individual needs and aptitudes. But the rale ofbroadcasting and the teacher may change dependingon the quantity and qualifications of teachers whoare available under varying conditions.

Teacher training

38. It is recommended that:(1) National authorities make provision for

radio and television as a means of pre-service andin-service training in the courses offered byteacher-training institutions and to this end:(a) Equip such institutions and their attached demon- 0

stration schools adequately with closed circuittelevision which permit observation of classroomteaching, criticism of recorded lessons and moreeffective demonstration lessons, and with facilitiesfor the utilization of school radio and televisionprogrammes.(b) Utilize fully throughout the year the opportuni-ties offered by radio and television, preferably

43

linked closely with correspondence courses andprogrammed instruction, for the in-service train-ing of teachers at their place of residence or work.Such training should be geared to the level of pro-fessional training already received by the teacher.Special attention should be given to the needs ofuntrained or inadequately trained teachers.(c) Assure that teachers have adequate means ofreception.(d) In view of the heavy additional load involved inadequately preparing for and utilizing teacher-training broadcasts, provide for appropriate incen-tives for teachers following such programmes.(e) Utilize broadcasting media for the guidance ofteachers by supervisors, and the discussions byteachers on the air or in a gathering of formal orinformal kind, of issues of concern to the perform-ance of their work.

(2) Teacher-training institutions give coursesin utilization techniques for radio and televisionand to this end:(a) Provide as an essential part of the theoreticaland practical programme of teacher educationcourses in teacher-training institutions on the roleof broadcasting in education and the methods andtechniques of utilization. This involves, as aprerequisite, the training of teacher educators inbroadcasting techniques including programming,utilization and audience research.(b) Provide opportunities for teachers to gain ex-perience in utilization and to include tests on theirability to do so in final examinations.(c) Provide manuals on the utilization of radio andtelevision for use in teacher-training institutions.(d) Provide teachers in service with manuals andinstruction sheets for individual broadcasts in or-der to assist them in the preparation and follow-upof individual programmes.

(3) Carefully evaluated pilot projects be carriedout in Asian countries for the use of radio andtelevision for in-service training of teachers undertypical conditions of poor ground communications,insufficient qualifications of teaching staff and theneed to introduce new content and methods into thecurriculum; and that Unesco be called upon to co-operate in such projects to assure their assess-ment and wide dissemination of the results.

School instruction

39. With a view to realizing the full potentialityof the media as educational tools, as well as help-ing teachers with inadequate qualification or whoare handicapped by lack of up-to-date educationalmaterials, educational broadcasts, both of thedirect instructional and the enrichment type, shouldbe conceived as an integral and essential part ofthe school time-table and be regularly and system-atically produced and offered to this end.

40. Broadcast lessons should be closely inte-grated with the curriculum so as to be of directinstructional value in classrooms, repeat lessonsbeing given as often as may be necessary. In

44

recommending this course, it is stressed that dueaccount must be taken of varying national and localsituations, as well as of the freedom, for example,of a given headmaster, based on his intimate know-ledge of his staff, pupils and educational facilities,to modify the use to be made of such programmes.

41. The role of broadcasting, particularlytelevision, is of special importance in the teachingof the sciences and modern languages in the con-text of the remarkable recent developments in theteaching and learning of these subjects and thestrategic place they have in the qualitative improve-ment of education in Asia. It is recommendedthat national education and broadcasting organiza-tions devote resources to research and experi-mentatation into the application of broadcastingallied to the new approach in the teaching of thesekey subjects. It is recommended further that thecountries in the region exchange information aboutthe results of such programmes.

42. Those in charge of the production of educa-tional programmes should also prepare and makeavailable to schools, accompanying literature,supplementary materials, teachers manuals andguides for the effective use of instructionalbroad-cast lessons.

43. Procedures for the evaluation of pupilprogress and achievement should be appropriatelyreformed to take account of particular contributionsof the new media to the learning process.

44. In view of the foreseeable greatly increaseduses of the new media in education, it is stronglyrecommended that school-building designers andarchitects make due provision for their specialneeds with particular reference not only to physicaldetails, such as seating arrangements, electricityducts and outlets, darkening devices, sound instal-lations and flexible partitions but also to the overallrequirements of the changed teaching/learningsituation that may be expected as a consequence ofthe introduction of these techniques.

45. In view of the urgent need inAsian countriesfor expanding and improving vocational and tech-nical education, including agricultural education,and the existing inadequacies of instructionalmaterials and staff, it is recommended that specialattention be given to using the resources of broad-casting, particularly television in combinationwith correspondence teaching, organized groupreception and local supervision in vocational andtechnical education. Educational institutions shouldbe considerably strengthened in terms of equipmentand staff to make maximum use of these new tech-niques for theoretical and practical work in voca-tional and technical education.

Vocational guidance

46. Considering the growing need for vocationalorientation, particularly at the second and thirdlevels, it is recommended that radio and televisionshould carry special programmes developed incollaboration with educational counselling specialists

tI

and labour ministries for career information andvocational guidance.

Higher education

47. There is a rapidly increasing demand forhigher education in Asian countries and consequentpressure on the relatively limited facilities avail-able, together with the need to widen access tohigher education for young people who have theability to profit by it but do not have the means oropportunities to attend regular institutions. It istherefore recommended that university-type in-structional broadcasts be established. With thisobject in view, carefully designed pilot projectsshould be started by educational authorities, incollaboration with broadcasting organizations, forinstruction through mass media, in combinationwith other new techniques of teaching such as pro-grammed instruction and correspondence courses.The results of the pilot projects should be care-fully assessed to form the basis for further expan-sion of this alternative way to higher education.

48. To ensure continuous improvement andrefinement in the use of mass media for education-al purposes, it is recommended that a systematicprogramme of research, including action research,in all aspects of the application of mass media toeducation should be undertaken by universities,education ministries and broadcasting organizations.The programme of research should cover areassuch as development of suitable tests, assessmentof the relative efficacy of different techniques ofprogramming and teaching through mass media,cost factors, problems of the integration of thecurriculum in the broadcasting techniques and itsadaptation to the varying levels of audience abilityand aptitude.

OUT-OF-SCHOOL EDUCATION

49. With the tremendous advances Ir. humanknowledge and the rapidly changing conditions ofmodern life, it has become important for everyperson in society to constantly strive to keep pacewith these advances in knowledge and to pursue alife-long education. This is especially true ofthe large number of underprivileged people in Asia.They have to learn much more and much faster ifthey are to reach a dignified place for themselvesin modern society.

50. For this continuous process of life-longeducation, radio and television are valuable toolsin the hands of educators and development planners.Radio is the only channel available to communicatewith people scattered in far-flung communitieswith their large illiterate populations, who shouldnot be made to feel isolated from the general lifeof society. The underprivileged should be madeto feel that they too belong to a changing progres-sive community. To aid in the advancement ofthis objective, certain recommendations are made.

Literacy

51. Illiteracy is a scourge in most Asian coun-tries and its eradication is a necessary conditionfor national progress. Although radio may not bethe direct means for the teaching of literacy, thereare important advantages to be achieved by radioin this field. It should be extensively used to mo-bilize public opinion so that it may show energy ineradicating illiteracy; to attract voluntary workersfor the field, and to motivate individual and grouplearning.

52. Television, however, has endless possibili-ties even in the direct teaching of literacy. Theseshould be fully utilized wherever possible. Theliteracy problem may also best be approached bystarting with functional literacy wile- a the contentof the lessons are related to the immediate needsof the audience in their working environment andthe needs for the development of that environment.

53. To be effective, the radio or televisionlessons should be reinforced with suitable printedreading material and with skilful use of grouplistening or viewing techniques.

Adult education

54. For imparting knowledge as distinct fromskills, radio and television are convenient andpowerful tools. They should be used to enable thefarmer or industrial worker to cope better withtheir work. Carefully devised and presented pro-grammes on history, geography andthe humanitiescan increase their awareness, and impart an inter-est to their life. Civic education programmescan increase an understanding of the political,government institutions surrounding them and makethem recognize their own role in shaping and in-fluencing them so that they derive due benefit fromthem and acquire a new confidence in themselves.Popular programmes on science and current af-fairs with news reports and documentaries canarouse intellectual curiosity which is necessarybefore new ideas are absorbed. In multi-racialor multilingual societies radio and television canmake positive contributions in developing a feelingof unity and a common aspiration leading to amore coherent and integrated society.

55. General radio and television programmeslike classical music, drama and other spoken-word broadcasting have a potential educationalsignificance and, as such, care should be exer-cised to see that the cultural values of the nationsare not jeopardized by cheapness or vulgarization.Even popular entertainment programmes shouldbe purposeful leading to enrichment and stimulationof the personality rather than serving as mereescape or sedative.

Education of women

56. As rural women have an important placein rural society and its economy, programmes on

health, hygiene, family planning, child welfareetc., should be specially devised for their benefit.Broadcasting, which is the only medium of com-munication to reach the intimacy of the home inurban areas, can also play a significant part inmaking women take their full share in communityand national activity, as well as making them betterfitted to fill their roles of motherhood and home-makers.

57 . Radio and television programmes for womenshould aim at three principal objectives:(a) To improve their home-life and increase their

happiness and that of their families.(b) To provide them with ample opportunities to

acquire knowledge and information about local,national and international events and take theirdue place in community life.

(c) To serve as a vehicle of entertainment and thusrelieve the monotony and tedium of their com-paratively secluded life.

58. While listening and viewing in the privacyof their homes has its own importance for women,group listening provides an additional and worth-while source of effective utilization of programmes.Broadcasts directed to groups of listeners andviewers often lead to a useful sharing of experiencesand views which, in turn, lead to construction actionin various directions.

59. It is important to give women a sense ofparticipation in what they hear and view. This canbe done by givingthem opportunities to take anactual part in programmes as contributors ofscripts or as participants.

1:slogrammes for youth

60. Rural youth must be mobilized not only forincreased agricultural production but their energiesmust be channelled into other productive activitieslike adult literacy, social education and communitywelfare. Out-of-school programmes have aspecial significance for this segment as most ofthem would have discontinued formal schooling.Vocational guidance for them would be invaluable.

61. In every city there are large numbers ofyoung people who are at that stage in life when,not having yet assumed a definite place in society,they remain unorganized and undirected with nouseful avenue of expression for their energies.Moreover, the bulk of urban labour in our cities,both skilled and unskilled, has migrated from thevillages. They have problems of adjustment in anew, often bewildering, environment. They havehad little or no formal education and in the processof adjusting their traditional concepts and valuesto the needs of urban life, they need help. Theplanning of a broadcast service to these people hasto be correlated with other welfare activities, and withvocational education programmes like the workerseducation scheme and youth welfare work in manycountries. Here again, group listening and view-ing could be profitably utilized for motivation andaction, Television, where available, should also

46

be used for improving the skills of such people.62. In the preparation of such programmes the

producer has to remember the necessity for "edu-cation" not to sit heavy on his audience. Most ofthe people who fall in this out-of-school group leadhard lives and belong to the dispirited sections ofAsian peoples. To attract them and then stimulatethem by programmes is a difficult enough task need-ing professional skill of a high order and patience onthe part of broadcasters before they can hope tohave a positive educational impact. Entertainmentis a vital need of the audience and should be an inte-gral part of any educational effort. In out-of-schooleducation, drama and music can be among the mosteffective tools of popular enlightenment.

III. STATUS AND ORGANIZATIONOF BROADCASTING

63. As broadcasting is an essential publicservice, whatever the form of ownership, manage-ment and control, it should be operated in thehighest interests of society and for the benefit ofthe people. While serving as a medium of informa-tion and also of entertainment, its essential rolein national development and public and social edu-cation should be recognized and fully utilized.Privately owned commercial stations as well aspublic systems should be operated within nationalprogramme policies and devote part of their airtime at appropriate periods, without charge, forpublic service or educational programmes.

64. In view of the public nature of broadcastingits profound social impact and the limited numberof available frequencies, its regulation in the pub-lic interest is both justified and necessary. Thenature of the regulation will vary according to thegovernmental system of the State and the type ofbroadcasting system, but its objectives should be:

To arrange the orderly assignment of frequen-cies to avoid technical interference.To ensure that the number of stations permit-ted to operate is sufficient to meet the publicneeds, but not so numerous that adequatestandards cannot be maintained by all.

(c) To lay down minimum technical standards forall broadcast transmissions.

(d) To enunciate and enforce broadcasting pro-gramme standards, covering such questionsas good taste and decency, regard for thespecial needs of children, the preservationand promotion of national culture and artistictraditions, respect for social and religiousinstitutions, for different racial groups, andfor the ideals of peace and international under-standing,To determine standards, where appropriate,for the presentation and placement of adver-tising matter, including the maximum com-merical content of programmes, the length ofcommercials, the number of consecutivecommercials, etc.

(a)

(b)

(e)

Economic considerations

65. While recognizing that educational radioand television services will be developed accordingto a phased programme, it is recommended thatthey be expanded as quickly as possible to ensuretheir economical use and that maximum advantageis taken of mass media potential.

66. When educational broadcasting systems erebeing established, basic planning should includethe extension of the service to the rural areaswhere the needs are greatest and facilities thepoorest. The provision of receivers for groupviewing should be included in the initial plannedcosts of an educational service.

Transmission facilities

67. Considering the great contribution thatradio and television can make to national develop-ment, it is urged that technical facilities beprovided for nation-wide broadcast coverage inconjunction with other telecommunication services.

68. In view of the fact that a full broadcastcoverage in most countries requires a number oftransmitters and a national network for relayingprogrammes from central studios, it is re-commended that governments ensure good co-ordination between the broadcasting service andthe telecommunication service, so that while thelatter is building the national telecommunicationnetwork, all the present and future needs of broad-casting be taken into account and incorporated inthe national plan. In this connexion, all thosegovernments which have no national network areurged to seek the assistance of the ITU in survey-ing and preparing suitable plans for a nationaltelecommunication network, bearing in mind theimportance of this for the establishment of broad-casting services for education and development.

69. As the problem of finding a sufficient num-ber of frequencies in the high frequency bands(5950 kcs to 26100 kcs) is very difficult to solvethrough regional co-ordination, it is suggestedthat the governments of countries in the regionconsider making a greater use of Fli/1 sound broad-casting.

70 . The development of satellite communicationis considered very important for global commun-ication and in the not too distant future Asia shouldbe ready to share in its advantages, particularlyfor educational and development purposes. Theutilization of "distribution satellites" for thenational relay of radio and television services insome of the larger countries of Asia should be in-vestigated as this may make it possible to intro-duce a nation-wide coverage on an economical basis.Full support is given to the plans of Unesco tosponsor a practical feasibility study concerningthe use of space communication, to meet the needsof developing countries, especially in the fieldsof education.

Planning and production of programmes

71. Particularly in developing countries, theopportunities for using the broadcast media pur-posefully for education and development should beborne in mind in all fields of programming. In-formation programmes may have a profound in-fluence on attitudes and understanding of nationalproblems, and help mobilize public opinion andco-operation in the tasks of community and nationaldevelopment. Entertainment programmes should,to the maximum extent, conform with nationalcultural traditions, and be used as a vehicle forconveying ideas and information relevant to theneeds and aspirations of the people .

Co-operation with development agencies

72. As broadcasting serves the interests ofmany government departments and agencies insuch fields as education, community development,health and agriculture, the responsibility forproviding educational and development programmesand of ensuring adequate reception facilities shouldbe shared between the broadcasting organizationand the various departments and agencies. Theexact manner of sharing administrative and fin-ancial responsibilities will depend upon the natureof the broadcasting organization and its relationto government of individual countries. If broad-casting is a government activity, the governmentshould be urged to take note of this multilateralfunction of broadcasting and make separate pro-vision for such educational and development pro-grammes. If broadcasting is not part ofgovernmentalactivity, some arrangement should be entered intcby government with the broadcasting organizationto ensure that programmes for education anddevelopment are produced and transmitted.

IV. THE AUDIENCE

Reception

73. (a) Radio and television receivers, bothfor individual and community use, should be re-garded as essential and not luxury items, and asindispensable to the development and full utiliza-tion of broadcasting. Encouragement should begiven for local production or assembly, and tariffbarriers should be removed to enable importationwithout duty of component parts or raw materials,or in the absence of local manufacture, of anadequate number of sets for sale at the lowestpossible prices.

(b) It is recommended that Unesco ex-plore the possibility of drafting an internationalagreement for the importation without tax or dutyof radio and television receivers or componentsfor receivers used for educational purposes.

(c) As the production of receivers at lowcost necessitates large scale output , co-operation

47

between countries in the region is desirable, andit is strongly recommended that governments seekthe assistance of ECAFE to explore the possibili-ties of establishing assembly plants, in terms ofthe recommendations of the joint Unesco/ECAFE/ITU survey mission to Asia for the production andmarketing of low cost receivers.

(d) Attention must be given to providingtech-nical services for the repair and maintenance ofreceivers, both group and individual, particularlyin rural areas.

Group reception in schools andout of school

74. Close and continuing contact is essentialbetween broadcasting organizations and their au-diences, to ensure effective programming andmaximum utilization of educational broadcasts.Intensive organization and constant supervision ofviewing groups and the training of group leadersshould be given the same attention as the productionof programmes.

75. The provision in advance of schedules andguides and explanatory notes is an integral part ofthe whole system of educational broadcasts; theyshould be produced and distributed systematicallyby the responsible authorities to permit teachersand group leaders to prepare for and follow up pro-grammes.

76. A routine procedure should be establishedfor the regular reporting back to the broadcastingstation by group leaders, teachers and others oflistener reactions, comments and questions, foranswer in subsequent programmes and generalguidance in programme planning.

Audience research

77. As the effectiveness of broadcasting dependson the understanding and response of the audience,it is essential that research be undertaken into thenumber and characteristics of their listeners orviewers, their listening habits and circumstances,their programme interests and preferences, theircomprehension of broadcast information and theirattitudes and reactions. Such research should becarried out by broadcasting organizations them-selves, wherever possible, to guide them in pro-gramme planning, time and production, but it mayalso be commissioned or undertaken independentlythrough academic institutions or survey agencies.

78. The audience research should be on a regu-lar or periodic basis to ensure a continuing flow ofinformation to the broadcasting organization whichshould analyse it and disseminate the findings tostaff and all others concerned with the production ofprogrammes and the utilization of the media.

79. Audience reaction may be assessed by simplemethods such as listener panels or direct question-ing, but to be fully authentic and reliable, should bedesigned and carried out ill accordance with scien-tific research techniques and methodology. Because

48

of the characteristics of most audiences, it isrecommended that questions be unstructured in orderto elicit valid responses, The pre-testing of broad-cast messages to be used in campaigns for agri-cultural improvement or other developmentobjectives should be undertaken whenever possibleto ensure effectiveness and avoid misunderstanding.

Evaluation of projects

80. School broadcasts, adult education program-mes, agricultural transmissions, farm forums, aswell as other projects and campaigns involvingbroadcasting should be systematically evaluated todetermine their effectiveness, and the findingsshould be used to overcome weaknesses, exploitstrengths and improve standards of performance.

V. TRAINING

National training

81. A key to the effective use of broadcastingfor education and development is the training ofstation staff at all levels and of those who will uti-lize the programmes. The urgent needs of allcountries in the region for intensive training isrecognized, and it is recommended that trainingpolicies and programmes should include the follow-ing:(a) General training of professional broadcasting

staff in all departments production, technical,news, administration.For some personnel with executive potentiala broad based training at university level, inthe social sciences and in mass communicationand related subjects.

(c) Spec-lal training for broadcasters in the produc-tion of programmes for education and develop-ment.

(d) Training of selected educators, extension of-ficers and other specialists in the organizationand production of programmes.

(e) Training of all personnel involved in programmeproduction, in the process of effective com-munication, the psychology of broadcasting andthe sociological background of their audiences.

82. It is recommended that basic training shouldbe carried out at the national level, within a specialtraining institute or be organized systematically onan in-service basis. Every broadcasting organi-zation should appoint an officer specifically res-ponsible for staff training. Fellowships for studyabroad in methods of training should be sought forsuch personnel. Staff should be recruited abovethe minimum quantity required for operations, topermit the release of personnel for training on arotational basis.

83. Expert assistance should be requested, whenappropriate from Unesco or other sources to con-duct short-term courses at the national level, or to traincounterparts for continuing training responsibilities .

(b)

84. It is recognized, nevertheless, that trainingon the national level is inadequate in most countriesof the region, particularly as far as advanced quali-fications are concerned. Training in developedcountries for senior staff broadens outlook and en-larges experience, and fellowships for this purposeshould be provided.

85. The meeting feels, however, that there isalso need for advanced training facilities withintheregion, and therefore adopted the following recom-mendations.

Regional training

86. Considering the urgent needs of the regionand the great difficulties of providing at the nationallevel adequate training in broadcasting for allcategories and grades of personnel, the meetingrecommends that serious consideration be given tothe establishment of a regional institute for ad-vanced training, firmly based on a training institu-tion which first of all meets the national needs ofan Asian country.

87. The institute would conduct courses andseminars, at an advanced level, in both technicaland programme aspects of radio and television,particularly as they are related to broadcasting'scontribution to education and economic developmentin Asia. Training would include instruction andpractice in programme planning, script-writingand production, the making and editing of films fortelevision, and the effective utilization of broad-casting for development. The institute would caterfor both the staff of broadcasting organizations andeducators and specialists concerned with program-me production. Technical training would be of anadvanced character for staff with professionalqualifications, or in the case of television at seniortechnician level. Particular attention would bepaid to the training of key personnel in all fields,who may themselves undertake training responsi-bilities in their own countries.

88. AsT.ociated with the institute should be apilot project and other field activities, whichwouldinvolve trainees in the practical application ofbroadcasting to development tasks, and at the sametime serve the region by producing films and pro-grammes, and undertaking experimentation andresearch in its qualitative as well as its quantitativeaspects. One of the functions of the institute wouldbe to provide a documentation service and to pub-lish manuals and reports, and to act as a clearing-house for research information in the region. Itshould also envisage sending experts to countriesin the region to help withnationaltraining problems

89. The staff of the institute should be inter-national in character, comprising the best qualifiedpeople available in Asia or, if necessary, recruitedfrom outside Asia.

00. In order, to ensure the viability of the in-stitute, it was considered essential that it shouldhave a national training institution as its nucleus,and that it should be located in a country, which

would make a material contribution towards thecosts of its establishment and continuing operation.In this connexion, the meeting noted with greatappreciation the generous offers from the Govern-ments of Iran and Malaysia to be the host countryfor a regional training institute for broadcasting.

91. The meeting recommended that a studyshould be made of the training needs of the regionin relation to existing or planned training facilities,and the feasibility of establishing and financing aregional institute, bearing in mind the contributionoffered by the host country, the possibilities offirm commitments for financial support from thegovernments of participating countries in the re-gion, and of assistance from international orbilateral sources or some other aid-granting agency.

92. Noting the views of the Asian BroadcastingUnion and the possibility of other initiatives in theregion, the meeting proposed the appointment byUnesco with the co-operation of the ITU of a surveyteam consisting of specialists in broadcasting, en-gineering and programme production with particu-lar experience in the training of personnel, to makea detailed study of the problem, including:(a) Training needs for various categories of

personnel.(b) Existing national training facilities.(c) Methods and level of recruitment and the

qualifications of broadcasting personnel.(d) Future trends and needs, particularly in view

of the development of television.Action required to provide adequate training atboth national and regional levels.The value, function, financial feasibility andlocation of a regional centre of the type pro-posed and the contribution it could make to thedevelopment of broadcasting in Asia and itsmore effective use for education and social andeconomic advancement.

93. Notwithstanding these long-term studiesconcerning training facilities within the region, Viemeeting requests Unesco and other competent or-ganizations to hold training courses in the produc-tion and utilization of radio and televisionprogrammes which serve specific educationalpurposes, and to invite to such courses, broadcasters,educators and specialists of development agenciesfrom the countries of the region.

(e)

(f)

Training in the utilizationof broadcasts

94. Teachers and monitors require training inutilization of broadcasts in the classroom, andadult education leaders in methods of conductinglistening groups and stimulating discussion and ac-tion. In the case of teachers this might be giveninitially as part of formal training at the teachers'college. Institutes conducting training courses forsocial workers might also undertake training ofmonitors, group leaders, etc.

95. Short courses on utilization should includesome studio experience to provide familiarity with

49

production techniques and a sense of participationin the programmes.

96. It was recommended that a written guide ormanual be prepared for use by utilizers of educa-tional programmes.

VI. INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION

Programme exchange

97. In order to promote greater mutual know-ledge and appreciation among the countries of Asia,thus assisting them in their national efforts andfostering a spirit of international understanding andco-operation, the meeting recommends:(a) That countries exchange radio and television

programmes on development projects and edu-cational achievements in order to enhancepublic awareness and morale, and to stimulateefforts at emulating the accomplishments ofother countries in the region;That countries co-operate in the production ofdocumentary reports on development projectsin the region, through the United Nations andits agencies or directly among each other;

(c) That broadcasting organizations attach import-ance to facilitating programme exchange,establishing wherever possible a transcriptionservice and an exchange unit responsible forthe acquisition and supply of programmes;

(d) That greater efforts be made to establishmultilateral arrangements through the AsianBroadcasting Union and other appropriatebodies, but that at the same time bilateral con-tacts be fully explored for the exchange ofprogrammes which are well adapted to nationalprogramming;

(e) That producers of programmes b3 exchangedamong organizations responsible for the pro-duction of programmes, and that visiting pro-ducers from other Asian countries be given allrequired production facilities in order tostimulate the presentation of programmes inwhich Asian countries report on each other'slife and achievements.

(b)

Documentation

98. Stressing the importance of an exchange ofideas and experiences among those engaged in theapplication of radio and television to education anddevelopment, the meeting recommends:

That printed information on national experiencesbe made available to professional broadcastingand educational publications of internationalcirculation, and that such publications enlargethe coverage they give to programming in thefields of education and development;That countries exchange the literature accom-panying educational programmes as well asguidelines for the utilization of such program-mes;

(a)

(b)

50

(c) That Unesco, as well as other internr.cior al orregional organizations, disseminate as widelyas possible reports and documentation on theutilization and significance of broadcasting inthe educational and development process.

(d) That existing or new documentation servicesand centres supply information for use in edu-cational programmes, not only in written butalso in visual forms. Unesco was requestedto transmit to those concerned detailed sug-gestions in this respect which were made atthe meeting.

International contact withaudience groups

99. It is recommended that receiving groups beencouraged to establish contact across nationalborders through the exchange of gifts and reports,and that support through Unesco Gift Coupons berequested for projects of outstanding significance,appeal and urgency.

Placement of the topic of broadcastingon the agenda of meetings and trainingcourses; Co-operation of Unescocentres

100. Recognizing that the subject of educationalbroadcasting is not only of concern to those directlyresponsible for it, the meeting urges that the con-tribution of radio and television to education, aswell as to social and economic development, beplaced on the agenda of national and internationalmeetings and included in training courses concern-ed with overall national and educational planning,the promotion of various aspects of education, aswell as with agriculture, industrialization, healthand other aspects of social and economic develop-ment. The co-operation of the various Unescocentres serving education in Asia is also requestedin the implementation of the recommendations ofthe meeting.

Programmes about the UnitedNations and Unesco

101. Recognizing the role of the United Nationsand its Specialized Agencies in the pursuit of thegoals of this meeting, and the importance of creat-ing understanding and support for their work,particularly among young people, the meeting callsupon broadcasting and educational organizations todevote special programmes to the Twentieth an-niversary of Unesco during the winter 1966-1967,and to include regularly in their school broadcastsprogrammes about the United Nations.

Assistance from Unesco

102. Recognizing the importance of basing theapplication of broadcasting to education and develop-ment on sound planning and proper training of stag

the meeting recommends to Information Ministries,broadcasting organizations and educational broad-casting administrations that they request fromUnesco, through the appropriate channels of theirgovernment, among other assistance:

Short-term advisory or survey missions on thedevelopment of broadcasting and its use forpurposes of education and development;Long-term expert missions in these fields;Fellowships for advanced study and training inother countries.

51

ANNEX/ANNE

LIST OF PARTLISTE DES PA

AFGHANISTAN/AFGANISTAN

Mr. Aziz HamidDirector of Educational ProgrammesRoyal Afghan Ministry of EducationKabul

CEYLON/CEYLAN

Mr. K.H.J. WijayadasaDirector, National ServiceRadio CeylonP.O. Box 574Colombo

CHINA/CHINE

Mr. Chia-chun LiuDirectorNational Education Television41, Nan Hai RoadTaipeiTaiwan

Mr. Nai-han SoongDirectorNational Educational Ra41, Nan Hai RoadTaipeiTaiwan

INDIA/INDE

Mr. K.S. MullickDeputy DirectorAll India RadioParliament StrNew Delhi

Mr. B.S. DDeputy SecrAll India RParliameNew Del

IRAN

Station

dio Station

General

eet

sarathyetary

adiot Street

Mr. II ariborz Amir EbrahimiDeputy Director-GeneralNational Radio and TelevisionMinistry of InformationTeheran

4-

XE

ICIPANTSRTICIPANTS

Mr. Rouhollah TarverdiDeputy Director-GeneralNational Radio and TelevisionMinistry of InformationTeheran

ISRAEL

Mr. Hanoch GivtonDirector-GeneralIsrael Broadcasting AuthorityQueen Heleni StreetJerusalemDr. Pinhas BlumenthalEducation DirectorInstruction Television Trust14, Klausner StreetRamat AvivTel-Aviv

JAPAN/JAPON

Mr. Akira ToyodaDeputy DirectorEducation DepartmentJapan Broadcasting CorporationUchisaiwai-cho, Chiyoda-kuTokyo

Mr. Itsuo SaitoSpecialistAudio-visual Education DivisionSocial Education BureauMinistry of EducationKasumigaseki 3-4, Chiyoda-kuTokyo

KOREA/COREE

Mr. Nam Suk HahnDirectorPusan Broadcasting Station, KBS. HLKBPusanMr. Chung Pal NohMember of the KBS Radio and Television

Management CommitteeDirector of Daegu Broadca-Aing Station, KBSDaegu

53

LAOS

Mr. BounthamalyDirecteurRadiodiffusion NationaleVietiane

MALAYSIA/MALAISIE

Mr. Paul ChangChairman of the Central Committee on

School BroadcastingMinistry of EducationKuala LumpurMr. Mokhtar DaudHead of Schools BroadcastsRadio MalaysiaKuala Lumpur

NEPAL

Mr. Daman R. TuladharUnder-SecretaryMinistry of Publicity and BroadcastingKathmandu

PAKISTAN

Mr. Masud QureshiDirectorEducational BroadcastingFerozsons BuildingRawalpindi

Mr. A.F . KalimullahRegional DirectorTelevisionDacca

PHILIPPINES

Mr. Orlando BenozaActing ChiefRadio-Television Education SectionEducational Broadcasting and Audio-Visual

Education DivisionBureau of Public SchoolsManila

Dr. Gloria D. FelicianoDirectorUniversity of the PhilippinesInstitute of Mass CommunicationQuezon CityDiliman

SINGAPORE/SI NGAPOUR

Mr. P.S. RamanHeadBroadcasting DivisionMinistry of CultureP.O. Box 1902Singapore

54

Mr. Lian Fook ShinHeadAudio-Visual Aids UnitTeachers' Training CollegePaterson RoadSingapore

THAILAND/THAILANDE

Lt. Gen. Kricha PunnakantaDirector-GeneralDepartment of Public RelationsOffice of the Prime MinisterBangkok

Dr. Khunying Ambhorn MeesookDirectorDivision of Educational InformationMinistry of EducationBangkok

Mr. Chamnong RangsikulChiefForeign Affairs DivisionDepartment of Public Relations andManaging DirectorThai Television Co. Ltd.Bangkok

Mr. Prasong HongsanandanaDeputy Director-GeneralDepartment of Public RelationsOffice of the Prime MinisterBangkok

Mr. Sa-Ngiem PowtongsookDirectorRadio Engineering DivisionPost and Telegraph DepartmentMinistry of CommunicationBangkok

Dr. Witt Siwa sariyanonDeputy Director-General(Foreign Affairs)Department of Public RelationsOffice of the Prime MinisterBangkok

Mr. Nob Palakawongsa Na AyudhyaSecretary-GeneralThailand National Commission for UnescoMinistry of EducationBangkok

Col. Chalerm SudhirakDeputy Chief Signal OfficerSignal Department, RTAMinistry of Defence in charge of HSA TVBaholyothin RoadBangkok

Mr. Kuson SuchanyaEducation AdviserDivision of EducationBangkok MunicipalityDinsor RoadBangkok

Miss Napa BhongbhibhatEducation SupervisorDivision of Educational InformationMinistry of EducationBangkok

Mrs. M.R. Saisingh SiributrProducerEducational Broadcasting Station of ThailandDivision of Educational InformationMinistry of EducationBangkok

USSR/URSS

Mr. Valentin F. DvininDirector of ProgrammesCentral Radio of the USSRMoscow

Mr. Vladimir S. Azaroushkin(Observer/observateur/observador)Second SecretaryUSSR EmbassyBangkok, Thailand

VIET -NAM

Mr. Nguyen Tan-GiaDirecteur des programmesSection televisionMinistere de l'education70, le Thanh TonSaigon

Mr. Nguyen-HanRadio Station of BanmethuOtMinistry of Information and "Open Arms"79, Phan Dinh Phung St.Saigon

SPECIALISTS/SPECIALISTES

Mr. Chaudhry Nazir AhmadDeputy Education AdviserWest Pakistan Education DepartmentLahoreWest PakistanDr. Mohammed AkramVice-Minister of EducationRoyal Ministry of EducationKabulAfghanistan

Professor K. HatanoOchanomizu Women's UniversityOtsuka, 1-chome 3-1Bunkyo-kuTokyoJapan

Mr. P.V. KrishnamoorthyJoint DirectorFarm and Home BroadcastsAll India RadioParliament StreetNew DelhiIndia

55

Mr. E. Lloyd Sommer ladFederal DirectorFederation of Australian Commercial

Broadcasters47, York StreetSydneyAustraliaMr. Seishi OgawaExecutive DirectorChristian Audio-Visual Centre859, 3-chome KamikitazawaSetagaya-kuTokyo

Mr. Khamphao PhonekeoDirector of Primary and Adult EducationMinistry of EducationVientianeLaosMr. Homayoun SanatizadehDirectorFranklin Institute2, Alvorz AvenueShah-Reza AvenueTeheranIran

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS/ORGANISATIONS INTERNATIONALES

UNITED NATIONS/NATIONS UNIES

Mr. Jean DIArcyDirectorRadio and Visual Services DivisionOffice of Public InformationNew York

Mr. William TanzerChiefInformation ServiceECAFEBangkokThailandMr. Y. OmachiTelecommunication ExpertECAFE/ITU ExpertSala SantithamBangkokThailandMiss Frances YasasSocial Affairs OfficerECAFESala SantithamBangkokThailand

INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATIONS UNION(ITU)/UNION INTERNATIONALE DES TELE-COMMUNICATIONS

56

Mr. K.V. PaiTechnical Co-operation Expertc/o ECAFESala SantithamBangkokThailand

UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME(UNDP)/PROGRAMME DES NATIONS UNIES POURLE DEVELOPPEMENT

Mr. D.R. BergstromRegional Representative, a .i.United Nations Development ProgrammeP.O. Box 618BangkokThailand

WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (WHO)/ORGAN-ISATION MONDIALE DE LA SANTE

Dr. J.J. AlcocerRepresentative of WHO for ThailandBangkokThailand

UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN'S FUND (UNICEF)/FONDS DES NATIONS UNIES POUR L'ENFANCE

Mr. Brian JonesDirectorUnicef Regional OfficeBangkokThailandMrs. Mollico VajrothonPress Information OfficerUnicef Regional OfficeBangkokThailand

OBSERVERS FROBSERVATEURS

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY/REPUBLIFEDERALE D 'ALLEMAGNE

Mr. Helmuth DruckWestdeutscher RundfunkWallrafplatz 5Cologne

Mr. Klaus DoberschfitzBundespresseamtWelckerstrasse 11Bonn

FRANCE

Mr. Eric LemAttache de presse et d'informationAmbassade de FranceBangkokThailande

OM MEMBER STATESDES ETATS MEMBRES

QUE UNITED KINGDOM/ROYAUME-UNI

Mr. L.J. LawlerHead of ProductionCentre for Educational Television Overseas

(CETO)The Studio, Nuffield LodgeRegent's ParkLondon, N.W.1

Mr. Alan HancockC . E .T .0 . RepresentativeTeacher Training CollegePatterson RoadSingapore

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA/ETATS-UNISD'AMERIQUE

Mr. Ivan CampbellU.S.I.S.BangkokThailand

Mr. Lawrence J. TateCommunications Media OfficerU.S.A.I.D.ManilaPhilippines

OBSERVERS FROM INTERNATIONAL NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS/OBSERVATEURS, ORGANISATIONS INTERNATIONALES NON GOUVERNEMENTALES

ASIAN BROADCAASIATIQUE DER

STING UNION (ABU)/UNIONADIODIFFUSION

Sir Charles MosesSecretary-GeneralAsian Broadcasting UnionP.O. Box 3636SydneyAustralia

CATHOLIC INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FORRADIO AND TELEVISION (UNDA)/ASSOCIATIONCATHOLIQUE INTERNATIONALE POUR LA RADIO-DIFFUSION ET LA TELEVISION

The Rev. Hyatt, S.J.Good Shepherd MovementKawaramachi, SanjoKyotoJapan

The Rev. O'Brien, S.J.Xavier Hall70/9 Rajavithi RoadBangkokThailand

57

a

WORLD CONFEDERATION OF ORGANIZATIONSOF THE TEACHING PROFESSION (WCOTP)/CONFEDERATION MONDIALE DES ORGANISATIONSDE LA PROFESSION ENSEIGNANTE

Dr. See la ChayaniyayodhinCollege of EducationSoi Prasarnmitr (off Sukhumvit Road)BangkokThailand

-"P"'"'"w""===11111=m

SECRETARIAT

Mr. Raja Roy SinghDirectorUnesco Regional Office for Education in AsiaSanam Sua PaBangkokThailand

Dr. Henry R. CassirerChiefEducational Use of Mass MediaUnescoMr. Alex B. GrahamChiefAsia Division of the Department of EducationUnesco

Mr. Kan AkataniInformation OfficerUnited Nations Information ServiceEconomic Commission for Asia and the

Far EastSala SantithamBangkokThailand

Mr. R. PaccardUnesco Expert in Educational BroadcastingIran

58

Mr. Harold A. EngelUnesco ExpertInstitute of Mass CommunicationUniversity of the PhilippinesQuezon CityPhilippinesMrs. Maxine ShattonMass Communication Techniques DivisionUnesco

Mrs. Denise NavelMass Communication Techniques DivisionTine sco

UNESCO REGIONAL OFFICE FOR EDUCATION INASIA/BUREAU REGIONAL DE LIUNESCO POURLIEDIYCATION EN ASIE

Mr. S.V. ArnaldoDeputy DirectorMr. Amar SinghAdministrative Officer

AfghanistanAlbaniaAlgeria

ArgentinaAustralia

AustriaBelgium

BoliviaBrazil

BulgariaCambodia

CanadaCeylon

Chile

ChinaColombia

CongoCosta Rica

CubaCyprus

CzechoslovakiaDenmark

Dominican RepublicEcuador

II SalvadorEthiopiaFinlandFrance

French Wets IndiesGermany (Fed Nett.)

GhanaGreece

fluatemalHaiti

HonduranIlona Kona

Hungary

IcelandIndia

IndonesiaIranIraq

IrelandIsraelItaly

Ivor% CoastJamaica

WanJordanKenyaKorea

KuwaitLebanon

LiberiaLibya

LiechtensteinLuxembourgMadagascar

UNESCO PUBLICATIONS: NATIONAL DISTRIBUTORS

Panuzai. Press Department, Royal Afghan Ministry of Education KAIII/L.N. Sh. Botimeve Naim Frasheri, TIRANA.Institut pidagogique national, II, rue Zilatcha, Amis.Editorial Sudamericana S.A., Humberto 1-343, T.E. 3o. 7310, BUENOS AMR%Longman", Green and Co., Limited, Railway Crescent, Cacurnom (Victoria): Snhisent United NationsAssociation cf Australia, Victorian Division, 4th Floor, Askew House. 564 Lonsdale St., Mr1.11OURNR C.I(Victoria).For 'The awl"' tatty; Dominic Pty. Ltd., 463 Pittwater Road, BROOKVALRVerlag Georg Fromrne & Ca., Spengergasse 33. W1RN 5.All poilkotions: editions 'Labor', 342, rue Royale, Bmixxi Lag 3: N.V. Stantlaard Wetenschappelijke lingered],Belonged t47. ANTWRRPID4 I.For The &wit? and slides only: LOWS de !Annoy. t 12, rue du Trece, Ilatimmt as 3.Libreria Universitaria, Universidad San Francisco Xavier. apurtado 2t2. SUCRR.Fundaelo Getedio Vargas, pods de %laicism IOC Rio DI 'Amstar. GB 7.o2.Raznolznito, I Tzar Amen. SOFIALibrarie Albert Ported!, 14. avenue Rannoch?, reuson-Pams.The Queen's Printer, Orrawa (Ont.).Lake noose Bookshop Sir Chittampalam Gardiner Mawata En. Boa 244, Cowman 2.All egbfirotiotu: Editorial Universilaria S.A avenida B O'Higgins tois1 easilla 10220, SANTIACO.For 'The Gorier': Comision Nacional de Ia Unesco en Chile, alameda B. O'Higgins 1611, 3.tt piso, SANTIAGO.The World Rook Co. Ltd., 99 Chungking South Road, section 1. TAIPRI1 (Taiwan/Formosa).Libreria Buchholz Galeria, Avenida JimeneT de Quesada 8.40. B000TA: FAiciones Terser Mundo. apartadosere° 48,7, Boocro4: Omni Regional de la Unesco, Uniyervidad Industrial de gantander, BUCARAHANOADistrilibros Ltd., Pio Alvonso Garcia. calle Don Sancho nAti: 36.119 v 36.125. CARTAORNA ; J GerminRodriguez N., oficina 201, Edifier() Banco de %grail, apartado nacional 83. GIRARDOT. Cundinamarca:Libreria Univenitaria, Uniyenidad Pedagogics de Colombia, Tim*.La Libra's*, Institut politique congolais. B.P. 9307, Leogemennu.s.Toles Hermann', S.A., apartado 1113, SAN NILFee The Cowin': Carlos Wean Skew & Co. Ltda.. 'El Palacio de Is Rovistas', apartado 5924, SAN Jos*.Distribuidora Nacional de Publicaciones, Neptuno 674, LA HABANA."MAM", Archbishop Makarios 3rd Avenue. P.O. Box 1722, NICOSIA,SNTL, Spalena 31, PRAHA 1 (Permanent display): Zaltranicni literature. llilkova 4, PRAHA s,Einar Munksgaard Ltd., Prags Boulevard 47, Kt RTNHAVN S.Libreria Dominicans, Mercedes ao, apartado de coffees 636, Sarno DOMINGO.Casa de N Cultura Ecuatoriana, Miele° del Guavas. Pedro Moncayo y 9 de Calibre, mills de correo 5549GUAYAQUIL.Libreria Cultural Salvadorena, SAN SALVADOR.100102110011 Pirss Agerny, P.O. Bow IRO. ADM ANA1A.Akateeminen Kiriakaimpa. a Krtkuskatu HIUMNRILibrairie do l'Unesco, place de Fontenov Panis70. CCP 14390.41Librawle J &wage. rue Layoff, D.P. 208. FORS.DRFRANCR (Martinique).R. Oldenholins Verlag, Unesert-Vertrieh the Deutschland Rosenbeimerstraue to. MOvcitaMethodist Book Depot Ltd.. Atlantic House. Commercial Street, P.O. Box ion CAPS CoArrLihmirie H. KaulTmann, 40, rue do Stade. ATIIRNRSI Librairie Eleftheroutlakh, 4, A111141.Comisititt Nacional de In Unesco. 6.1 Calle 9.02. ions v. Ourattim.4.Librairie ' it Ia Gar:well& 16 rue Roux. D.P. 111. Pots r-an-PaINer.Libreria Cultural, apartado postal 560, TanticiciatraSwindon Book Co 64 Nathan Road, KowLenreAlustlential Konvbrdnolt, Vaci u 22, Booms" V. AllamiK01110 lefH11110 VIIIIRIAL P.O. Dos 240. 1311DRPRIT.Sinveldtim Jonsson & Co. H.F., Hafnantraeti 3. RKYKlayskOrient Longman, Ltd.: 57 Chittaranjan Avenue, CALCUTTA 13: Nicol Road, Ballard Estate, llosinav361 Mount Road, MADRAS 2: Kanson House, 1121 Agar MI Road, P.O. Box 386, Nsw Dame ..Sittorfeaste Indian National Commission for Cooneration with Unesco, Ministry of Education Ns". DEMI 31Oxford Book & Stationery C.O.: 17 Park Street, CALCUTTA Olt sod Stindla House. Nave Da tn.P.T.N. 'Pcrmata- Nusantara', c/o Department of Commerce, 22 Djalan Nusantara, DJAKARTA,Commission nationak iranienne pour l'Unesco, avenue du Mtnike. TinfRAN.McKenzie' Bookshop, AlRashid Street. 11A011DAD: University Bookstore, University of Baghdad, P.O. Box 12,113AMIDAD.The National Press, 9 Wellington Road. Hallsbridge, DuattN 4.Emanuel Brown formerly IIIumstein's Bookstores: 33 Allenby Road owl 48 Nahlat Benjamin Street, I t s Aviv,Libreria Commissionaria Sanseni S.p.A.. yin Lamnrmora 43. casell postale 352. FlItenla: Librenointernariontile Rizzoli. Galeria Colonna. Largo Chigi, Roma: Libreria Zanichelli, Plana Oalvanllotoona: Hoepli, via Ulric° Hocpli 5. Mu Librairie fralimise, piazza Castello 9. Tomo.Centre credition ei de diffusion xfricainrs, Wile postale 4541. Aniware PLATEAUSangster's Book Room. 9i Harbour Street. KitenTron.Marusen Co. Ltd., 6 Tori-Nichonte, Nibbonlmslii, P.O. Box 6o3, Tokyo Central, TOKYO.Joseph I. Bahous & Cm. DailKutub, Salt Road, P.O. Bow G6, MAIM..ESA Bookshop, P.O, Box 30:67, NAMORI.Korean National Commission for Unesco, P.O. Pox Central (is. SROUL.The Kuwait Bookshop Co Ltd., P.O. Box 2942, Kuwait,Librairie" Antoine, A. Naufal et Freres, MP, 1136, Ilevaotrot.Cole & Yancv Bookshops Ltd., P.O. Box 266, MONROVIA.Orient Bookshop, P.O. Box 233, Tnittots.Eurocan Tout Rea., P.O.R. 3, &HAAN.Librairie Paul Ilruck, 92 GrandeRue, Luxismnotmo.All pahlitations: Commission nationale de N Republique malgache, Ministere de Ptducadon nationale,TANANARIVE,For' The Cowls'', Service des ceuvres post et periscolaires, Ministere de P Education nationale, TANANARIVII.

Malaysia

MaltaMauritius

MexicoMonaco

Morocco

MozambiqueNetherlands

Netherlands AntillesNew Caledonia

New Zealand

NicaraguaNigeriaNorway

Pakistan

ParaguayPeru

PhilippinesPoland

PortugalPuerto Rico

Southern RhodesiaRomania

SenegalSingapore

South AfricaSpain

SudanSweden

SwitzerlandSyria

TanzaniaThailand

TurkeyUganda

U.S.S.R.United Arab Republic

United Kingdom

U.S.A.Uruguay

Venezuela

Viet-NamYugoslavia

Federal Publications Ltd., Times House, River Valley Road, SINGAPORE; Pudu Building (3rd floor),Ito Jalan Pudu, KUALA LUMPURSapienza's Library, 26 Kill2SWBV, VALLETTA.Nalanda Co. Ltd., 3o Bourbon. Street, PouT-Louts.Editorial Hermes, Ignacio Mariscal 4t, Mexico D.F.British Library, 3o, boulevard des Moulins, MONTE- CARLO.All publkation,+: Librarie 'Aux belles images', 281, avenue Mohammed V, RABAT (CCP 68.74). For' TheCourier' (Pr teaches): Commission nationale marocaine pour 11;nesco, o. 7enkat Mourabiline, RABAT(CCP 307.63).Salema & Carvallio Ltda., caixa postal 192, IleittA.N.V. Martinus Nijhoff, Lange Von gout, N-GRAVNHAGE.G. C. T. Van Dorp & Co. (Ned. Ant.) N.V., Wit.t.emsrAn (Curacao, N.A.).Reprex, avenue de la Victoire, Immeuble Painbouc, NoutatA.Government Printing Office, 20 Molesworth Street (Private Bag). Wet LINOTON; Government Bookshops:AUCKLAND (P.O. Box 5344): CHRISTCHURCH (P.O. Box 1721); DUNEDIN P O. Box 11(14).Libreria Cultural Nicaragiiense. calle 15 de Septiembre y avenida Bolivar. apartado n.0 8o7, MANAGUA.CMS (Nigel id) Bookshops, P.O. Box 174, LAGOS.All publications: A. S. Boldijiirnet, Lille Grensen 7, OSLO.Air ' I he Courier': A. S. Narvesens Litteraturjetteste, Box 6,25, OSLO 6.The %Vest-Pak Publishing Co. Ltd., Unesco Publications House, P.O. Box 374, G.P.U.,Showrooms: Urdu Bazaar. LADORE & n7-58 Murree Highway, 11/6-t, ISLAMABAD.Agencia de Librerias de Salvador Nizza, Yegros, entre 25 de Mayo y Mcal. Estigarribia, ASUNCIONDistribuidora INCA S.A., Emilio Maims 470, apartado 3115, LIMA.The Modern Book Co., 508 Rizal Avenue, P,O. Box 632, MANILA.Osrodek Rozpowzcchniania Wydawnictw Naukowych PAN, Palac Kultury i Nauki, WarszawaDias & Andrade Lda., Libraria Portugal, rua do Carmo 70, LISBOA.Spanish English Publications, Eleanor Roosevelt 1 ti, apartado 1912, HATO Rev.Textbook Sales (PVT) Ltd., 67 Union Avenue, SALISBURY.Cartirnex, P.O. Box 134-135, 3, rue 13 Decembrie, llocuaerri. (Telex: 226.)La Maison du Livre, 13, avenue Roume, B.P. 213-60, DAKAR.See Malaysia.Van Schaik's Bookstore (Pty.) Ltd., Libri Building, Church Street, P.O. Box x7t24,14.PRETORIA.All pulnientions: Libreria Cientifica Medinaceli, Duque de Medinaceli 4,For 'The Courier': Ediciones Iberoamericanas S.A., calle de Onate 15, MADRID.Al Bashir Bookshop. P.O. Box 1118, KnAttiroustAll publications: A/B. C. E. Fritzes Kungl. Hovbokhandel, Fredsgatan 2, STOCKHOLM 16.For' The Courier*: The United Nations Association of Sweden, Vasagatan 15-17, STOCKHOLM C.Europa Verlag, Rimistrasse 5, ZURICH; Librarie Payot, 6, rue Cretins 1211 GENEVE II.Librairie Internationale Avicenne, Boite Postale 2456, DAstAs.Dar es Salaam Bookshop, P.O. Box 2775, DAR ES SALAAM.Suksapan Panit, Mansion 9, Rajdamnern Avenue, BANGKOKLibrairie Hachette, 469 Istiklal Caddesi, Beyoglu, ISTANBUL.Uganda Bookshop, P.O. Box 45, KAMPALA.Mezlidunarodnaja Kniga, MOSKVA G -200.Librairie Kasr El Nil, 38, rue Kasr El Nil, Le CAIRE. Sub-depot: La Renaissance d'Egypte. 9 Sh. AdlyPasha, CAIRO (Egypt).H.M. Stationery Office, P.O. Box 569, LONDON, S.E.t; Government bookshops: London, Belfast, Birmingham,Cardiff', Edinburgh, Manchester.Ikt.sco Publications Center, 317 East 34th Street, New York, N.Y. toot6.Hector D'Elia, Represeniacion de Editoriales, calle Colonia o6o, MONTEVIDEO.IMPUVEN, avenida Libertador, Qta. 'DIPUVEN', Urb. Los Caobos, apartado de correos n. 10440,Canaca4.For single ropes of The Courier': Press Agendas S.A., Ediftcio El Nacional, apartado 2763, CARACAS. Cable:

Librairie Papeterie Xuan-Thu, 185-103 rue Tu-Do, H.P. 283, SAIGONJugoslovenska Knjiga Terazije 27, BEGOKAD.