renewable energy sources and rural development in...

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EDUCATION, VOL. E-24, NO. 3, AUGUST 1981

design of multiphase processing units and in the development of contin-uous process technologies from batch data. His research activities in-dude fundamental and applied studies of gas-liquid systems and studiesof the economic structure of the chemical processing industry with em-phasis on applying microeconomics to process design.Dr. Russell is a member of the American Chemical Society, the Amer-

ican Institute of Chemical Engineers, and the American Society forEngineering Education. He is a Registered Professional Engineer in theState of Delaware.

Vikram L. Dalal (S'66-M'68) was born in Bombay, India, in 1944. Hereceived the B.S. degree in electrical engineering from the University ofBombay, Bombay, India, in 1964, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical

n engineering and the M.P.A. degree in appliedeconomics from Princeton University, Prince-ton, NJ, in 1969 and 1974, respectively.

_ He has extensive experience in semiconductorphysics and technology, solar energy conversion,and energy economics. He worked with RCALaboratories, Princeton, NJ, from 1969 to1974, at Princeton University in 1975, and atthe University of Delaware, Wilmington, since1976. In 1975 he served as a Consultant forthe Ford Foundation to do a study on energy

strategies for India. At present, he is Manager of the Device Design andAnalysis Group at the Institute of Energy Conversion of the Universityof Delaware and also leads the project on amorphous silicon solar cells.He is the author of 25 technical publications and five economic- andenvironment-related publications.

Renewable Energy Sources and Rural Developmentin Developing Countries

R. RAMAKUMAR, SENIOR MEMBER, IEEE, AND WILLIAM L. HUGHES, FELLOW, IEEE

Abstract-Economic and geopolitical constraints on global nonrenew-able energy supplies will force many nations, especially the developingcountries, to accelerate their use oflocal renewable energy sources. Thispaper discusses some of the technical, economic, and socioeconomicaspects of the application of renewable (solar) energy sources for ruraldevelopment in resource-poor population-rich developing countries.The possible role of educational institutions in the U.S. and in the de-veloping countries in assisting in the successful introduction of solartechnologies in rwal areas is outlined. A selected bibliography is in-cluded for the benefit of readers interested in additional informationon this important topic.

INTRODUCTIONTHE decade of the 1970's will go down in history as theTone that brought into focus the limited and geopolitical

nature of the nonrenewable energy resources of the world andthe need to start the process of transferring the dependence, atleast partly, onto renewable energy sources. Civilization hasgone through a transfer of energy sources once already-fromrenewable energy sources to fossil fuels-as a consequence ofthe industrial revolution. This transfer was associated withthe lowering of energy costs. However, the transfer that is inthe making is going to increase energy costs considerably. Theramifications of this latest change in economic and socioeco-nomic terms will be significant, global, and highly uneven.

Manuscript received November 7, 1980; revised December 29, 1980.This work was supported by the School of Electrical Engineering,Oklahoma State University.R. Ramakumar is with the Department of Electrical Engineering,

Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078.W. L. Hughes is with the Engineering Energy Laboratory, Oklahoma

State University, Stillwater, OK 74078.

For the nearly one billion people living in scattered ruralareas of developing countries in the continents of Asia, Africa,and South America, the consequences of the massive changesin the global energy scene have been devastating. They findthemselves trapped in a cruel race between demography anddevelopment.Resolution of these global problems will be a very slow and

painful process. Initial efforts must be concentrated in ruralareas to improve the basic living environment and agriculturalproductivity, which, eventually will mitigate the exodus tourban slums-the most regreSsive of all the happenings in thedeveloping countries of the world. This initial effort willrequire a phenomenal increase in the (judicious) use of energyin the rural areas.Most of the developing countries are poor in conventional

fossil fuel resources and have to import them at the expenseof their meager foreign exchange reserves. As such, solutionsrequiring increased consumption of fossil fuels can only makethe situation worse. Introduction of nuclear technology on alarge scale around the world has many ramifications and raisesmany unanswered questions. This paper is concerned withthe third alternative-namely, the harnessing of renewable(solar) energy sources with the help ofsmall-scale decentralizedenergy systems in rural areas.During the last 5 years, there has been a dramatic increase in

interest in the utilization of renewable energy sources in thenon-OPEC developing countries of the world. However, theabsence (with some notable exceptions) of large and effectiveinfrastructures dedicated to generating technological changeshas posed a temporary barrier to the introduction of energyin rural areas. It is felt that educational institutions in the

0018-9359/81/0800-0242$00.75 0 1981 IEEE

242

RAMAKUMAR AND HUGHES: ENERGY SOURCES AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

developing countries, cooperating with their counterparts inthe United States, can provide a nucleus for such an infrastruc-ture to develop.This paper presents an overview of the solar technologies of

interest for use in developing countries and discusses ruralenergy needs and renewable technology options available tomeet the requirements. Integrated system concepts and theiradvantages are discussed along with the economic and socio-economic implications of introducing renewable energy sys-tems in rural areas. The possibility of collaborative effortsbetween educational institutions in the U.S. and in the de-veloping countries to actively involve themselves in thesuccessful introduction of solar technologies in the ruralareas for the benefit of humanity is outlined.

OVERVIEW OF TECHNOLOGIES

A wide spectrum of technologies is available for harnessingrenewable energy sources. In addition to human muscle powerand geothermal energy, the renewable resources available forutilization are solar radiation, solar heat, wind energy, fallingwater, and biomass (including human, animal, and agriculturalwastes). It appears that each resource is best suited for certainapplications and the technological challenge lies in matchingthe resources to the needs in a most appropriate manner.An entire family of contraptions have been developed for

utilizing human muscle power for transportation (bicycles,tricycles, railbikes), agricultural activities (water pumping,plowing, shelling, milling, threshing, harrowing), and domesticactivities (energy cycles attached to wheel grinders, woodcarver, drills, battery charger, etc.). All these devices use somekind of a pedal arrangement and moderate pedaling rates(60-80 r/min) yield about 60-70 W of power. Geothermalenergy is highly localized, though widely distributed over theworld. Because this resource is extremely site specific and be-cause of the risks involved in its development at the rurallevel, it will not be discussed further. The primary focus ofthis paper will be on the utilization of different manifestationsof solar energy in the rural setting. Some of the technologiesavailable for harnessing this resource are listed below.

1) Solar radiationa) Photovoltaic-powered water pumping systems for

domestic use and for microirrigation systemsb) Direct generation of electricity using photovoltaic

arrays for storage and later use2) Solar heat

a) Flat-plate collectors for supplying hot water for hos-pitals, schools, etc.

b) Linear and point-focusing collectors with suitableenergy conversion devices to generate electrical, me-chanical, and/or thermal energy

c) Solar stills for potable waterd) Solar crop driers and other agricultural applicationse) Solar ponds for energy storage and reconversionf) Space heating and cooling systemsg) Sun/earth tempered buildings

3) Wind energya) Wind-driven water pumps withmechanical or electrical

transmission

b) Wind-electric conversion systems for generation ofelectricity

4) Falling watera) Microhydro systems (1 kW to 1 MW) for generation

of electricityb) Water wheels for mechanical shaft powerc) Hydraulic ram for pumping waterd) Isothermal hydraulic air compression and the sub-

sequent use of the compressed air for a variety ofapplications

5) Biomassa) Anaerobic fermentation of human, animal, and agri-

cultural wastes to obtain biogas for use in several waysb) Fermentation of biomass to produce alcoholsc) Pyrolysis or aqueous pyrolysis of biomass to produce

liquid and/or gaseous fuelsd) Direct use of biomass such as wood for production of

thermal and other forms of energye) Unique approaches to biomass utilization such as aqua-

culture waste water treatment and energy farms.

RURAL ENERGY NEEDS AND TECHNOLOGY OPTIONS

The energy needs of small rural communities fall into threecategories:

1) energy to improve the basic living environment;2) energy to improve agricultural productivity; and3) energy to establish and sustain small-scale industries.While both renewable and nonrenewable energy sources can

be used to satisfy these needs, the focus in this paper is on re-newable energy sources. In Table I, a comprehensive listingof the various needs and the renewable energy technologyoptions are given under the three categories listed above.Another way to look at rural energy needs is to group them

into a) productive applications and b) nonproductive applica-tions. Any energy use that does not directly contribute toincreasing agricultural or industrial productivity is consideredunder b). Thus, categories 2) and 3) fall under a). Prioritizingthese needs is a very delicate task and is highly sensitive to thecountry and the region involved. The authors believe that, ingeneral, top priority should be given to 1) if the human misery,drudgery, and ensuing sense of hopelessness that exist in re-mote rural areas are to be reversed soon.Estimates of the amount of energy required for various appli-

cations vary widely. At the very least, about 1 kWh of usefulenergy per person per day will be sufficient to satisfy the basicenergy needs to improve the living environment. Some esti-mates have put the total (thermal equivalent) figure as high as6-7 kWht per person per day, depending on the assumptionsmade regarding the efficiency of use. The other energy needsare so extremely site specific and activity specific that theywill not be discussed any further. Many excellent estimates ofthe energy needs for specific applications such as irrigation areavailable.

INTEGRATED SYSTEM CONCEPTS

Two approaches have been suggested for the utilization ofseveral manifestations of solar energy in tandem. In the firstapproach, all the resources are converted into one form (usually

243

TABLE

IRU

RALEN

ERGY

NEED

SAN

DRENEWABLEEN

ERGY

TECHNOLOGY

OPTIONS

Energy

toimprove

the

basic

living

envi

ronm

ent

Category

Need

s/Ta

sks

Opti

ons

Rema

rks

Ener

gyto

improve

agri

cult

ural

prod

ucti

vity

(contd)

Category

Need

s/Ta

sks

Opti

ons

Remarks

Cooking

Supp

lyof

biog

asSolar

cookers

Firewood/Dung/Agricultural

Resi

due

Vege

tabl

eoi

lElectricity

from

the

Village

Ener

gyCenter

(VEC);

Biogas-IC

Engine-Generator

Anim

alfa

t

Dome

stic

&potable

Wind

-dri

ven

mech

anic

alwa

ter

pumps

wate

rsupply

Inte

grat

edwind-driven

perm

anen

tma

gnet

generator

(PMG)-Motor-Pump

combination

Dome

stic

Environment

Inte

grat

edphotovoltaic-motor-pump

sets

Biog

asfu

eled

engi

ne-p

ump

sets

Hydr

auli

cram

Elec

tric

motor-pump

sets

Ligh

ting

Elec

tric

ity

from

the

VEC

Biogas

lamp

s

Cold

storage

ofElectricity

from

the

VEC

Peri

shab

les

Solar

refr

iger

atio

nunit

Stre

etli

ghti

ngEl

ectr

icit

yfr

omth

eVE

CBiogas

lamps

Educ

atio

nal

Elec

tric

ity

from

the

VEC

devi

ces

Emer

genc

yand

Elec

tric

ity

from

the

VEC;

supplied

from

the

communications

storage

batt

erie

sequipment

Community

Water

sani

tati

onEl

ectr

icit

yor

grav

ity

&chemicals

Envi

ronm

ent

Conn

unit

yco

ldEl

ectr

icit

yfr

omth

eVE

Cstorage

Solar

refr

iger

atio

nun

it

Hotwater

for

Sola

rfl

at-p

late

hot

water

heaters

scho

ols

and

dispensaries

Spac

eheating

and/

Sola

rspace

heating

and

cooling

systems

orcooling

for

community

bldg

s.

Most

appropriate

Diff

icul

tto

adapt

tolo

cal

cult

ure

Envi

ronm

enta

lly

recessive

Needed

for

huma

nintake

&other

uses

Wasteful

ofenergy

Neither

suit

able

nor

avai

labl

ein

sufficient

quan

titi

es

Econ

omic

;ne

edgood

wind

regime

Conv

enie

nt;

water

sour

ceand

windmill

need

not

beat

the

same

loca

tion

Low

main

tena

nce;

conv

enie

nt;

expe

nsiv

eat

present

Not

readily

avai

labl

e;ca

nbe

deve

loped

Need

low

head

tostart

with;

comm-

erci

ally

avai

labl

eat

present

Convenient;

need

electric

supply

Convenient;

high

ener

gyef

fici

ency

poss

ible

with

fluorescent

lamps

May

not

beve

ryconvenient

Expe

nsiv

e;very

low

prio

rity

inpoor

hous

ehol

dsDo

esnot

appear

viab

lefor

sing

lefa

mily

households

Convenient

Not

very

convenient

Located

ina

suit

able

hall

inthe

VEC

Loca

ted

ina

suitable

room

inthe

VEC;

reliability

important

Located

near

the

water

storage

and

pump

ing

stat

ion

Loca

ted

inthe

energy

center

and

managed

byan

attendent

Can

belo

cate

din

orne

arth

eVE

C;expensive

atpresent

Viab

leat

present

Though

available

atpresent,

they

are

very

expe

nsiv

eand

may

not

besu

itab

lefo

rru

ral

use

atpr

esen

t

Energy

toim

prov

eagricultural

prod

ucti

vity

Irrigation

water

Wind-driven

mechanical

water

pumps

Economic;

need

good

wind

regime

supply

Inte

grat

edwi

nd-d

rive

nPM

G-Mo

tor-

Pump

sConvenient;

wind

mill

can

belocated

away

from

the

wate

rsource

Pre-harvest

Inte

grat

edphotovoltaic-motor-pump

sets

Low

main

tena

nce;

expe

nsiv

eActivities

Biogas

fuel

eden

gine

-pum

pse

tsCa

nbe

developed

easi

lyin

suit

able

size

sHydraulic

ram

Need

low

head

flowing

water;

comm

erci

ally

available

Electric

motor-pump

sets

Conv

enie

nt;

need

elec

tric

supp

ly

Harv

esti

ng

Post

-har

vest

Acti

vities

Land

preparation

Small

tractors

and

gadgets

run

byli

quid

and

Need

development

and

fabrication

gaseous

fuels

obtained

from

biom

ass

Fertilizer

Slud

gematerial

obta

ined

from

biog

aspl

ants

Viable

atpresent

Using

wind

energy,

air

and

water

tosynthesi-

Syst

emmu

stbe

large

tobe

econ

omic

;ze

nitrogenous

fertilizers

need

prototype

deve

lopm

ent;

good

wind

regime

need

ed

Mechanical

powe

rSmall

harv

esti

ngmachinery

running

onliquid

Need

further

deve

lopm

ent

and

gase

ous

fuel

sobtained

from

biomass

Motive

power

for

Small

vehicles

running

onli

quid

and

gaseous

Need

furt

her

deve

lopm

ent

tran

spor

tfu

els

obta

ined

from

biom

ass

Proc

essi

ngth

eSmall

gadg

ets

running

onelectricity

from

the

Need

furt

her

development

harv

est

VEC

oron

liquid

and

gaseous

fuels

obta

ined

from

biomrass

Grai

ndrying

and

Sola

rgrain

drie

rsor

drie

rscu

mstorage

Viable

atpresent

stor

age

units

Cold

storage

ofElectricity

from

the

VEC

May

not

stand

long

supp

lyperi

shab

les

inte

rrup

tion

sSo

lar

refrigeration

unit

Can

use

the

heat

reje

cted

bya

4-V-i

4-se^

--I-4ho-zr-l.l1

conc

e

Energy

toestablish

and

sustain

small-scale

industries

Low

grade

Flat-plate

coll

ecto

rsViabl

(les

sth

an15

0°C)

Ther

mal

Medi

umgr

ade

Line-focusing

parabolic

collectors

Viabl

Ener

gy(150°C

to30

0°C)

High

grad

ePoint

focusing

dish

collectors

Viabl

kabo

ve300°C)

Wind

mill

-mec

hani

cal

friction

devi

cewith

Cumbe

suitable

ther

mal

energy

storage

nance

regi

mGe

nera

lWind-Electric

Conv

ersi

onSy

stem

(WEC

S)du

mp-

Low

min

genergy

into

anel

ectr

icresistance

heat

erre

gim

with

suitable

thermal

ener

gyst

orag

e

entr

atin

gsolar

thermal

pIant

leat

pres

ent

le,

depe

ndin

gon

the

use

le,

depending

onth

eus

e

ersome;

cons

ider

able

main

te-

ere

quir

ed;

need

good

wind

ate

main

tena

nce;

need

good

wind

ie

Burn

ing

biogas

Wasteful;

better

uses

exist

Burn

ing

biom

ass/

agri

cult

ural

resi

due

Envi

ronm

enta

lly

rece

ssiv

e

Windmill

Inte

rmit

tant

;ne

edgood

wind

regime

Waterwheel

Need

storage

rese

rvoi

ror

cont

inu-

ous

wate

rfl

ow;

very

site

spec

ific

Solar-thermal

plant

Need

conc

entr

ator

sto

improve

the

over

all

effi

cien

cyto

dece

ntva

lues

.Closed

cycles

may

beex

pens

ive

Mech

anic

alRo

tati

ngshaft

Phot

ovol

taic

-ele

ctri

cmotor

comb

inat

ion

Expe

nsiv

e;problem

ofcl

oud

cover

Ener

gyan

dne

edfo

relectric

energy

stor

age

Biogas

fueled

engi

neBiogas

availability

above

and

beyond

the

domestic

needs

Electric

motor

Need

togenerate

elec

tric

alen

ergy

byon

eor

more

ofth

ema

nymeans

available;

expe

nse

invo

lved

inth

est

orag

eof

electrical

ener

gy(i

fne

eded

)

tTl bTi zEn CQ, n zC', 0 zEnI 0 z oC~ 04 0 UtT t3

it


SOLARI IRRIGATION I

C E LL WATER -

1MC RO

jr |STATION ,

-1'.-'...'.'.'

A WATER H WINO

,..............................

..:.:.:..........

Fig. 1. Schematic of a rural energy ce:

electrical) for storage (usually in batteries) and distribution toconsumers. The second approach advocates the integrationof benefits at the user's end. For example, while a windmillmay be pumping water for storage in an overhead reservoir,solar cells may be charging the batteries used to power educa-tional and communications equipment, and a biogas unitcould be supplying energy for cooking. The objective is tosupply the basic needs of the rural poor in the most economicand appropriate manner. In other words, the available re-sources and the energy conversion devices should be matchedto the basic needs to achieve an improvement in the livingenvironment in rural areas.

Fig. 1 illustrates one possible combination of devices and theirinterconnection suitable for an integrated rural energy center.Wind-driven water pumps and solar cell-driven water pumpingstations pump water for storage in an overhead tank. A smallhydroelectric (microhydro) unit can be used as needed to con-vert the potential energy of the stored water into electricalform and the water recirculated as in the case of pumped hydrostations. When necessary, irrigation water can be supplieddirectly as shown in Fig. 1. Domestic and potable water supplyfor the village is drawn from the overhead water storage asillustrated. A community biogas facility with sufficient gasstorage constitutes an important component of the energycenter. Biogas can be directly supplied from this facility forcooking and other needs of the villagers. The biogas can alsobe used in an internal combustion engine driving an electrical

nter to harness renewable energy sources.

generator for providing electricity. This electrical supply isassisted by the microhydro unit and wind-electric conversionsystems as shown. Storage of electrical energy in batteries isprovided only to operate the emergency and communicationsand educational equipment. The bulk of the energy storage,however, is in the form ofbiogas storage and as potential energyof water stored in the overhead tank. In the future, additionaldevices can be incorporated as the occasion warrants (shown indotted lines in Fig. 1).Remote clusters of three to four villages are common in de-

veloping countries. Often, such clusters are not electrified be-cause of the low load factors presented by such loads and alsobecause of the expense involved in constructing long distri-bution lines from existing utility grids. Such clusters can beenergized by establishing an energy center of the type describedin the previous paragraph in one of the villages and by install-ing a distribution line connecting all the villages as shown inFig. 2. Depending on the local conditions, availability, andterrain, windmill farms, microhydro units aided by solar and/or wind energy, photovoltaic devices, and other possible energyconversion units (for example, devices suitable for utilizinglocally available agricultural waste and other biomass) can beadded in time as illustrated.

ECONOMIC ASPECTSApplication of conventional cost-benefit analyses to the

utilization of renewable energy sources in the rural areas of

245


However, in evaluating the various options for supplyingenergy for remote and rural applications in developing coun-

tries, the cost of energy obtained from renewable energysources is often compared with the cost of generation usingsmall diesel-electric units (also known in the literature as auto-generation). The cost of energy obtained from diesel units can

be expressed as

[ r(1 +r)n ] p[(+r)n 1 187.6k (2)

where D is the diesel consumption in liters per kilowatt hourand F is the diesel cost in U.S. cents per liter.

In Fig. 5, (2) is plotted against the diesel cost for variousvalues of capital cost and for an assumed set of economicparameters (given in the box in Fig. 5).As discussed earlier, practical systems for harnessing renew-

able energy sources will employ several devices to convert themultiple inputs into useful forms. For such systems, theaverage generation cost is given by

WINDMILL

FARM

Fig. 2. Scheme to energize a small cluster of villages.r(1 +r)n i + mi PiRi

Cav =

developing countries will lead one to the obvious conclusionthat any such energy program for rural development is not"'profitable." Unfortunately, this method of computing"profits" does not consider the cost of not making an effortto improve the lot of the rural poor. Continued neglect andthe consequent widening of the living standards will eventuallymanifest itself in a most unpleasant manner when the appro-

priate opportunity arises. The rest of this section should beconsidered with these points in mind.The cost of energy generated by any energy system that does

not require fuel is solely due to the amortization of the capitaland operation and maintenance, if taxes and insurance chargesare neglected. This cost can be expressed as

r(I +r)n pC l+[r) (1)

in whichC = generation cost in U.S. cents per kilowatt hour.k = annual average energy production factor (also known

as plant or load factor).annual kilowatt hour energy output of the system

8760 (kilowatt rating of the system)m = fraction of the capital cost needed per year for opera-

tion and maintenance of the unit.n = amortization period in years.P = capital cost in U.S. dollars per kilowatt.r = annual interest rate in per unit (equal to 0.01 times the

annual percentage rate).Equation (1) is plotted in Figs. 3 and 4 for plant factors

ranging from 0.1 to 1.0. These charts can be used to obtaina quick estimate of the generation cost for nonfuel-burningenergy systems. For example, if a wind-electric system costs$1 500/kW and is located in a site yielding a plant factor of0.3, then the generation cost (for an annual interest rate of 10percent) can be read from Fig. 3 as 9.5 cents per kWh.

(3)(87.6) E (Riki)

i

whereCav = average generation cost in U.S. cents per kilowatt hour.

i = summation index to include all devices.ki = load factor for the ith device.mi = operation and maintenance charge rate in per unit for

the ith device.ni = amortization period in years for the ith device.Pi = capital cost in U.S. dollars per kilowatt for the ith

device.Ri = rating in kilowatts of the ith device.

Considerable simplification results if the amortization periodand the operation and maintenance charge rate can be taken as

the same for all devices. Then

cay TcrI

87.6 Req

where

I = total investment in U.S. dollars

= ZPiRi,

Req = equivalent continuous rating in kilowatts

= Riki,

and

Tcr = total charge rate

r(1 + r)n(1 +r) - 1

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

SYNTHETICFUELSFROM

\ BIOMASS /

lI

246


i UU2"'AN I) "I

I

FACTOR 0.1 / /I

nO 7/ /0 75213 5 30

$ PER INSTALLED KW~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~L

0.15 SkSO.4.

20- -I'/ 3 7 50)0 -15 20 ~

J III,/,~~~~~~~ - ~z

10 2505500 75051000

o 2500 io500 2000oo

750 1500 22150 3000 I00 2d00 3000 4000

$ PER INSTALLED KW

Fig. 3. Generation costs for nonfuel-burning energy systems;0.1 < 04

EE-J-w

3w

:jU)

0

z0

wzw

DIESEL COST U.S. ¢/LITER

Fig. 5. Generation costs for small diesel-electric conversion systems.

I

z

(-C

z(i,

z

Lb

0

z

0

$ PER INSTALLED KW

Fig. 4. Generation costs for nonfuel-burning energy systems;0.4 S k < 1.0.

If such an assumption is not valid, then a conservative (mean-ing highest) estimate for the generation cost can be obtainedby using the smallest ni for n and the largest mi for m in (7)and the resulting value of Tcr in (4). The average generationcost is plotted in Fig. 6 as a function of (IIReq) for differentvalues of n with a 10 percent (r = 0.1) annual interest rate andan operation and maintenance charge of 5 percent (m = 0.05)of capital per year.

AMORTIZATIONPERIOD, YEARS 5

25X

20 2

z

0

C15 20

z

w

0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

CAPITAL INVESTMENT IN U.S.$ PER

EQUIVALENT CONTINUOUS kW

(E P' Ri/Z Riki)Fig. 6. Average generation costs for multiple-input renewable energy

systems.

As an example of the use of these charts, let the diesel costbe U.S. 30 cents per 1. Assuming the diesel unit to cost as

low as U.S. $200 per kW, the generation cost can be obtainedfrom Fig. 5 as 15.5 U.S. cents per kWh. With a 20 year amor-

tization period, from Fig. 6, an average generation cost of 15.5

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247

I

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U.S. cents per kWh corresponds to a capital investment of U.S.$8000 per equivalent continuous kW for the renewable energysystem. Even higher costs will be acceptable as fuel prices goup due either to the basic oil price increase or to the high costof delivery to the remote areas.Energy systems for harnessing renewable resources, though

they appear to be very expensive in terms of dollars per kilo-watt, can be competitive in remote rural areas. This is espe-cially true in resource-poor population-rich countries whichhave to import fuel at the expense of their meager foreignexchange reserves. When one includes the hidden cost of in-action discussed earlier, the attractiveness of decentralizedintegrated renewable energy systems becomes very obvious.

SOCIOECONOMIC ASPECTSThe concepts of "development" and "quality of life" are

very closely tied to the socioeconomic setting of the individualconcerned. This is especially true with a rural populace withcenturies-old traditions and customs and this puts an extraburden on those advocating the introduction of renewableenergy sources and energy systems in the rural areas of develop-ing countries.What course of action should a villager in a developing coun-

try follow to get him or her out of the perpetual penury thathe or she is in? To put it simply, the answer is not clear cut.Often the person is advised by outside experts to follow a pathtowards modernization in which the benefits seem low and thecosts appear to be high. Many demonstration programs havebeen set up in villages around the world that, while providinginteresting news stories, do not have any chance at all of beingreplicated over many additional villages for purely economicreasons. They in fact do a disservice in that they provide asource of rising expectations with no possibility of subsequentfulfillment. This dilemma is always faced by those personsattempting to improve the energy situation in remote ruralareas of developing countries.Unfortunately, conventional fuels are rapidly becoming out

of reach for non-OPEC developing countries simply becauseof price or the availability of foreign exchange or both. There-fore, if the villager is to have energy at all, it must be of avariety that is locally available-renewable energy sources. Itis generally not realistic to expect that complete energy sys-tems be manufacturable in the developing countries, but somecomponents may be. It is very important in energy planningin any developing country to determine what can be done athome and what is not practical to do at home. It is at thispoint that the participation of local educational institutionsbecomes vital. Moreover, any energy technology anywhere hascontinual operating problems and requires some constant atten-tion. Local educational institutions can do an excellent job oftaking care of the energy systems in their region and in train-ing personnel to perform such jobs. Often, pilot programs arenot needed to demonstrate that a particular technology works.Rather, pilot programs are needed to identify the day-to-dayoperating problems of complete energy systems, to understandthe interface problems that may exist between devices andbetween local customs and system operating requirements, andto gather meaningful solutions to these problems. Once again,

the importance of the participation of local educational in-stitutions is evident.Any attempt that will not improve the villager's basic living

environment but will help only the already rich will not in-still hope in the minds of the rural poor. Therefore, providingenergy to improve the basic living environment of those whoneed it the most should have high priority. This must befollowed by the use of energy to improve agricultural produc-tivity and, eventually to the buildup of rural agro-industrialstructures. At this point, economic multiplier effects areexpected to come into action, resulting in tangible long-term benefits for everybody in the rural areas and for thenation as a whole.

ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONSThe success of systems introduced to harness renewable

energy sources in the rural areas of developing countries willprimarily depend on two basic factors.

1) Development and availability of appropriate technologies,hardware, and design methodologies to match the resources tothe needs.2) Buildup of educational services and the associated infra-

structure necessary to properly maintain and utilize the systemsthat are already installed.

In both of these areas, educational institutions (both in theU.S. and in the developing countries) can play a key role.Educational institutions in the U.S. can collaborate with their

counterparts in the developing countries and assist them in theestablishment of research centers with library, laboratory, andtesting facilities where technological innovations can germinateand grow. They can also establish international training cen-ters in the U.S. (such as the ones in the University of Florida,Gainesville, and in the State University of New York, StonyBrook) to bring scientists and engineers from various devel-oping countries for short periods of time for intensive work-shops and training. The ensuing multiplier effect in their owncountries should lead to the buildup of an indigenous cadre ofwell qualified and trained people to shoulder responsibilitiesin this area. It is important that at least a few of these U.S.centers have a representative collection of operating hardware,probably working together as an (well-instrumented) inte-grated renewable energy system. From the participants' pointof view, hands-on experience with such systems could be mostvaluable. It appears that the model of agricultural extensionprograms which have been so successful in many parts of theworld can easily be adapted to serve the needs in the renewableenergy area. In summary, educational institutions in the U.S.can best serve in the "catalyst" role to initiate and sustain re-search centers and research and implementation programs inthe developing countries.The role of educational institutions in the developing coun-

tries is far more important and even crucial. One of theirprimary responsibilities is to develop student interest at anearly stage (probably in the junior or senior level) in the re-newable energy area by involving them in the exploratory,assessment, design, implementation, and operating stages ofongoing projects. Graduate students working towards mastersand doctoral degrees should be encouraged to delve into some

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of the problems related to the renewable energy resourcesdevelopment and utilization. There is no dearth of highlychallenging theoretical and experimental problems in this area,the solutions of which require the most sophisticated modeling,optimization, and design techniques. Periodic short coursesand workshops should be offered on various aspects of renew-able energy sources aimed at motivating scientists, practicingengineers, industrialists, and entrepreneurs and some of theprograms may even be designed for educating the general publicon the beneficial impacts of the utilization ofrenewable energyresources. The technical schools (such as polytechnics offeringdiploma programs in contrast to regular engineering collegesand universities offering degree programs) can also play animportant role by training technicians in the ways and meansof maintaining and repairing the hardware used in the systemsdesigned to harness renewable energy sources.

SUMMARY OF WORK AT THEOKLAHOMA STATE UNIVERSITY

ENGINEERING ENERGY LABORATORY(OSU/EEL)

For over two decades, engineers and scientists at the Okla-homa State University have been actively involved in seekingmethods for utilizing available fossil fuels more efficientlyand for transferring the world's energy dependence, at leastpartly, onto renewable energy resources. The team of re-searchers include faculty and students from several disciplinesboth in and out of the Division of Engineering, Technology,and Architecture (DETA). To coordinate many of theseactivities, an Engineering Energy Laboratory was constitutedin 1973 as a part of OSU's DETA.

In the School of Electrical Engineering, the broadly basedinterdisciplinary research program (dating back to 1960) isprimarily aimed at developing continuous and intermittentduty energy systems to harness renewable energy sources andto apply them appropriately to provide a proper energy mix tosatisfy the global energy needs in the coming decades. Initially,the work was sponsored by the area utility companies. In therecent past, components of this research effort have attractedfunding from agencies such as the National Science Founda-tion, the U.S. Department of Energy, the United NationsEnvironment Program, the National Academy of Sciences, andthe U.S. Agency for International Development.Over the years, the effort in the School of Electrical Engi-

neering has included work in high-pressure moderate-tempera-ture electrolysis and fuel cell design and development, hydro-gen energy storage systems, rechargeable hydrogen oxygenfuel cell development, computer simulation and optimizationof conventional and unconventional energy systems, hydrogen-burning internal combustion engine development, basic researchon the nature of the ionization processes in the hydrogenatom, statistical analysis of the energy in the wind and in thesun in Oklahoma, prototype wind-electric conversion systemdevelopment, variable-speed constant-frequency field modu-lated generator system development and its application inwind and solar-thermal-electric systems, studies on Egyptianenergy resources and the development of the wind powerpotential in Egypt, synthesis of hydrocarbons from biomass

via aqueous pyrolysis, and the development and applicationof renewable energy sources and systems for rural develop-ment in developing countries. Space does not permit evenbrief descriptions of all these projects. However, the onesthat directly relate to the topic of this paper are summarizedin the following paragraphs.Under the sponsorship of the United Nations Environment

Program, faculty and students have been involved in the de-sign and establishment of a rural energy center in the village ofPattiyapola in Sri Lanka to harness renewable energy sourcesfor rural development. This center became operational recently(1980) and useful data is being gathered by the Ceylon Elec-tricity Board, which has the responsibility for day-to-dayoperation and maintenance.The National Academy of Sciences recognized the serious-

ness of the energy problems faced by the developing countriesand commissioned an ad hoc panel to study the issues involvedand the possibility of utilizing renewable energy resources toalleviate it. The panel was chaired by the Director of theOSU/EEL. It released its findings in 1976 in the form of abook report entitled "Energy for rural development-Renew-able resources and alternative technologies for developingcountries." Since the publication of this report, some signif-icant changes have occurred in the global energy picture. Inaddition, there have been some worthwhile developments inrenewable energy resource research. These developments,though not spectacular, point to slow but steady progresstowards decreasing the cost of some of the technologies.This, coupled with the rapidly escalating cost of conventionalresources, has made it desirable to prepare a supplement tothe original report, which is expected to be published in theearly spring of 1981. Many of the ideas expressed in this paperare based on these and other publications. A representativelist of important publications in this area is presented inthe Bibliography.

In addition to the activities mentioned above, several facultymembers affiliated with the OSU/EEL have traveled extensivelyin Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Far East as energyadvisors to U.S. Agency for International Development mis-sions. They are also actively involved in establishing linkagesfor potential cooperative research projects in the applicationof renewable energy sources for rural development in theThird World.

CONCLUDING REMARKSRenewable energy systems can provide a viable way to

energize rural areas of developing countries and to build uprural economic units that are vital to the stability and well-being of developing nations and, in a way, of the entireworld. Since almost all the renewable energy sources aredilute in nature, low-grade energy should be effectively usedwhenever possible. Appropriate ways must be found to con-vert low-grade energy to high-grade (electricity, liquid, andgaseous fuels) energy forms by means of synthesis and/orenergy conversion processes. If effectively used, the cumula-tive impact of even small amounts of intermittently availableenergy in rural areas can be considerable.

Utilization of several manifestations of solar energy in tan-

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dem with the integration of benefits at the user's end appearsto be the most appropriate way to proceed. This can beaccomplished by establishing a village energy center and bymaking it a point of focus for educational, cultural, and otheractivities.Although renewable energy systems are highly capital inten-

sive, as fuel prices continue to rise and their availability be-comes more tenuous, the economics of such systems appearsto be headed for a favorable status in the years to come.Local support and involvement are absolutely essential for

the success of projects such as the one discussed here. In theareas of training of personnel, maintenance of hardware, anddata collection and research, local educational institutions canplay a vital role. Cooperation with U.S. educational institu-tions can act as a catalyst and accelerate this process. Theneed is there and the urgency cannot be overemphasized. Itis up to the technical communities on both sides to accept thechallenge and act.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors wish to acknowledge the encouragement pro-vided by the Oklahoma State University School of ElectricalEngineering during the preparation of this paper.

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R. Ramakumar (M'62-SM'75) was born inCoimbatore, India, on October 17, 1936. Hereceived the B.E. degree in electrical engineeringfrom the University of Madras, Madras, India,in 1956, securing the first rank in that field, theM.Tech. degree from the Indian Institute ofTechnology, Kharagpur, India, in 1957, and thePh.D. degree in electrical engineering from

1lE Conell University, Ithaca, New York, in 1962.From 1957 to 1967 he served on the faculty

of Coimbatore Institute of Technology, Coim-

batore, India, affiliated with the University of Madras. He then came toOklahoma State University, Stillwater, where he currently is a Professorof Electrical Engineering. At Oklahoma State University, he has beeninvolved in research related to conventional and unconventional energyconversion, energy storage, renewable energy sources and systemsdevelopment and application, especially in developing countries. Dur-ing 1978-79 he was a consultant to the Jet Propulsion Laboratory inPasadena, CA. He has published over 70 technical papers in variousjournals, transactions, and national and international conference pro-ceedings, coauthored three U.S. Patents, and contributed chapters intwo books and sections in three handbooks in the areas of energy andpower engineering.Dr. Ramakumar is a member of the Energy Development Subcom-

mittee ofthe IEEE Power Engineering Society, theWind Division Boardof the American Section of the International Solar Energy Society, theAmerican Society for Engineering Education, the International SolarEnergy Society, Eta Kappa Nu, and Sigma Xi. He is a Registered Profes-sional Engineer in the State of Oklahoma.

William L. Hughes (S'48-A'50-M'55-F'62)was born in Rapid City, SD, on December 2,1926. He received'the B.S. degree in electricalengineering from the South Dakota School ofMines and Technology, Rapid City, in 1949,and the M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in electricalengineering from Iowa State University, Ames,in 1950 and 1952, respectively.From 1944 to 1946 he served in the U.S.

Navy. From 1949 to 1960 he served on thefaculty of Iowa State University. From 1960

to 1976 he served as Professor and Head of Electdcal Engineering atOklahoma State University, Stillwater. At present, he is Director ofthe Engineering Energy Laboratory and Clark A. Dunn Professor ofEngineering at Oklahoma State University. His wide range of researchinterests include electromagnetic radiation, color television systems,and energy. For the past 20 years, he has been primarily concernedwith energy conversion and energy storage, fuel cells and electrolysis,wind and solar energy systems, and special electrical energy conversiondevices. He has authored or coauthored numerous papers and hasseveral patents in these fields. He is also the author of two textbooksand several chapters and sections in many handbooks. He has been aconsultant to several companies both in the U.S. and abroad. He hasassisted the U.S. Agency for International Development and the NationalAcademy of Sciences in the assessment of the energy problems of manydeveloping countries around the world. He chaired the NationalAcademy of Sciences panel that published "Energy for rural develop-ment" in 1976 and its supplement due to come out in 1981.

Dr. Hughes holds memberships in many professional and honorarysocieties. He is a Registered Professional Engineer in the States ofOklahoma and Iowa.

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