renewable energy market & policy trends in iea countries

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Renewable energy receives a great deal of attention as a possible contributor to solving some of todays

energy challenges. Much of the debate has taken place without sufficient overview information about

renewable energy policies and markets. To help fill that gap, Renewable Energy Market and Policy Trendsin IEA Countries provides the best compilation yet of information on renewable energy over the last

thirty years. It includes statistical data on more than 100 specific markets and a collection of almost 400

policies and measures that the IEA Member country governments have undertaken in research and

development and to support the market deployment of renewable energy technologies.

The history presented here underscores that each renewable energy technology is unique, demonstrating

quite different characteristics, levels of maturity and needs for market success. Hydropower, burning wood

for heat and geothermal energy are the most mature renewable technologies, and mostly compete in

todays markets without special policy support. They can be cost-competitive where the resource base is

strong and where there is ready access to market the energy produced. Hydropower and geothermal

energy achieved their current market share through a development path that included a substantialgovernmental role, while wood burning has been a traditional energy resource for millennia. Less mature,

new renewables, including wind power, solar technologies and newer forms of bioenergy, are only now

entering markets, and like other emerging energy technologies, have received governmental support for

both technological development and for market deployment.

RD&D funding has been a longstanding tool of governments to develop technologies with perceived future

benefits, including renewables. Government-funded RD&D usually is based on the fact that the private

sector, particularly in competitive markets, typically will only invest in technology with foreseeable

revenues. This report clarifies the level of RD&D support provided to renewables by each of the IEA

governments, in the context of RD&D support to all energy technologies.

To support the market entry of new renewables, many policies have been established in IEA countries to

offset their higher costs and to facilitate the market experience that will result in lower costs in the future.

These approaches lead to market learning, which is not unique to renewables, but is particularly relevant

as these technologies are still quite immature. This study finds that the number of countries that pursued

aggressive policies to encourage deployment of each renewable technology prior to 2000 was quite

limited and the momentum of wind, solar photovoltaics and solar thermal power technologies rests on

significant investments in just a handful of countries. Nevertheless, these new renewables have shown

strong growth up to 2001 and have achieved substantial cost reductions as a result of their market

experience, indicating the success of government intervention. The policy context is changing, however,

as many new policies have been instituted between 2000 and 2003, increasing the number of countries

with supportive policy conditions. These developments are too recent for the impacts to be seen in ourstatistics.

If these policies should prove to be successful in stimulating markets, new renewables present several

challenges to integration into conventional markets and technical infrastructures. For example, the

intertwined problems of intermittency and impacts on grid reliability present two of the strongest

challenges to wind energys future prospects. Because utilities must supply power in close balance to

demand and within a narrow range of power quality, intermittency will limit the amount of wind that can

be integrated into the grid, although it is not yet clear at what level. Photovoltaic provides another

example, where highly dispersed generation poses new questions about distributed generation modalities

in utilities. Finally, the incorporation of biofuels into the product stream of the fossil fuel industry and into

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the systems that utilise fossil fuels also present challenges, due to the different chemistries of the fuels, as

well as the different industrial structure of fuel production. These challenges, and the national experience

of dealing with them, are reported in the country profiles contained in this study.

In some regards, renewable energy market deployment incentives are a substitute for the costs of

externalities. IEA governments often cite future energy security and environmental benefits in theestablishment of renewable energy policies. This highlights the challenge for energy policy-makers who

are balancing todays costs with tomorrows needs in more liberalised markets how much support for

renewables is justified and for how long should it be provided? New renewables are not the only set of

technologies on the pathway to the market; policy support afforded to them may be an indication of

appropriate support levels for other innovative technologies such as fuel cells, hydrogen, clean coal

technologies, and many others that will need governmental support to gain entry and experience in

energy markets.

This study also underscores a major challenge to IEA governments: adequate data on early market

development, technology cost information and details of policy budgets are extremely difficult to obtain.

Our ability to conduct analysis of the cost-effectiveness of market deployment policies rests on the

availability of accurate and detailed information. Such information is not yet available for renewables, and

although we are well on the way to compiling it, this is why cost and budget details are not given in this

study. This same issue is pertinent to other emerging technologies, and we call on the Member

governments to increase their efforts at recording and making this detailed information available. Greater

transparency will allow rational assessment of the cost-effectiveness of policies.

Renewable energy technologies are not the only options to be considered for solving today and

tomorrows energy challenges. In the end, renewables must achieve cost-competitiveness with fossil fuel

and nuclear technologies and markets should work with minimal extraneous influence, yet taking into

account external costs. Like RD&D, market deployment incentives have been provided in the past for

almost all major energy technologies and are likely to be employed in the future. The challenge is to

determine what level and length of support is appropriate to ensure strategic options that are important tobuild a secure and sustainable energy system. This includes options for a host of energy challenges,

including energy access for the worlds poor in developing countries, as well as providing secure, clean

energy supply for more industrialised regions.

Renewable Energy Market and Policy Trends in IEA Countries details the policy and market histories of

renewables over the past thirty years to record our efforts to develop alternative energy resources to

improve the worlds energy supply and demand structure. It is intended to inform the discussion about

energy options and the further improvement of policies to enhance the performance of the energy sector

toward the three pillars of energy policy energy security, economic growth, and environmental quality.

This work is published under my authority as Executive Director of the IEA and does not necessarily reflect

the views of the IEA Member countries.

Claude Mandil

Executive Director


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5

This study was prepared by the Renewable Energy Unit (REU) of the International Energy Agency (IEA) in co-

operation with other divisions of the IEA. Members of the REU who were responsible for producing this study

are Teresa Malyshev, Debra Justus, Lily Panyacosit Alisse and Timur Gl. REU team members Piotr Tulej andJane Barbire made substantial and critical contributions. Rick Sellers supervised the project.

This report relied heavily on the work of the IEA Energy Statistics Division, headed by Jean-Yves Garnier.

Special thanks to Larry Metzroth, Olivier Lavagne d'Ortigue, Ana Belen Padilla and Karen Treanton. The

production assistance from the Public Information Office, particularly Muriel Custodio, Corinne Hayworth

and Bertrand Sadin added significantly to the material presented. Many thanks go to Jane Rubery, Gillian

Balitrand, Guyon Knight, Carrie Pottinger and Alison Sadin for assistance with manuscript preparation.

Guidance, as well as substantive input, was provided by Antonio Pflger, Director of the Energy Technology

Collaboration Division and Marianne Haug, Director of the Office of Energy Efficiency, Technology and

Research and Development.

The work of the Renewable Energy Unit was supported and guided by members of the Renewable Energy

Working Party of the IEA, especially including:

Morgan Bazilian (Ireland), Rita Biacs (Hungary), Gerhard Faninger (Austria), George Giannakidis (Greece),

William Gillett (EC), Norbert Gorien (Germany), Willen van der Heul (Netherlands), Andreas Indinger

(Austria), Koichi Inoue (Japan), David Irving (UK), Antonio Joyce (Portugal), Christophe Jurczak (France),

Jerri Laine (Finland), Joergen Lemming (Denmark), Gilles Mercier (Canada), Richard Moorer (US), Bob

Pegler (Australia), Trygve Riis (Norway), Hans Ulrich Schrer (Switzerland), Ralph Sims (New Zealand),

Fernando Snchez Sudn (Spain).

Other government experts provided valuable assistance, including:

Shimpei Ago (Japan), Flix Avia (Spain), Sam Baldwin (US), Jean-Louis Bal (France), Luciano Barra (Italy),

Carlo Bartocci (Luxembourg), Antonin Beran (Czech Republic), Dieter Boehme (Germany), FerencBohczky (Hungary), Kyung-Jin Boo (Korea), Stan Calvert (US), Umbero Ciorba (Italy), Roman Cizek

(Czech Republic), Viktria Csorba (Hungary), Lisa Dignard (Canada), Bob Dixon (US), Claude Faucher

(Canada), John Ferrell (US), Raymond Fortuna (US), Jean-Christophe Feg (Switzerland), Mario Gamberale

(Italy), Judith Gelbman (Canada), Peter Goldman (US), Chul-Hee Han (Korea), Nobuyuki Hara (Japan),

Carlo Hastert (Luxembourg), Marco Hoffmann (Luxembourg), Mashiro Ito (Japan), Patrick Jung

(Luxembourg), Ravi Khosla (UK), Shigura Kimura (Japan), Hiroki Kudo (Japan), Ole Langniss (Germany),

Matteo Leonardi (Italy), Peter Lund (Finland), Elvira Lutter (Austria), Kazuhiro Matsuda (Japan),

Gabriel Michaux (Belgium), Miroslav Stary(Czech Republic), Yasuhito Nagami (Japan), Yoshiaki Nakamura

(Japan), Jean Offermann (Luxembourg), Tomoyuki Okumura (Japan), Esa Peltola (Finland), Don Richardson

(US), Peter Rohlin (Sweden),Yuki Sadamitsu (Japan), Kai Sipil (Finland), Frithjof Staiss (Germany),

Raymond Sutula (US), Fumiyo Takahashi (Japan), Kazumi Takahashi (Japan), Michel Trauffler (Luxembourg),Andreas Veigl (Austria), Maria Virdis (Italy), Hidenori Yuguchi (Japan).

Renewable energy experts provided valuable input, including:

Paolo Frankl (Italy), Reinhard Haas (Austria), Paul Komor (US), David Mooney (US), Blair Swezey (US).

This report was made possible by generous support from Member governments. Particular thanks to the

Government of Germany and its Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear

Safety including Norbert Gorien, Martin Schpe, Daniel Argyropoulos; the Government of Ireland and

its Sustainable Energy Ireland including Morgan Bazilian; and the Government of the United Kingdom and

its Department for Trade and Industry, particularly David Irving.

Acknowledgements


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7

Foreword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Table of Contents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

List of Figures and Tables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Part 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Part 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

P a r t 1 - O v e r v ie w 3 5

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Chapter 1: Renewables in IEA Energy Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Renewables in Total Primary Energy Supply. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Renewable Energy Supply Overall Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Renewable Energy Supply Trends: 1990 to 2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

The Mix of Renewables in Primary Energy Supply. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Renewables in Electricity Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Chapter 2: Research, Development and Demonstration Trends. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Government RD&D Expenditures in IEA Member Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Government Renewable Energy RD&D Budgets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Renewables RD&D and the Private Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Chapter 3: Market and Policy Trends in Renewable Energy Technologies . . . 61

Market and Policy Trends: Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

Installed Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Hydropower Electricity Production .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 63

Public Acceptance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

Policy Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

Technology and Cost Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Market and Policy Trends: Bioenergy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Solid Biomass Electricity Production . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 67

Biomass Heat Production ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

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Biogas Electricity Production . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 70

Biofuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70


Market and Policy Trends: Geothermal Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Installed Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72Geothermal Electricity Production ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 72

Policy Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72


Geothermal Direct Use ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Market and Policy Trends: Solar Photovoltaic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74


PV Electricity Production .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Policy Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75


Market and Policy Trends: Solar Thermal Energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Solar Thermal Electricity ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 77

Technology and Costs Development .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Solar Thermal Heating and Cooling .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 78

Technology and Costs Development .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Market and Policy Trends: Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80


Policy Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81


Challenges to Future Growth .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 84

Chapter 4: Market Deployment Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Policy Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Policies Addressing Supply and Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

Investment Incentives .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

Tax Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

Government Purchases ... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

Policies Addressing Supply and Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

Incentive Tariffs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

Tax Measures .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Obligations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

Tradable Certificates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

Policies Addressing Demand and Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Voluntary Programmes ... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Tax Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

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Policies Addressing Demand and Capacity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Investment Incentives... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Tax Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Regulatory and Administrative Rules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Public Awareness Programmes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Trends in IEA Renewable Energy Policies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Annex 1: Total Primary Energy Supply and Share of Renewables. . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Annex 2: Renewable Energy Statistics Definitions and Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

P a r t 2 - C o u n t r y P r o f i l e s 1 0 5

Australia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Total Primary Energy Supply. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Renewable Energy Supply. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Research and Development Trends.. .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . 111

Market Deployment Trends .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 112

Renewable Energy Markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Biomass Production ... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115Biogas Electricity Production.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 116

Wind Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Solar Thermal Electricity Production.. .. .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . 118

Solar Photovoltaic.. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

Policy Chronology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

Austria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129





Energy Policy Context ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136


Biomass Electricity Production .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 137

Biomass Heat Production.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 138

Wind Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139


12/381

1 0

Solar Thermal Production.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 140

Solar Photovoltaic... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141


Belgium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155



Research and Development Trends.. .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . 159



Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

Biomass Production ... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

Wind Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167



Canada. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179





Energy Policy Context ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185Renewable Energy Markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188


Liquid Biofuels Production.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 190

Wind Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190


Ocean Energy.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192


Czech Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203






Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211



13/381


1 1


Wind Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213


Denmark. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219








Biomass Electricity Production .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 227Biomass Heat Production.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 228

Biogas Electricity Production.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 229

Wind Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230


Policy Chronology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

European Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

Renewable Energy Policy Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

Background to Activities at a European Union Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

EU Renewable Energy Programmes .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 244

EU Renewable Energy Policies.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 245

Renewable Energy Legislation.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 245

Finland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249







Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256


Wind Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257



14/381

1 2

France. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267







Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274


Wind Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275




Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289






Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300



Wind Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303




Greece. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321






Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

Wind Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328





15/381


1 3

Hungary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339



Research and Development Trends.. .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . 343Market Deployment Trends .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 344



Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347



Geothermal Production.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 350

Wind Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351


Ireland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361






Renewable Energy Markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370


Wind Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372


Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381







Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391



Geothermal Electricity Production .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 394


16/381

1 4

Wind Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395



Japan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409






Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417


Wind Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419



Korea. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433





Renewable Energy Markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440


Wind Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442




Luxembourg. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455






Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462

Wind Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463




17/381


1 5

Netherlands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469



Research and Development Trends.. .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . 473Market Deployment Trends .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 474




Wind Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478




New Zealand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487







Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494Biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494


Wind Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496


Norway. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503







Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510

Wind Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511




18/381

1 6

Portugal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521



Research and Development Trends.. .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . 524Market Deployment Trends .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 526


Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528

Wind Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528




Spain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541Total Primary Energy Supply. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542





Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549


Wind Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551Solar Photovoltaic... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552


Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563







Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572




Wind Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576




19/381


1 7

Switzerland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585







Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594


Wind Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596




Turkey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605






Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612

Geothermal Production.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 613Wind Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614


United Kingdom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617







Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625




Wind Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628




20/381

1 8

United States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641






Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649

Bioenergy Production ... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650



Wind Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655


Solar Thermal Electricity Production.. . .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . 658





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Chapter 1

Figures

Figure 1-1. IEA Total Primary Energy Supply, 1970-2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Figure 1-2. Fuel Shares of IEA Total Primary Energy Supply, 2001. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Figure 1-3. Renewables in Primary Energy Supply, 1970-2001. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Figure 1-4. Mix of Renewables in Primary Energy Supply, 2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Figure 1-5. Total Primary Energy Supply from Wind, Solar and Ocean, 1990-2001 . . 47

Figure 1-6. Wind, Solar and Ocean Energy Supply in Key Producing Countries,

1990-2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47Figure 1-7. IEA Electricity Production, 2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Figure 1-8. IEA Electricity Production, 1971 2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Figure 1-9. Fuel Shares in IEA Electricity Production, 1971-2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Tables

Table 1-1. Average Annual Growth Rates of Renewable Energy Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Table 1-2. Share of Renewables in Total Primary Energy Supply by Country. . . . . . . . . 44

Table 1-3: Average Annual Growth of Renewable Total Primary Energy Supply

by Country. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Table 1-4. Wind, Solar and Ocean Energy in Renewable Energy Supply by Country 48Table 1-5. Share of Renewables in IEA Electricity Production by Country. . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Chapter 2

Figures

Figure 2-1. Government Energy RD&D Budgets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Figure 2-2. Government Renewable Energy RD&D Budgets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Figure 2-3. Average Annual Renewable RD&D Budgets in IEA Countries, 1990-2002 . . . 56

Figure 2-4. Virtuous Cycle in a Supportive Policy Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Table

Table 2-1. RD&D Budgets in IEA Countries by Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Chapter 3

Figures

Figure 3-1. Cost Competitiveness of Selected Renewable Power Technologies. . . . . . . . 62

Figure 3-2. Hydropower Installed Capacity in IEA Countries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Figure 3-3. Hydro Share in IEA Electricity Production, 2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

List of Figures and Tables


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Figure 3-4. Breakdown of Combustible Renewables and Waste Production

and Targeted Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Figure 3-5. Solid Biomass Installed Capacity in IEA Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Figure 3-6. Solid Biomass Share in Electricity Production, 2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Figure 3-7. Solid Biomass Share in Heat Production, 2001. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69Figure 3-8. Geothermal Installed Capacity in IEA Countries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Figure 3-9. Geothermal Share in Electricity Production, 2001. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

Figure 3-10. Solar PV - Installed Capacity in IEA Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

Figure 3-11. Annual World PV Module Production and Building-integrated PV System

Costs, 1983-2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Figure 3-12. Solar Thermal Electricity Installed Capacity in IEA Countries. . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Figure 3-13. Direct Use of Solar Heat, 2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Figure 3-14. Installed Wind Power Capacity in IEA Countries, 1990-2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

Figure 3-15. Wind Share in Electricity Production in IEA Countries, 2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Figure 3-16. Average Turbine Size at Market Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Figure 3-17. Market Share of Seven Generations of Wind Turbines in Denmark. . . . . . . 82

Figure 3-18. Cost and Capacity Trends in Wind Power, 1980-2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Table

Table 3-1. Breakdown of Combustible Renewables and Waste Ranked by Production,

2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Chapter 4

FiguresFigure 4-1. Market Deployment Policy Instruments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Figure 4-2. The Introduction of Renewable Energy Policies by Country. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

P a r t 2 - C o u n t r y P r o f i l e s 1 0 5

Australia

Figures

Figure 1. Total Primary Energy Supply by Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108Figure 2. Shares of TPES 2001. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Figure 3. Total Renewable Energy Supply and Policy Timeline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Figure 4. Net Generating Capacity of Renewable and Waste Products. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Figure 5. Australia Government Energy RD&D Budgets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

Figure 6. Australia Government Renewable Energy RD&D Budgets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

Figure 7. Hydropower Capacity and Electricity Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Figure 8. Hydropower Capacity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Figure 9. Solid Biomass Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116



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Figure 11. Biogas Capacity and Electricity Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Figure 12. Wind Power Capacity and Electricity Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

Figure 13. Wind Power Capacity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

Figure 14. Solar Thermal Capacity and Electricity Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

119Figure 15. Solar Photovoltaic Capacity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

Figure 16. Solar Photovoltaic Capacity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

Table

Table 1. Total Primary Energy Supply by Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Austria

Figures

Figure 1. Total Primary Energy Supply by Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

Figure 2. Shares of TPES 2001. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130Figure 3. Total Renewable Energy Supply and Policy Timeline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

Figure 4. Austria Government Energy RD&D Budgets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

Figure 5. Austria Government Renewable Energy RD&D Budgets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

Figure 6. Solid Biomass Capacity and Electricity Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

Figure 7. Solid Biomass Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

Figure 8. Solid Biomass Heat Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138


Figure 10. Wind Power Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

Figure 11. Solar Thermal Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141Figure 12. Solar Photovoltaic Capacity and Electricity Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

Figure 13. Solar Photovoltaic Capacity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

Table

Table 1. Total Primary Energy Supply by Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

Belgium

Figures


Figure 2. Shares of TPES 2001. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156Figure 3. Total Renewable Energy Supply and Policy Timeline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

Figure 4. Belgium Government Energy RD&D Budgets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

Figure 5. Belgium Government Renewable Energy RD&D Budgets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

Figure 6. Hydropower Capacity and Electricity Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

Figure 7. Hydropower Capacity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165


Figure 9. Solid Biomass Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166



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Figure 11. Wind Power Capacity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

Figure 12. Solar Thermal Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

Table

Table 1. Total Primary Energy Supply by Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

Canada

Figures


Figure 2. Shares of TPES 2001. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

Figure 3. Total Renewable Energy Supply and Policy Timeline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

Figure 4. Net Generating Capacity of Renewable and Waste Products. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

Figure 5. Canada Government Energy RD&D Budgets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

Figure 6. Canada Government Renewable Energy RD&D Budgets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183Figure 7. Hydropower Capacity and Electricity Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

Figure 8. Hydropower Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188


Figure 10. Solid Biomass Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

Figure 11. Wind Power Capacity and Electricity Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

Figure 12. Wind Power Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

Figure 13. Solar Photovoltaic Capacity and Electricity Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

Figure 14. Solar Photovoltaic Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

Table

Table 1. Total Primary Energy Supply by Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

Czech Republic

Figures

Figure 1. Total Primary Energy Supply by Sourc

renewable energy market & policy trends in iea countries

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