Renaissance Politics in Northern EuropeBy Loose & Dyson9/5/2012AP European History

English Politics

•England adapted a national monarchy

•It was a sin against God to not support the King wherever rulers claimed to rule by "Divine Right." (And in England, the King was also the head of the Anglican Church.)

Difference from Middle Ages

•New monarchies

•New commoners section of Parliament▫Peasants actually had a voice

•No tax for the middle class

New Monarchies

•At the start of the Renaissance, new monarchies started forming▫Mainly in Western Europe (ex. France,

Spain, England)•Decisions were made by the king and

exercised through his agents apply to whole state

German Politics

•Religious split was influenced by the political situation▫Various princes had been fighting the

Emperor for many years

French PoliticsCharles VII (r. 1422 –1461) • –Used a royal council made up of middle class men• –Permanent professional army• –Removed the English from France

Taxes:–Gabelle-tax on salt instituted to raise money–Taille–a tax on the peasant’s land –King did not use the Estates General to tax

people after 1484 –these two taxes gave him enough money

Charles I of Spain (r. 1519-1598)Problems: • Protestant Reformation in Germany• Dynastic conflict with Francis I of France,

particularly for supremacy in Italy• Ottoman Turks, then at the height of their power. He

also had difficulties with his Spanish subjects, who at first regarded him as a foreigner.

Successes:• Promoting the Catholic Reformation• Imperialist struggle with France• Conquest of Mexico and Peru

Henry VIII (r. 1486-1509)• Did not:

▫ use Parliament to collect funds

▫ tax the middle class▫ keep a standing army

• Did:▫ improve the court

systems▫ use middle class as his

chief ministers▫ led England to prosperity

and peace

Works Cited

•http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/english/melani/cs6/ren.html

•http://worldhistory.knowledge4africa.com/reformation/reformation-01.jsp

•http://www.darienps.org/teachers/grsmith/ap_euro/renaissance/ap_renaissance_politics.pdf

Literature of the Northern Rennaissance Zack Funk

William Shakespeare

The Immortal Bard (bio)•Born in 1564 during the Elizabethan era•I.E. the time that was considered a peak

of English patriotism and radical advances in thinking after the defeat of the Spanish Armada

•PLAGIARISED many of his plots from earlier works

•Works now the most quoted in the English language, other than the books of the Bible

Relation to the Northern Rennaisance

• Works such as Romeo and Juliet, Hamlet, and Othello are based almost purely upon human tendencies and emotions. (entirely unheard of subject matter until this era)

• “Shakespearean Language” refers to the poetic license with diction and syntax that characterizes his works.

• Terms such as “doth”, “thou”, “prithee”, “woo”, and “O’er”, etc- all revolutionized poetic language.

• Iambic Pentameter • "Two households, both alike in dignity, 

In fair Verona, where we lay our scene, ....”

• Plays performed across the English Isle (first theatre was the Globe)

 Miguel de Cervantes 

Bio

•Spaniard•Born 1547•Born to a noble family; faced hardship

after father imprisoned for debts•Enlisted as a soldier •By this time, knighthood and feudalism

had been phased out of society

The Tale of Don Quixote•  "the knight of the woeful countenance,”•"lean, lank, meagre, drooping, sharp-

backed, and raw-boned…” steed.•These descriptions highlight the

extended paradoxical, metaphor that not only ridiculed the ways of old (when such traditions were to be practiced in his modern era), but also served to illustrate the writer’s own trials, tribulations, and difficulties in life.

Bibliography • Man Is The Measure. N.p.: n.p., 1992. Chapter 12. Web. 4 Sept. 2012.

<http://history-world.org/northern_renaissance.htm>.• Blocher, Laura. Shakespearean Language. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 Sept. 2012.

<http://dana.ucc.nau.edu/~lam37/romeo_juliet/page3.htm>.• Cervantes, Miguel. Don Quixote. N.p.: n.p., 1605. Web. 4 Sept. 2012.• Shakespeare, William. Romeo and Juliet. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Web. 4 Sept. 2012.• Shakespeare, William. Othello. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Web. 4 Sept. 2012. • http://public.wsu.edu/~delahoyd/shakespeare/r&j5.html Web. 4 Sept. 2012. • fabmoraes.cgsociety.org Web. 4 Sept. 2012.

Women in the Northern Renaissance

Kayla Clark and Courtney Hart

How It Got Started• The Italian Renaissance spread to the rest of Europe

and created the Northern Renaissance.• The main countries of the Northern Renaissance

included England, Germany, Switzerland and France.

• Northern Europe began recovering economically from the Black Death.

• The population of Northern Europe started to grow back in 1450.

Women’s Reforms

•Christine de Pizan fought for women’s education.▫Many Europeans could not read or write.▫Wealthy families sent only their sons to

school.▫Pizan was highly educated and the first

woman to become a successful writer.▫Best known for defending women.

The Book of The City of LadiesThe book creates an imaginary city of women.

Pizan argues that women have been viewed unfairly.

The city is still prosperous despite the lack of men.

Overview• Women were inferior to

their husbands.• They could own property,

but could not sell without authorization.

• Boys were valued more than girls.

• Poor families would abandon young girls.

• Girls were considered expensive because of the dowry to marry them off.

Role of Women

•Primarily to serve their father and husband.

•They were not meant to be successful on their own.

•Their father’s had the final decision on their future and whether they would marry.

•The feelings of women were not highly regarded.

Marriage•A woman would inherit

her husband’s property when he died.

•It was proper to pass the property on to a son.

•She was under pressure by society to marry again.

•It was not the norm for a woman to be in charge of the household.

Marriage Continued

•The wife’s social status was controlled by the husband.

•The dowry could buy the woman a man with a higher rank in society.

•When a woman married, her “ownership” shifted from that of her father to her new husband.

•It was easier to divorce a non-religious man.

Contrasting Views on Women

•Thomas Aquinas▫Viewed women as unimportant.▫Created only to be a sex object.

Contrasting Views Continued

•Martin Luther▫Argued that women were important.▫Played an important role in raising the

children and keeping the home tidy.

Different Types of Women•A noble woman had more

power to govern her household.

•A woman married to an artisan would help him run his business.

•Peasant women worked throughout their pregnancy and were expected to return to work soon after giving birth.

Education

•College study was not an option for women.

•They were considered intellectually inferior to men.

•They could not have a profession.

Working Women•Some women had to

work due to money issues.

•Low wages.•Jobs included

spinning, weaving or clothing production.

How Women Relate to Regions•Certain regions of The Holy

Roman Empire valued women more than others.

•Regions close to the Mediterranean had poor views of women.

•Regions in the territories of Germany considered women more important with the success of the community.

Birth Rates •Started to decline

•Rumored to have been a form of contraception

•Oral herbal medicines that could limit fertility

Witchcraft•The witch hunt was

strong in Europe during the Northern Renaissance.

•Witches were tortured until they confessed.

•Faced severe punishments.

“Witches” by Hans Baldung Grien.

A Contrast- Women of the Middle Ages•They were expected to

obey men.•If they failed to obey

men, they were beaten and accused of committing a crime against their religion.

Women of the Middle Ages Continued

•They did receive an education.•It was not school related.•They learned how to maintain a

household.•Essentially, it was not to their benefit.

Women of the Middle Ages Continued

•Women were often sent to live with a noble family.

•They would learn etiquette and how to properly maintain a residence.

•Marriages were arranged.•They had no say in the man they married.

“Did Women Have A Renaissance?”•Joan Kelly

▫Historian, lecturer, professor.▫Challenged the Renaissance.▫She thought the power of

women disintegrated during this period.

▫Kelly said the Renaissance created something that is still present today: women’s dependency on men.

“Did Women Have A Renaissance?” was published in 1977.

Do you think the Renaissance has affected women in society to this day?

Sources• http://www.learnerator.com/ap-european-history/15th-century/northern-renaissance/review/northern-renaissance• http://www.euro-webonline.com/world_cultures/The%20Northern%20Renaissance%2017%202.pdf• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Book_of_the_City_of_Ladies• http://faculty.msmc.edu/lindeman/piz5.html• http://

www.historydoctor.net/Advanced%20Placement%20European%20History/Notes/social_change_at_the_time_of_the_Renaissance_and_Northern_Renaissance.htm

• http://worldhistory.knowledge4africa.com/women/women-04.jsp• http://www.crystalinks.com/aquinas.html• http://germanyiswunderbar.com/eastern-germany/germany-holidays-martin-luther/• http://www.virtue.to/articles/arnolfini.html• http://www.erichufschmid.net/Social_Tech/Society-2.html• http://thejudgement.net/chapter_two.htm• http://www.wiccanone.org.uk/history.html• http://www.theslideprojector.com/art6/art6lecturepresentations/art6lecture4.html• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witchcraft• http://robinurton.com/history/Renaissance/northrenaiss.htm• http://www.google.com/imgres?q=northern+renaissance+labor&um• http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20071111081229AASsly2• http://www.middle-ages.org.uk/noble-women-in-the-middle-ages.htm

Sources• "AP European History." - 15th Century. N.p., n.d. Web. 04 Sept. 2012.

<http://www.learnerator.com/ap-european-history/15th-century/northern-renaissance/review/northern-renaissance>. • "The Northern Renaissance." Euro-webonline.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 Sept. 2012. <http://www.euro-webonline.com/world_cultures/The

%20Northern%20Renaissance%2017%202.pdf>. • Wagner, Jill E. Christine De Pizan's City of Ladies: A Monumental (Re)construction Of, By, and for Women of All Time. Digital image.

Medievalists.net. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 Sept. 2012. • "The Book of the City of Ladies." N.p., n.d. Web. 04 Sept. 2012. <http://faculty.msmc.edu/lindeman/piz5.html>.• "Social Changes at the Time of the Renaissance." Historydoctor.net. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 Sept. 2012. • "Women's Status in Europe, 1500 to 1700." Women's Status in Europe, 1500 to 1700. N.p., n.d. Web. 04 Sept. 2012.

<http://worldhistory.knowledge4africa.com/women/women-04.jsp>. • Thomas Aquinas. Digital image. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 Sept. 2012. <http://www.crystalinks.com/aquinas.html>. • Cranach, Lucas. Germany Holidays: Martin Luther. Digital image. Wunderban! N.p., n.d. Web. 4 Sept. 2012. • "Middle Ages Women." Middle Ages Women. N.p., n.d. Web. 04 Sept. 2012. <http://www.middle-ages.org.uk/middle-ages-women.htm>.

• Du Pre Argent, Cynthia. Some Related Headdresses of the 15th Century:theories on Construction. Digital image. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 Sept. 2012.

• Create Seperate Clothing Styles for Work and Socializing. Digital image. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 Sept. 2012. <http://www.erichufschmid.net/Social_Tech/Society-2.html>.

• The Holy Roman Empire map. Digital image. The Judgement. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 Sept. 2012. <http://thejudgement.net/chapter_two.htm>.• "A Short History of Witchcraft." A Short History of Witchcraft. N.p., n.d. Web. 04 Sept. 2012.

<http://www.wiccanone.org.uk/history.html>.• Anguissola, Sofonisba. The Northern Renaissance. Digital image. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 Sept. 2012.

<http://www.theslideprojector.com/art6/art6lecturepresentations/art6lecture4.html>.• Grien, Hans Baldung. Witches. Digital image. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 Sept. 2012. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witchcraft>. • Eyck, Jan Van. Arnolfini Wedding, 1434. Digital image. The Northern Renaissance. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 Sept. 2012.

<http://robinurton.com/history/Renaissance/northrenaiss.htm>.• "Did Women's Roles Change Dramatically during the Renaissance and the Reformation?" Yahoo! Answers. Yahoo!, n.d. Web. 04 Sept.

2012. <http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20071111081229AASsly2>.• Boursse, Esaias. Interior with and Old Woman at a Spinning Wheel 1667. Digital image. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 Sept. 2012. <http://www.1st-

art-gallery.com/Esaias-Boursse/Interior-With-An-Old-Woman-At-A-Spinning-Wheel-1667.html>.• Joan Kelly Collaborative Law Vs Mediation Mediatecom Video." World News. N.p., n.d. Web. 04 Sept. 2012.

<http://wn.com/Joan_Kelly_Collaborative_Law_vs_Mediation__Mediatecom_Video>.

PAINTING OF THE NORTHERN EUROPEAN

RENAISSANCE

BY ARIANA MIRAGLIA AND HARRISON HOLTSLANDER

PERIOD 6

Relating to the Time Period

Relating to the Time Period

The biggest separating factors of the Renaissance and the Middle Ages were

the decline of the Feudalism System and the rise of the Humanism movement….

Relating to the Time PeriodThe dwindling of the feudalism* system had a

great impact on the art of Europe.This, in turn, also had an impact on the Catholic

church. Although that was a bigger problem for Italy, it is important to note that it brought upon Humanism.

The idea of Humanism* started in Italy and eventually spread to Northern Europe.

Feudalism: a system that structures society around rank determined by the holding of land in exchange for labor.

Humanism: a system of thinking where the prime importance is to the human rather to a supernatural or godly being

HOWEVER.

Northern European Renaissance art and Middle Ages art were more similar than

you may think….

Example of Medieval Art

The Book Of Kells Late 8th Century

Illuminated ManuscriptIona, Scotland

Example of Northern European Art

These images were dated to the Northern European renaissance. Both are illuminated

manuscripts that share similar qualities to those of the previous Medieval images.

Relating to the Region

Relating to the RegionAt the time, Italy was dominant in the art aspect

of Europe.Northern European artists were prominent- but

there were less of them and harder to find.Their art, however, took on different forms than

the Italian. Some forms include illuminated manuscripts, tapestries, and furnishings. (similar to Middle Ages)

In terms of wealth, Burgundy (located around modern day Belgium) was in close comparison to Italy’s Florence.

Burgundy Dukes were great patrons of art and were the artist’s biggest financial suppliers.

Relating to the Region

Also different from Italy, the Northern European Artists took more attention to how the picture looked like rather than the scientific accuracy behind it.

Color and detail were essential in northern painting unlike in Italy. The more the better!

COMPARISON BETWEEN ITALIAN AND NORTHERN EUROPEAN

The Vitruvian Man: Leonardo Da Vinci

Italian Renaissance Focuses on anatomical

structure of the man entirely. Not much color or detail was

added.

The Arnolfini MarriageJan Van Eyck

Northern European Renaissance

There is much detail, includes many colors, and

many objects of symbolism.

Jan van Eyck Developed oil painting

techniques▫ Glazing▫ Oil paints became more

popular

Arnolfini Marriage Portrait

Limbourg BrothersThe Book of Hours (1412-16)

▫Illuminated manuscript▫Calendar pages

Rogier van der WeydenDeposition (1435)

▫Most famous▫Intense emotion▫Detail

• van Eyck, Jan. The Madonna with Canon van der Paele. Web. 5 Sept. 2012. <http://www.wga.hu/art/e/eyck_van/jan/21paele/21paele.jpg>.

• va, . N.p., n.d. Web. 5 Sept. 2012. <http://arthistory.about.com/cs/arthistory10one/a/north_ren.htm >.

• van Eyck, Jan. Arnolfini Marriage. Web. 5 Sept. 2012. <http://www.wga.hu/art/e/eyck_van/jan/15arnolf/15arno.jpg>.

• Limbourg, . The Book of Hours. Web. 5 Sept. 2012. <http://www.wga.hu/art/l/limbourg/01janvie.jpg>.

• van der Weyden, Rogier. Deposition. Web. 5 Sept. 2012. <http://www.wga.hu/art/w/weyden/rogier/01deposi/1deposi.jpg >.

• Web. 5 Sept. 2012. <http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-g6IGFz0dQ9Y/TbWuPAoz0QI/AAAAAAAAAuc/zb5cjN6- qOE/s1600/Rogier+Van+der+Weyden+deposition+detail+2.jpg >.

• History World. N.p., n.d. Web. 5 Sept. 2012. <http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?groupid=30 92&HistoryID=ac88#1370 >.

• N.p., n.d. Web. 5 Sept. 2012. <http://www.renaissanceconnection.org/lesson_art_oil.html >.

• N.p., n.d. Web. 5 Sept. 2012. <http://robinurton.com/history/Renaissance/northrenaiss.htm>.

Sculptures in Northern Europe:The Renaissance By: Brittney Rangel

What is the Northern Renaissance?

•The Northern Renaissance is acknowledged to be “Renaissance happenings that occurred within Europe, but outside of Italy.”

•The most innovative art came from France, the Netherlands, and Germany.▫Northern states

Europe in Crisis

•Through the 14th century, much of Europe was in crisis.▫Earlier prosperity had fostered population

growth By 1300 had begun to exceed food

production.▫Series of bad harvests meant famines

became increasingly common.▫The Hundred Years War was ongoing.

Europe in Crisis▫ The Black Death swept

across Europe, wiping out 40% of the population. Depleting the labor

force. Increased leveraged

over their landlords Increased wages of

artisans

Crisis in Europe

•The papacy had emerged from its conflict with the Holy Roman Empire.▫Weakened its spiritual authority and brought it

into conflict with other secular powers.•Along with the Great Schism, Northern Europe

was torn apart by religious sectarianism.

Coming Together• Despite all the upheaval,

monarchies consolidated their power over emerging nations and reformation as well as humanism were spread across Europe.▫ Embodied a worldview

that focused on human beings

Humanism Impact• Artists of the Catholic

Reformation produced sculptures whose expressive distortions reflect the fervent spirituality of the era.

• In the Netherlands, iconoclasts destroyed religious images▫ religious patronage of art

declined▫ secular patronage of

sculptures became more prominent commodities in a booming

market economy.

Foreign Influence• Reflected in the sculptures

styles▫ Mostly Gothic Influence

Soaring vaults, light, colorful glass

▫ Little Italian Influence—absorbed theories/techniques

Mode of Sculptures

•Work had little connection with the classical style that developed in Italy.

•Instead, northern sculptors continued to use techniques found in the great Gothic cathedrals.

•They worked with large figures in wood and stone to exquisite ivory carvings. ▫The pieces offer a broad range of emotional

expression, from dramatic to sensitive.

Sculpture Characteristics• Sculpture in the 13-15th

centuries is exemplified by its ‘intimate character.’

• Religious subjects became more emotionally expressive.▫ Cult of Chivalry

Sculpture Characterist

ics

•Tales of love and valor were carved on luxury items to satisfy the rich, middle class, and aristocracy alike.• Metals such as

gold, silver, and ivory were preferred.

Influential People• In the 1300s, Northern

European sculptors had developed a form of realism that was highly detailed.▫ Sculptors began creating

precise portraits of particular individuals.

• This realism reached it’s peak with Flemish sculptor Claus Sluter▫ images of biblical figures have

animated expressions, a sense of movement, and include details such as signs of aging.

• Another characteristic of northern European work during this period is the use of paint on sculptured surfaces.

Other Areas with Art• In the 1400s, sculpture in

the realistic style appeared in Germany and Austria.

• The Dutch artist Nicolaus Gerhaert, brought the style of Claus Sluter to the region.

• Notable German sculptural works: ▫ wooden altarpieces to

decorate churches▫ Combined sculpture with

painting

Italian Renaissance Influence• In the 1500s, the Italian Renaissance arrived in northern Europe.

• Flemish and German artists, such as traveled to Italy and brought back Renaissance ideas and practices.▫ Albrecht Dürer ,

• In France and Spain, the monarchs were responsible for introducing Renaissance art.

• Commissioned works from leading Italian masters.▫ The Italian artist Francesco

Primaticcio adorned the French royal residence at Fontainebleau with elegant stucco nudes.

▫ In turn, many French and Spanish artists adopted Italian artistic technique

Regression and Resurgence

•The rise of the Protestant Reformation in German-speaking lands temporarily put an end to new religious sculpture.

•The more radical Protestant reformers were strongly opposed to the religious use of images.▫However, the followers of Martin Luther

accepted and contributed to the re-emergence of religious sculpture in Germany in the late 1500s.

Pictures

BibliographyKnip, Bastiaan. "Europeans Sculpture." Northern

European Sculpture. N.p., 2009. Web. 4 Sept. 2012. <http://www.europeansculpture.nl/North_European_Sculpture.html>.

Northern Renaissance Art, 1400-1600. (OBIS) Stechow, Wolfgang,Evanston, ILL : Northwestern University Press, 1989 Art N 6730. N67 1989

Stokstad, Mary. Art History Volume One. Vol. 1. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, INC, 2008, 2005. N. pag. 3 vols. Print.

Northern European RenaissanceArchitecture

Renaissance Architecture • The Northern European Renaissance was very heavily influenced by the Italian Renaissance architecturally. Northern Europe followed in Italy’s footsteps toward a more classical architectural style and began to cut off the gothic architecture that had been so dominant.

• The Architecture became more open, more specifically, open to God. Religion was very influential in architecture, it was part of the style to leave very much room for light to come in.

Renaissance Architecture• Architects were very influenced by nature, and wanted to be

done with the dark and gloomy forms of Gothic building. And though many Gothic structures were already highly decorative, the new classical architectural style promoted new and better use of artistic decoration.

• Use of natural light was a major theme during the Renaissance.The light was symbolic of purity and God, and in turn, was a major theme of many architectural works.

Regions• The Renaissance in Northern Europe did not happen all at once. It was

generally one country at a time that would join in.

• This meant that architecture would change quickly but all be connected. • Germany was heavily influenced by Italian architecture, as was Spain.

French and English architecture was very decorative, and Scandinavian architecture took one formidable manors. All tried to appeal to aesthetics and classical demand.

• Burghley House, Cambridgeshire, England

Renaissance Architecture• For example, The Frederiksborg palace in Denmark. • Very spacious, highly decorative, and plays off natural light.

Germany• Germany: The St Michael’s churchIn Munich, GermanyBuilt 1583-1597 by William V, Duke of Bavaria• Large windows to let in light• High ceiling • Lots of open space• Highly decorative• Symmetrical

Spain• Palacio de los Guzmanes, designed by Rodrigo Gil de Hontañón.• Open courtyard• Open space• Symmetrical• Classical appearance• Many windows for light

FranceChateau de Chambord in the Loire Valley, France

Very spacious grounds, very intricate anddecorative towers

England• Elizabethan Architecture was the pinnacle of England’s

renaissance. It was heavily Dutch and Flemish in design.

Wollaton Hall, Nottingham,England• Very open• Many windows to let in light• Very classical appeal• Symmetrical• Very decorative

Important People• Sebastiano Serlio: Italian Renaissance figure. He wrote Tutte l’opere

d’architettura, et prospetiva ( “Complete Works on Architecture and Perspective”), Which was translated from Latin and was hugely influential on Northern European architecture. His book promoted practical architecture philosophy as opposed to theoretical architecture philosophy

Important People• Marcus Vitruvius:

Marcus Vitruvius was a roman was a Roman writer, architect and engineer who wrote the multi-volume work De Architectura ("On Architecture"). The rediscovery of Vitruvius' work had a profound influence on architects of the Renaissance, prompting the rise of the Neo-Classical style. Renaissance architects, such as Niccoli, Brunelleschi and Leon Battista Alberti, found in "De Architectura” their inspiration for raising their branch of knowledge to a science as well as emphasizing the skills of the architect. More specifically in Northern Europe Renaissance architecture, The English architect Inigo Jones and the Frenchman Salomon de Caus were among the first to rediscover and implement those disciplines that Vitruvius considered a necessary element of architecture: arts and sciences based upon number and proportion. In the marginalia that Spanish architect El Greco inscribed in his copy of Daniele Barbaro's translation of Vitruvius' “De architectura”, he refuted Vitruvius' attachment to archaeological remains, perspective and mathematics. He also saw Vitruvius' manner of distorting proportions in order to compensate for distance from the eye as responsible for creating monstrous forms.

Sources• Sebastiano Serlio:

Serlio, Sebastiano. Canon of the 5 orders. 1486. Print.

Serlio, Sebastiano. Tragic Set. 2. 1545. Print.

Hewitt, Barnard, ed. (1958), The Renaissance Stage: Documents of Serlio, Sabbattini, Furttenbach, Coral Gables, FL: University of Miami PressRead more: http://www.answers.com/topic/sebastiano-serlio#ixzz25W0POHjY

Sources• Marcus Vitruvius:

Vitruvius, Marcus. De Architectura. Italy: Cesare Cesariano, 1521. Print.

Vitruvius, Marcus. De Architectura. Italy: Daniele Barbaro, 1556. Print

"Vitruvius Pollio." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 2008. Encyclopedia.com. 4 Sep. 2012 <http://www.encyclopedia.com>.

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