religion and sport development in new zealand (1893-1946)

8/9/2019 Religion and Sport Development in New Zealand (1893-1946)

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A study of the impact of engagement with religious institutions andsporting activities on social cohesion in New Zealand between 18931946

Dion Karepa Lucre

This dissertation is submitted in part-fulfilment of the MSC in Development

Economics

Birmingham University

Birmingham Business School


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Table of Contents

CHAPTER ONE

1. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 4

2. Literature Review ........................................................................................................... 6

Economic Policies ............................................................................................................. 6

Geography......................................................................................................................... 8

New Zealand Wars & Colonial Growth Strategies ............................................................ 10

Institutions ....................................................................................................................... 12

Informal Institutions: Religion and Sports ......................................................................... 13

Religion and New Zealand ............................................................................................... 16

Religion and Neuroscience .............................................................................................. 18

Sports .............................................................................................................................. 20

Sporting Neuroscience .................................................................................................... 23

Analysing Institutional Development ................................................................................ 25

CHAPTER TWO

3. Methodology and Method ............................................................................................. 27

Quantitative Data collection: ............................................................................................ 29

Qualitative Sampling Rationale: ....................................................................................... 29

CHAPTER THREE

4. Analysis ....................................................................................................................... 31

How did Religion and Sport impact New Zealand? .......................................................... 31

Population Cohesion and Growth Analysis ...................................................................... 35

Urban Church Attendance Analysis ................................................................................. 40

Urban Sporting Analysis .................................................................................................. 45


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New Zealands Religion and Sporting Development ............................................................ 52

Religion and Sporting Development Framework.............................................................. 55

CHAPTER FOUR

5. Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 56

6. Recommendations ....................................................................................................... 59

7. Figures ......................................................................................................................... 60

9. References. ................................................................................................................. 62

12. Appendices ................................................................................................................... 68

12.1 Quantitative Analyses Calculations .......................................................................... 68

12.3 Government Finances ............................................................................................. 70

12.4 Demographic Figures .............................................................................................. 74

12.6 Urban Working Male ................................................................................................ 76

12.7 Regression Data: Urban Church Attendance ........................................................... 82

12.7 Regression Data: Urban Sports Participation ........................................................... 84

10. News Paper Articles and Interviews ......................................................................... 86


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CHAPTER ONE

1. Introduction

This study will discuss the impact of engagement with religious institutions and

sporting initiatives on social cohesion in New Zealand between 1893 1946.

The rationale for the study relates to the lack of research into the correlation

between these two institutions and the consequent relationship with social

cohesion. It is hypothesised that engagement in these two different activities is

further correlated with pro-social behaviour.

A definition of the key concepts and the rationale for their use will preceded a

review of the relevant literature pertaining to economic growth and social

cohesion. The key factors which are considered to be significant for economic

growth will be explored, within the literature review.

Social cohesion refers to the bonds that bring society together; it is based onmaterial conditions such as employment, income, health, education and housing,which facilitate good relations between and within communities

http://www.sportandrecreation.org.uk/policy/research/game-life/social

Prosocial behaviour, or voluntary behaviour intended to benefit another is asocial behaviour that "benefits other people or society as a whole, such ashelping, sharing, donating, co-operating, and volunteering.

http://psychology.about.com/od/pindex/g/prosocial-behavior.htm

This dissertation will include the following chapters

Chapter OneLiterature Review

A thorough review of the key measurements of economic growth, revealed a

number of interconnected themes. These were economic policies, geography

and institutions, the focus of this research will be on two key institutions.
http://www.sportandrecreation.org.uk/policy/research/game-life/socialhttp://www.sportandrecreation.org.uk/policy/research/game-life/socialhttp://psychology.about.com/od/pindex/g/prosocial-behavior.htmhttp://psychology.about.com/od/pindex/g/prosocial-behavior.htmhttp://psychology.about.com/od/pindex/g/prosocial-behavior.htmhttp://www.sportandrecreation.org.uk/policy/research/game-life/social


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The rationale for this choice is linked to the neuro-scientific evidence which

supports the idea that engagement in affiliative activities such as religion and

sport promotes pro-social behaviour.

Chapter TwoMethodology and Method

This chapter will describe the use of a triangulation methodology to investigate

the development of pro-social behaviour. Data was collected using a primary

resource between 1893 1946 which created a time series trend for economic

initiatives relevant to religion and sports. Qualitative data was also gathered to

identify pro-social behaviour. An elasticity regression was utilised to identify

demand in relation to living standards.

Chapter ThreeAnalysis

The data was analysed to understand the correlations between legislation,

government expenditure, taxation and the development of religious and sporting

institutions.

Chapter FourConclusions and Recommendations

This study concludes that pro-social behaviour is clearly evident within these two

samples of the population. The economic impact of exogenous shocks makes

the exact causality of pro-social behaviour difficult to measure. This study

recommends that further research relating to the ratio between religion and sport

development could strengthen these preliminary findings.


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2. Literature Review

Economic Policies

Yanikkaya, (2002) investigated trade openness using a cross section of 100

developed and developing countries between 1970 and 1997. The measurement

of openness includes; telephone main lines and life expectancy as a proxy of

capital and human capital accumulation. However, Yanikkaya (2002) identified

that trade restriction within their study was positively related to growth, which it

was argued depends on economic circumstances.

Furthermore, Easterly & Levins (2003) study on openness to trade and by

disregarding capital account controls potential long-tern success can be

exhibited. In addition, and regarding religion Mangeloja, (2003) argues that

religion can improve trade openness by allowing trust to be established between

countries.

Mangeloja (2003) also highlighted the potential impact of religion on growth,

there has been little discussion, however, about the impact of informal

development of an economy. Although trade openness has an impact on growth,

surely openness must start within the economy itself before exceptional

international trade can be realised. Therefore, could religion and sport help the

population realise the benefits of regional and national openness. This question

and others will be debated systematically through the course of the literature.


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Hall and Jones (1999) discuss how institutions and government polices improved

output per worker. Their study ran regressions using a Cobb-Douglass model on

127 countries analysing measurement of social infrastructure. The measurement

of social infrastructure investigated government anti-diversion policies, law &

order, and government diversion of corruption and reputation.

Their key findings concurred with Endogenous Growth Theory regarding

correlations between educational attainment in relation to output and incomes. In

addition, Western influence was used as an instrument which identified that

European influence contributed to the degree of social infrastructure (Hall and

Jones 1999).

In addition, Glaseser, LaPorta, Lopez-De-Silanes & Shleifer, (2004) propose that

political institutions and human capital accumulation can also contribute to

growth. The key findings highlight that human and social capital can potentially

impact on the level of institutional productivity.

However, there has been little discussion of social activities such as religion and

sport that have been evident to some extent within every culture. It could also be

argued that these two activities were apparent before any modern economic

policy.


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Geography

Geography plays a pivotal role in the development of a countrys resources.

Gallup, Sachs and Mellinger (1999) ran a cross section regression, between

1950-1990, to identify the macro effects and geography. The research uses

education attainment, trade openness, quality of institutions, malaria index,

population density, coastal and inland, parameters across 29 countries.

The results identified that tropical locations were predominately poor and more

prone to diseases such as, malaria. Acemoglu, Johnson and Robinson (2002)

label the tropics as the temperate drift hypothesis, which favoured these areas

at earlier stages of human development; however, technological changes in

agricultural techniques tend to favour cooler geographical locations (Gallup, et

el, 1999).

In addition, coastal economies had generally higher incomes than landlocked

economies. These variances were a result of the cost of transport, and proximity

to large markets. However, the impact of population density was inconclusive as

Australia and New Zealand were shown to have high incomes despite their

sparse population (Gallup, et el, 1999).

Gallup et al. (1999), discuss the effects of geography on economic policy

implementation. The study investigates the elasticity of output due to

international trade taxes. The results illustrate that coastal economies attach low

taxes and inland economies charge higher taxes (Easterly & Levine 2003).


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Easterly & Levine (2003) discuss how endowments can contribute to growth,

using; latitude, crops, minerals, landlocked, institutions, trade openness

exchange rate, inflation, religion, and settler mortality as an instrument. The

model highlights potential growth through the use of endowments.

Gallup et al (1999), propound the significance of geographical location to

understand global variances in wealth. However, Acemoglu et al (2002) proclaim

that geography alone may not always create growth, but that industrialisation

must also be apparent.

Greasley & Oxley (2010) also claim that high abundance of resources alone did

not increase incomes during 1861-1939 in New Zealand, but that farming

innovation through factory integration produced higher yields of output and

income accumulation.

The articles highlight potential measures of growth; however, they do not

highlight informal relationships and how they may have been established or

maintained. These informal relationships must have been essential in a country

were government institutions and basic infrastructure were at their infancy.

Therefore, could they have been established through engagement with religious

institutions and sporting activities?


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New Zealand Wars & Colonial Growth Strategies

There was evidence of warfare and discord in New Zealand before formal

colonisation amongst Maori tribes as early as 1810 with the introduction of

muskets. However, the Treaty of Waitangi was signed in 1840, laying the

foundations of British colonialism triggering additional wars between Maori and

the British during 1845-1872. These wars were mainly triggered by the

confiscation of land (Yearbooks collection New Zealand).

Stenhouse, (1998) discusses religion and how Maori, Christians and European

Christians, argued against legislation and confiscation. Stenhouse, (1998) also

highlights the growing diversity of religious beliefs within the New Zealand

population which contributed to inter-colonial rifts.

In addition, Acemoglu et al, (2002) researched urbanisation from 1500 to 2000 of

European colonies. They identify that there has been a shift in levels of general

wealth in that countries that were relatively rich at that time are now viewed as

relatively poor.

Acemoglu et al, (2002) argue this reversal of fortune has resulted from the

types of economic policies implemented by the colonisers. However, the study

does not dispute the impact of geography that is illustrated by the location of the

wealthy nations, such as New Zealand, Australia and the United States as

opposed to Latin America.


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The conclusion of this study is based on extraction strategies compared with

property rights development. New Zealand falls into the property rights and

protection category where policy and government growth ensured the distribution

of wealth amongst citizens. Opposed to extraction strategies which restricted

wealth distribution and ultimately had a stifling impact on growth (Acemoglu et al,

2002).

Sokoloff & Stanley (2000) concur with the property rights hypothesis as it

ensures voting rights amongst citizens. Consequently, the development of

democracy and social participation has potentially contributed to the success of

richer nations (Sokoloff & Stanley, 2000).

Social participation benefits are argued by Alberto & La Ferrara, (2000), who

studied participation within heterogeneous communities within the United States.

Their findings highlight the impact of social interaction and the development of

trust and human capital externalities. Heterogeneity was evident not only

amongst the colonisers but also the Maori race.

Therefore, how has social cohesion continued after almost 70 years of war? The

potential answer may be identified through a discussion about institutions. The

concept of institutions must be outlined to understand relevance, types of

institutions, and how they play an integral part in the success of a developing

economy.


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Institutions

Institutions are the humanly devised constraints that structure political,

economicand social interactions (North, 1991: 97)

North, (1991) argues that institutions reduce the transaction cost of economic

and social exchange of agents, therefore ensuring the collective economic and

social gains of society.

Institutions create cohesion within an economically competitive environment.

Institutions, untangle the unpredictability of changing consumer choices,

changing production methods, and the social games surrounding these

environments (North, 1991).

North (2003) mentions formal rules, (the rules we abide by) the informal norms

(the culture which governs how we abide by rules) and the enforcers (the

referees that impose rule consistency). Therefore, how do you defined

institutional rules in relation to religion and sport?


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Organisation CBehaviourInstitutionalOutcomes B

Rules of theGame A

Informal Institutions: Religion and Sports

Soysa & Jutting, OECD, (2007) uses, Helmke & Levitsky (2003) definition for

informal institutions as:

Informal institutions are: a behavioural regularity based on socially-

shared rules, usually unwritten, that are created, communicated, and

enforced outside of officially-sanctioned channels (Soysa & Jutting ,

OECD, 2007: 3)

Helmke and Levitsky, (2004) describe the interaction of informal institutions as

complementary or accommodating when formal institutions are ineffective in

fulfilling the needs of the public, or substitutive and competing when citizens are

not satisfied.

Parlevliet, OECD, (2007: 44) defines Informal Institutions using the following model.

Institutions as Rules (A): These are the formal rules through law and order,

coupled with customs, traditions and social norms (Parlevliet, OECD, 2007).

Figure 1: Different Concepts of Institutions


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Institutions as Rules and Organisations (A+C) These particular Institutions follow

a common goal such as, education, law & order, trade regulation and so forth.

Boesen, OECD (2007) expands on this ideology, and incorporates rule based

governance which is enforced by the state and ideal for large advanced

economies.

Institutions as Rules and Behavioural Practices (A + B): These types of

Institutions promote the social and cultural needs of society. They help define the

overall culture of society and can be argued the connection between institutional

quality and geographic development.

Therefore, religion and sports fits within this section of the model. Religion and

sports develops the social and cultural image of a portion of the population

through informal rules. For example, the ideology of why the world exists and

how society should act according to religious beliefs, or the potential innate

human competitive compulsion through sport, can only be fully explored within

these environments.

In additions, Boesen, OECD (2007) ideology of relation-based governance

moulds into this type of informal model; where private and local information is

shared and effective in emerging economies such as New Zealand during the

time of investigation.

Furthermore, Williams (2009), framework captures the strength of formal and

informal institution interaction. The informal institution data captures culture

based on trust, respect, individual self-determination, and obedience.


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These potential personality traits are used to measure population interaction with

market production and entrepreneurship. The study investigates the early 1990s

and mid 2000s, where New Zealand scores high on reliance of informal

institutions (Williams, 2009). Therefore, were informal institutions like religion

and sport paramount within NZ during the time of investigation?

Alberto & La Ferrara, (2000) descriptive statistics illustrate that churches and

sports clubs were a significant parameter within the regression. However, these

two groups were not investigated in detail or discussed, if combined could

potentially contribute to cohesion and ultimately growth.

Finally, North (2003) identifies some potential shortfalls of Neo-classical theory

where rational economic agents make decisions based on income, budget

constraint and consumer or production choice. However, what sense will

economic agents makeof the information collected, and how will they act based

on this new information? North (2003) argues that these answers delve into

cognitive science.

Therefore, neurological science will be briefly discussed to understand the

potential sub-conscious actions of those engaged in religious and sport activity.

Incidentally, this will create an argument why these two samples of the NZ

population were potentially significant to study.


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Religion and New Zealand

Barro & McCleary, (2003) studied religious beliefs that could impact the social

motivations of economic growth. The study collects cross-country panel data on

church attendance and religious beliefs.

The key findings highlight that religious beliefs and church attendance has a

negative effect on economic growth. Barro & McCleary, (2003) highlight micro

economic theory, where more church attendance reduces economic activity,

therefore, connects agents substitution effects between leisure time (religion)

and income. Consequently, they discovered that church attendance increased

religious beliefs.

In addition, Mangeloja, (2003) identifies the positive and negative economic

outcomes of religion. Mentioned already, religion can increase the level of trust,

resulting in an open economy for foreign investment. Religion can encourage

thrift, therefore, increase the savings rate, healthier lives, less sinful lives,

abiding the formal rules therefore, potential economic growth.

Incidentally the potential negative results of religion were restriction on capital

accumulation, profit-making, credit markets, and church investments rather than

commercial developments.

Barro & McCleary, (2003) discuss how increases in religion supply increases

competition. Stenhouse, (1998) concur with this notion and was an apparent

phenomenon between the late 1800s and early to mid-1900s.


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OBrien, Sanders & Tennant, (2008) discuss religious institution development

such as, the Anglican Church in 1814, Wesleyans 1823, the Roman Catholic in

1838. Therefore, during the time under investigation (1893-1946), the number of

churches and attendance levels were very large. OBrien et al, (2008) note that

through the development of church infrastructure coupled with legislations, their

wider social cultural and sporting associations began to grow.

In addition, Troughton (2006) discussed the growth of Sunday schools as a

means of increasing religious education for 5-14 year olds. The peak of Sunday

school participation was between, 1896-1911 which ranged between, 65% and

69%. Beattie (2004) mention that scientific rationalism was challenging religious

beliefs during this period. However, religion was also used as an alternative to

scientific rationality.

Furthermore, charities developed via the 1856 Religious, Charitable and

Educational Trust Act, followed by the 1885, Hospitals and Charitable Institutions

Act, enabled separate institutions to be established to receive public subsidies,

which were primarily religious organisations (OBrien, et el, 2008).

Consequently, religious institutions would have been driven, by the increase in

competition for membership to apply for such grants and subsidies.


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Religion and Neuroscience

Sasaki, Kim, Mojaverian, Kelly, Park & Janusonis, (2013) references (Van Tol et

al, 1992) that certain DRD4 (dopamine) gene, can contribute to risk-taking

behaviour. Chen, Burton, Greenberger & Dmitrieva, (1999) comment how

dopamine is one of the most important neurotransmitters in the brain. Although,

the DRD4 is still not really understood, recent research has uncovered potential

links with personality traits. Sasaki et al, (2013) investigates; pro-social

behaviour which describes the imposition of beliefs through sociable behaviour.

The 2 types of DRD4 variation act differently, for example, 4-repeat alleles, tend

to exhibit higher levels of dopamine, therefore are prone to pro-social behaviour

without intervention, whereas the 2- or 7 repeat alleles, participate as a result of

pressure to do so. Nevertheless, DRD4 coupled with an external environment to

act pro-social, increases the probability of this type of behavioural pattern

(Sasaki, et el, 2013).

Therefore, our genetic coding can help explain why some people act differently

under certain environments than others. Consequently, regarding religion,

hormones can trigger a heighted reaction to the religious teachings. Incidentally,

this forces the member to engage in the wider community in search of followers.

In addition, an argument can be proclaimed that this behaviour exhibits

similarities to a utility maximising agent, and a fundamental capitalist trait.


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In support of the argument that genetics can potentially contribute to pro-social

behaviour, Chen et al, (1999) study investigates 2,320 people from 39 different

populations to establish how DRD4 has migrated. Within this study macro

migration is also investigated through the study of archaeology and historical

linguistics over the past 1000-30000 years. In addition, micro-migration

investigated more recent years with particular reference to survival strategies.

Their findings indicate migratory societies tend to have the DRD4 gene. This

could be accounted for by natural selection, the environment where conditions of

survival require exploration of new environments. Consequently, risk-taking,

hyperactivity, and novelty-seeking personality traits may emerge as a

consequence of exploring new environment. Caucasian and Polynesian races

were amongst those sampled (Chen et al, 1999).

Therefore, during that period, New Zealand was strongly populated by migratory

people. Incidentally, this may have increased the probability of pro-social

behaviour. Furthermore, during this period pro-social behaviour would have been

necessary to develop an undeveloped country.


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Sports

OBrienet al, (2008) comprehensive study of New Zealands Non-profit sector,

highlights the Wellington Cricket Club (1842) and Wellington Horse Racing Club

of (1842), which were predominately frequented by wealthy individuals, as the

first registered sporting clubs.

Horse racing would become the first sporting event where totalizer taxation is

exhibited within a portion of the period under investigation. In addition, land

ownership and development of land has been identified as a growth strategy.

Therefore, horse racing may have also served a purpose of creating farming

competition, therefore, improving the production of farms.

Rugby began to grow from 1892 where the majority of participants came from

the working class. Maori participation in sport was evident, via the 1888-89

Rugby New Zealand native tour (Nauright, 1999). OBrienet al, (2008) mentions

that fixtures of sport through competition membership and rules began to

emerge. The Maori community were also participating through tribal

competitions. Consequently, amusement taxation was created in 1919 as a

result of the demand for amusement, which was also attributed to sport

spectatorship (Yearbook 1919).


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John Nauright (1999) quotes Crawford (1999) discussion by the Otago Rugby

Union;

If employers of labor wish to keep good servants, it is their duty to

provide means of recreation after the toils of the day are over (Crawford :

1999:9 )

This quote describes employers drive to increase sports and recreation

participation as a means of encouraging productivity amongst employees.

However, it can also be argued that sport helped maintained social cohesion in

tandem with traditional law and order.

Sport became a focus for government intervention with the development of the

1909 English Board of Education, which insisted that physical education was

taught within schools. The results identified that by 1916 out of 2,255 schools

1,606 schools taught 135,000 students physical education (Yearbook 1916).

According to Grannt & Pope (2007) the demand for sport was then required

sport training after school hours.

Consequently, by 1926, an estimated 110,000 (7.9% of the population were

actively involved in a sport which was dominated by rugby participation

(Yearbook 1926). Recent figures indicate that 68% of the adult population do at

least 2.5 hours of sport a week (NZCT, 2012).


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Therefore, rugby values were being established and potentially socially

accepted, which can be expressed by the following:

The game was routinely and explicitly held up as a symbol of desirable

social order with its stress on captaincy, team spirit, not letting the side

down and fair play (Crawford : 1999:9 )

The sporting agenda was taken forward by government via the 1937 Physical

Welfare and Recreation Act. The act would mandate grants given to voluntary

organisations promoting, physical training, sport and recreation. OBrien et al,

(2008) & Grannt & Pope (2007) discuss the 1937 Act, which triggered the

Thomas report of 1942. The result made physical education compulsory up to

year 11 by 1946. The Department of Education established School Councils,

Physical Education Officers & School of Physical Education to train specialist

teachers.


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Sporting Neuroscience

Pepping & Timmermans (2012) note that oxytocin encourages positive prosocial

behaviour and that there has been little published research about the potential

correlation between oxytocin and sport.

Pepping & Timmermans (2012) mentions Parkinson (1996) who emphasises the

impact on the individual of observing emotional reactions in others, in that it can

have an impact on the observers emotional state.Therefore spectators of sport

could potentially feel the same emotions as participants.

Pepping & Timmermans (2012) studies, illustrate three sets of emotional state

which are often associated with engaging in sporting activity;

Empathy is used to understand the actions of your team players or opposition.

Pepping & Timmermans (2012) mention Barraza & Zak (2009) studies which

identified that viewing empathy can increase natural oxytocin levels.

Trust, Generosity, and Altruism, is studied to understand the impact of oxytocin.

Mimic behaviour is evident in sport, particularly team sport, which the research

identified increased team cohesion where natural levels of oxytocin would be

released. These emotions were tested with a placebo and oxytocin effect, which

identified that oxytocin, increased these emotions positively.


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Envy and gloating, are other behavioural patterns of sport. A placebo and

oxytocin was administered which identified an increase in envy and gloating as a

result of a positive outcome.

It must be noted the neuroscience literature used for religion and sports only

touches on the topic and is no means a critical analysis of the literature. The

proclaimed genetics were potentially exhibited by the overall population due to

the native and colonisers were historically from migratory societies. In addition,

NZ is geographically based in the South West pacific and is a rugged

environment; therefore, constant exploration and obvious war was necessary for

survival.

Therefore, this area of academic research is pertinent to form an argument that

these hormones are created as a result of genetics and heighted due to social

and geographical environments. As a consequence, potentially, individual pro-

social behaviour may have been increased resulting in social cohesion


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Analysing Institutional Development

Soysa & Jutting, OECD, 2007) compile a framework which identifies the complex

interactions between institutions and development.

A:explains the external factors, such as early intertribal and colonial wars in NZ,

the great depression and 1stand 2ndWorld Wars.

B1: explains the formal institutions which create policy to promote growth, such

as, the, Hospitals and Charitable Institutions Act, 1937 Physical Welfare and

Recreation Act, and Totalizer and Amusement Taxation.

A. External Factors:Culture, Identity, regarding History, Geography

E.AgencyPolitics

GovernmentCivil societyIndividuals,

etc

B1. Formal InstitutionsConstitutions, Property

Rights, Political Institutionsetc.

Good,Property rights, ConflictResolution, Social Trust,

etc

Bad,Ineffective property rights,

Conflict , Social distrust, etc

D. Development Outcome

C.Institutional Outcome

Enforced by the State

B2. Informal InstitutionsSocial Norms, Attitudes,Traditions Morals, etc.

Self-enforced

Good, Growth,Poverty reduction,Better livin etc..

Bad, War, Stagnation,Poverty, Famine, etc.

X

Figure 2: Analysing Institutions and Development (Soysa & Jutting , OECD, 2007: 34)


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B2: explains religious attendance or sport participation within the defined

informal institution environment. Therefore, pro-social and competitive

behaviour can be enjoyed either through participation or through spectatorship.

C: explains the development of institutions as a result of the relationship

between the informal and formal institution. The outcome of this interaction is the

development of religious initiatives such as, charities and Sunday schools or

sports taxation.

D: explains the development outcome as a result of formal and informal

development. An example is, the increased church attendance, or an increase in

the number of people participating in sport.

E: explains the formal institutional establishments, such as difference

governmental departments created to support economic and social

development.

This framework will form a template to input the research collected to identify

that religion and sport contributed to social cohesion.


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Chapter 2

3. Methodology and Method

This study has taken a triangulation research position due to the difficult time

frame and two sectors under investigation. Multiple sources of information will

illustrate greater understanding of the two sectors and their potential contribution

to social cohesion and growth.

Quantitative descriptive statistics will illustrate the changes, over the period, in

government expenditure within the two sectors. Therefore, hard evidence can be

compiled from financial figures to identify the possible promotion of religion and

sports. Consequently, the results may increase the scope and scale of these two

groups.

Time series regression will be used to identify potential relationships between

religion, sport and social cohesion (Gujarati & Porter 2010). This is a method to

identify the relationship between government spending on religion and sports

through the policies implemented. In addition, the changes in living standards

can be investigated to understand their impact on the urban population s

demand for religion and sport.

Therefore, this demonstrates the rationale for choosing these two methods to

investigate the research question. The statistical evidence reduces the margin

for flawed interpretation. This methodology also allows for the exploration of the

potential cause and impact of government intervention on pro-social behaviour.


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However time series has some potential restrictions. Hay & Mc Cleary (1980)

suggest that time-series is better suited to identify structural changes rather than

incremental change. The social impact due to the economic changes cannot

always be quantified.

Consequently, qualitative research via newspaper articles and interviews will be

used. Through a simple method extrapolated by textual analysis, the social

impact of religion and sports can be analysed for deeper understanding. Travers,

(2001) propounds the richness of research that can be identified through the

study of documents. However Fairclough (2003) identifies the challenges of

analysing documents and speech.

Social agents are not free agents they are socially constrained, but nor

are their actions totally socially determined (Fairclough 2003: 22)

Therefore, Fairclough (2003) highlights the grouping of themes to provide a more

accurate social picture of the text. These are described as follows: text used to

target a particular audience, language used, and the social environment the text

has been written for.

Mineshima (2009) illustrates the use of themes within text to organise the

meaning of text in a coherent format. The text would be organised into topical

themes that create meaning such as behavioural, cognitive and verbal

expressions. A similar process will be used to identify pro-social behaviour

within newspapers and interviews which are pertinent to these two sectors.


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Method

Descriptive statistics will be used to highlight spending allocated to

religion, and sports through legislation that contributed to social cohesion.

Followed by, elasticity regressions for each sector to identify demand.

Each regression will be supported by the descriptive statistics and

qualitative research collected.

Finally, the research will be compiled into an institutional development

framework to fully understand environment.

Quantitative Data collection:

The New Zealand Yearbook: 1893-2012 has been used to collect annual data

from 1893-1947. Descriptive statistics pertinent to the research question has

been extrapolated. All data is collected annually.

Qualitative Sampling Rationale:

Newspaper articles from 3 major cities such as, Auckland, Otago, or Canterbury,

will be collected. Saturday papers will be collected or a significant date, such as,

World Wars and Great Depression. Within this research a church minister

preaching pro-social behaviour, and sport participant discussing pro-social

behaviour has been captured.


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Descriptive statistics on government intervention that is significant to religion and

sports will be illustrated and supported by relevant additional material. In

addition, social cohesion will be analysed to understand if this phenomenon was

evident and perhaps contributed to growth.

Following this process religion attendance will be further investigated and

regressed against controls for the urban male earner. The purpose of this

analysis is to understand the elasticity of church attendance relating to significant

living standards. In addition, sport participation will be investigated, and a

fictitious regression will be performed to understand the elasticity of sport

participation relating to significant living standards. The controlled parameters

are annual urban wage rate, annual urban cost of living, urban wealth and

overtime wages. Therefore, an argument can be evidenced that perhaps pro-

social behaviour was evident within the two groups of the population as literature

suggest.

The research will be compiled into the Institutions Development Framework to

understand any links between the two sectors that social cohesion was

promoted.


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Chapter 3

4. Analysis

How did Religion and Sport impact New Zealand?

Figure 3: Religion and Sport Expenditure

Figure 3 highlights potential religious initiatives promoted through the Hospital

and Charitable Institutions budget via the 1885 Hospitals and Charitable

Institutions Act. Potential religious based subsidised institutions were established

to support government intervention with improvement of public health, education

and social development (OBrien, et el, 2008).

During the 1900s charitable aid was predominately used for providing care for

the aging, in terms of hospital support either within the hospital or based at home

(Year book 1916). Therefore, an argument can be made that maintenance

provided to the elderly, enabled their children to continue with employment and

wealth generation.


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In addition, the support was also used for unemployment relief over the years

(Year book, 1935). Therefore, this describes pro-social behaviour which, it can

be argued, contributed to social cohesion.

ROMAN CATHOLIC REGISTERED PRIVATE SCHOOLS, 1919 TO 1921

Year.Number ofSchools.

Roll at End of Year. Average YearlyAttendance.

Teachers.

Male. Female. Total.

.

Total.

1919 152 7,731 9,438 17,169 15,116 503

1920 159 8,322 9,868 18,190 15,973 525

1921 168 9,096 10,551 19,647 17,117 56

Table 1: Religious School Development (Yearbook, 1921)

The above table illustrates religious advancements into the educational public

policy spectrum which increases with population growth. The Education

Amendment Act 1921-22, ensured that all schools were established according to

national standards (Year book, 1923). Through the Physical Welfare and

Recreation Act 1937, voluntary leadership roles were created to support the

physical welfare officers, with the aim of promoting sport (Year book, 1945).

Therefore, a strong argument can be made that institutions with a faith affiliation

had significant influence on elements of the population. Whereby religious

institutions could promote religious and sporting activities concurrently,

Using figure 3, sporting initiatives were promoted through the Education and

Public Instruction budget, earlier by the 1909 English Board of Education and

later the Physical Welfare and Recreation Act 1937 (OBrien, et el, 2008) and

(Grannt & Pope 2007).


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Figure 4: Sport Participation Demand

In 1912 a physical education system was established to ensure physical

exercise was included in the syllabus of public school education. This initiative

also entailed the inspection of the physical health of primary school students

(Year book, 1916). Therefore, in 1916 135,000 students were taught physical

education which in turn increased demand for sport outside of the school

curriculum (Yearbook 1916) & to (Grannt & Pope 2007).

Consequently, the Physical Welfare and Recreation Act 1937 increased the

demand for sporting activities.

Physical welfare officers were used to implement national policy who also used

church youth sports clubs. In addition, a New Zealand sports council was

established who worked with provincial district sports councils.


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Figure 4, highlights the growing number of people exposed to sport. In addition,

figure 4 also, identifies the level of educational attainment that is highlighted in

the literature as a significant growth strategy.

Newspaper Article: Pro-Social Theme promoting cohesion

That all sports bodies in the county should be urged to carry on theirprogrammes as usual was an important recommendation carried at thefirst meeting of the Ellesmere District Committee set up under thePhysical Welfare and Recreation Act(Ellesmere,P2,1939 Issue71: 1-4)

This clearly demonstrates the passion for sport participation within the Ellesmere

District even during WW2. In addition, the promotion of the Physical Welfare and

Recreation Act (PWRA) 1937 and the strength all bodies engaged in sport under

the PWRA 1937.

The data shows that sport increased through schools via huge capital

investments and legislation. Consequently, it could be tentatively argued that

particular genes linked to prosocial behaviour may have been neurologically

encouraged. Therefore, creating a link between constant sport participation,

increased pro-social behaviour and social cohesion.


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Population Cohesion and Growth Analysis

Figure 5: Population Cohesion

Alberto & La Ferrara, (2000) argued participation in heterogeneous communities,

are needed for trust and relationship building within mixed communities

illustrated by figure 5. Furthermore, figure 5 highlights interracial relationships

and cohabitation, which can be linked to social cohesion (Yearbook, 1893-

1946).


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Figure 6: Total Trade


New Zealanders have taken a great and noble part in the war, and it is tobe hoped they will take a great and noble part in working for social,industrial and political progress(NZ, Herald,Sup, P1,1918 Issue 17009:

7-9)

It could be argued that NZsparticipation in the war developed a sense of cross-

cultural identity. Soysa & Juttings OECD, (2007) institutional development

framework argued that exogenous shocks such as war can galvanise cultural

norms.

Figure 6, illustrates a trend in total trade which is a measurement of export and

imports. The trend moves up and then down during WW1, but significantly

increases in the two years following the end of WW1.


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The idea that all dark skins are of a race innately lower, in the sense ofbeing unfit for progress and civilisation, is an idea born of imperialinsolence, an inhuman religion and a narrow conception of humanprogress(NZ, Herald,P4,1945 Issue 25298: 6-9)

This illustrates a shift in the ideology within New Zealands imperial history.

Participation of non-British nationals during the 1st and 2nd WW, against the

British enemies possibly served to shift British imperial views. It is possible that

as a result of this cultural shift, trade openness could have improved during the

years that followed.

Mangeloja, (2003) and Easterly & Levins (2003) highlight trade openness as a

factor contributing to growth. Therefore, a potential earlier argument has some

evidence that social openness must start domestically before real international

trade can be realised.

In addition, this article highlights the social effects of WW2, which again can be

argued created a significant push for domestic social cohesion. This notion is

further evidenced by figure 6 which illustrates a correlating trend. If domestic

production increased as a result of war, then one can assume that society

amalgamated to increase production capacity, which again could link to the need

for prosocial behaviour. Further analysis of the data would be required to provide

evidence of this possible correlation.


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Figure 7: Urban Male Living Standards

Figure 7 illustrates pertinent correlations with urban male living standards and

the shocks of the two world wars. Estimated urban male overtime and average

wage rate had jumped during both world wars but more significantly during

WW2.

However, the wage rate illustrates a steady increase over time regardless of

economic shocks. Therefore, this trend could have also been a result of

educational attainment which is evidenced by figure 4, which illustrates a steady

increase in primary to university education. Education attainment was identified

by Hall and Jones (1999) and Easterly & Levin (2003) as a contributing

correlation for growth.

In addition, the cost of living shows correlations with the wars highlighting

potential effects of inflation due to increased production. Urban wealth is

measured by the difference of deposits and withdraws illustrating a saving rate


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trend. Therefore, correlations can be argued that the world war increased

production, which again could link with a need for social cohesion and

cooperation.


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Urban Church Attendance Analysis

Figure 8: Estimated Church Attendance

Churches in early creation of government were given land as endowments.

(Yearbook, 1893) Therefore, an argument can be pertained that churches had

political influence. Figure 8 has been fabricated from 1930 onwards but would

illustrate a trend of church attendance based on averages from 1930. Church

attendance, therefore pro-social behaviour, would have been promoted through

Sunday schools, church youth clubs, church based private schools and actual

churches. Therefore, the graph highlights a fairly valid trend.

Church Attendance Preaching: Pro-Social Theme promoting cohesion

The aborigines of any country will tell you a story of an expected

deliverer, in whose coming the tribal debauchment, shall be obliterated,with whose coming the night, of savage ignorance shall be dead, and themorning birth of civilized power be theirs(Press, P2, 1893 Issue 8375: 10-13)

This illustrates pro-social behaviour in two forms, informing the colonisers that

colonisation is good, and promoting economic growth will create a civilised

strong country. In addition, Helmke and Levitsky, (2004) argue that informal

institutions can support developing cultural norms.


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Therefore, due to predicted trends illustrated by figure 8, churches arguably

helped with the development of social cohesion.

Figure 9: Church Heterogeneity: (1916 Yearbook)

News Paper Article: Pro-Social Theme promoting cohesion

We shall reach mutual respect and co-operation when one denominationsees itself as one hand nailed by its traditions, to the cross and otherdenominations as another had; likewise nailed to the Cross, but eachones a vital part of that One Body, whose' Head is crowned with thorns

(Waiapu Church, P2,1944,Issue 11: 30-33)

This passage was used to describe the growing competition between church

institutions. Heterogeneity of churches is evidenced by the literature of Barro &

McCleary, (2003) whose work also indicates the increase in competition between

religious institutions. It highlights social cohesion by informing readers that

churches follow a common goal.

News Paper Article: Theme showing link between politics and religion

He thinks the time is now ripe for a new interpretation of his life andmessage which shall be broad enough both to socialise the preaching ofthe Church and to spiritualise the policy of the Labour unions. (Press,P16, 1914 Issue 15035: 19-21)

0%5%

10%15%20%25%30%35%40%45%


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This article highlights the growing interest of securing the religious vote and the

religious institutions political strength. This is evidenced by early religious

ministers within in New Zealand parliament (Yearbook 1918)


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Urban Church Attendance Regression (1893-1930)

Urban male contributions to the household were significantly greater than

females for this period. Therefore, the living standard paramenters are used

based on figures collected for urban men.

The purpose of this regression is to identify the elasticity of church attendance at

10-18% due to changes in the urban males living standards. Therefore, if church

attendance continued, then it could be argued, that pro-social behaviour was

evident amongst this sample of the population. However, due to data restriction

after 1930, the regression cannot account for changes after this period.

Growth t-valuep

ValueCoefficient

Transformation10% Increase in

XUrban Church Attendance Mean (Y) 12.2487%

Coefficient

Urban Annual Wage Rate 2.51517 7.99 0.0000 12.36% in Y 10.9 % n Y

Urban Cost of Living -1.40312 -4.19 0.0002 -0.24% in Y -5.7 %in Y

Urban Annual Wealth -0.572923 -10.9 0.0000 - 44% in Y -2.4 % in YUrban Overtime Wages 0.0154508 2.17 0.0372 1.01% in Y% 0.06 % in Y

no. of observations 38

no. of parameters 4

Table 2: Church Demand Regression

Interpretation of Results (View appendix for formula)

All parameters are significant illustrated by the t-value and p-value. The

coefficient transformation column illustrates the following effect on church

attendance elasticity. Over the period wages can account for an estimated 12%

increase in attendance. However, if wages increased by 10%, and fixing other

parameters, attendance would have increased by 10.9%


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In addition, the cost of living over this period had a marginal effect on attendance

However, if this cost increased at 10%, fixing other parameters at current effects,

attendance would only reduce by 2.4%. The estimated wealth had a large effect

on attendance. This can be illustrated by the large fall in wealth during the great

depression (Figure 7). However, fixing other variables and increasing the wealth

(savings rate) by 10% would only reduce attendance by 2.4%. Furthermore,

overtime earnings during this period seemed to have a small effect on

attendance.

Due to the multicollinearity nature of the controlled parameters, an increase 0f

10% of one would most likely change another. However, to what effect cannot be

fully predicted with this model. An estimate could be argued that an overall

increase of 10% based on the signs of the coefficients (wage rate + overtime)

(cost of living + wealth) a 2.86% increase may have resulted. This is a small

effect based on significant issues pertaining to the living standards of this sample

of the population.

Therefore, church attendance must have been a significant activity regardless of

living standards. This phenomenon then contributes to the idea that DRD4 may

have been evident amongst the New Zealand population. Incidentally, the

economic shocks potentially increased normal levels of DRD4.

In conclusion, research illustrates the growing impact of religious institutions; for

example, Sunday schools, religious schools and church youth clubs. Therefore,

this supports the argument that pro-social behaviour must have been apparent

and contributed to social cohesion.


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Urban Sporting Analysis

Horse Racing Sector

Figure 10: Horse Racing Sector

Horse racing clearly has a long history in New Zealand evidenced by figure 10.

Data relates to exports supports the reliance on agriculture (Yearbook 1945).

Therefore, a sport to promote this sector must have been beneficial for farmers

as well as government.

Although racing days have been fairly static between 250-300 a year, totalizer

investments and taxation have not. Figure 10 clearly shows an increase in the

level of investment over time and there is a link between this investment and the

increase in demand for this sport. It is difficult to establish reversal causality in

this case.


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There is a similar trend illustrated by totalizer investments and tax accumulation.

Tax was paid as a result of investments via the Stamp Duties Act which

fluctuated over the period between 10-5% (Yearbook, 1945). This could have

potentially driven up demand through an increase in potential winnings for

participants and spectators.

Sport Participation Interview: promoting prosocial behaviour

The gelding has been in training for about three years and in the face ofthe uncertainty surrounding him; most other people would have probablysold him. However, remarks Mr McDonald, I stuck to him because I

never give up on a horse, before I know he has been thoroughly well forhis work!(NZ, Herald,P7,1918 Issue 17009: 4-8)

This passage explicitly informs readers from a participator perspective the

perseverance of sporting endeavour. Therefore, this type of pro-social

behaviour is clearly apparent. The neuroscience highlights the effects of

witnessing emotions on pro-social behaviour. Therefore, heightened emotions of

spectators may have contributed to the increase in horse racing spectatorship.

Figure 11: Spectator Sporting Demand

Increases in spectator demand can be partly illustrated by the introduction of an

amusement tax. Amusement taxation, through the Amusement-tax act of 1917,

was also placed on sporting venues (Yearbook, 1945).


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News Paper Article: Theme for spectator demand

This year's Southland side, which holds the Ranfurly Shield, will playAuckland at Eden Park tomorrow afternoon and judging by thetremendous interest, which the match has created during the past few

weeks there should be another very large attendance at headquarters(NZ, Herald,P13,1939 Issue 23446: 4-7)

The passage indicates the development of the New Zealand domestic rugby

game. Therefore, domestic sporting competition was growing, Auckland is based

in the middle of the North Island and Southland in the far south of New Zealand.

Evidence of the growth in sport participation and spectatorship is located in the

sporting sections of newspapers (appendix, 10). Therefore, stronger

assumptions can be claimed that sporting venues contributed a large portion of

amusement taxation.

Figure 12: Sport Heterogeneity (Yearbook 1926)

The 1926 census shows the increase in participation in various sporting

activities. There were almost 110, 000 people registered in sports clubs from a

population of 1,429,000, which is an estimated 7.9%. As demand for opportunity

to participate in sport increased it can be argued that this also increased the

demand for sport spectatorship, and consequently amusement taxation

accumulation.

0%

10%

20%

30%


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In addition, Crawford (1999) propounds how the game of rugby became the

socially accepted values, such as, leadership, team spirit and reliability. These

values are arguably pro-social behavioural traits.


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Second Regression: Estimated Urban Sports Attendance (1917-1947)

Sport participation actual figures cannot be obtained for any period over the

series apart from 1926. However, a factitious regression will be performed based

on the literature identifying early participation of sport as early as 1842.

Government intervention through the English Board of Education 1909 increased

sport participation in schools to 135,000 by 1916. Furthermore, the PWRA 1937,

increased sport participation through national and regional bodies, and support

by the third sector such as, church youth clubs. Therefore, a figure of 7.9% of

total population minus estimated urban population will be used to identify the

potential elasticity of sport participation.

Growth t-valueT

Value Coefficient

10% Increase inXUrban Sport Participation

Mean (Y)11.1373 % Transformation

Coefficient

Growth Rate

Urban Annual Wage Rate 2.45002 7.99 0.000 11.6 % in Y 10.6 % n YUrban Cost of Living 0.584480 0.950 0.3510 21 % in Y 2.4 % n Y

Urban Annual Wealth -0.572923 -10.9 0.0000 - 44 % in Y - 2.4 %in Y

Urban Overtime Wages -0.296582 -3.57 0.0015 -26 % in Y% -1.3 -%in Y

no. of observations 30

no. of parameters 5

Table 3: Sport Participation Demand Regression

Interpretation of Results

Not all parameters are significant illustrated by the t-value and p-value with

regards to cost of living. This may result from inflated overtime earnings during

the period of the first and second world wars. Therefore, the cost of living may

not have made a significant impact on living standards because of actual

earnings. However, cost of living is not a significant parameter in comparison to

the others.


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The coefficient transformation column illustrates the following effect on sport

participation elasticity. Over the period wages can account for an estimated 11.6

% increase in attendance. However, if wages increased by 10%, and fixing other

parameters, attendance would have increased by 10.6%

In addition, the cost of living over this period had a significant effect on

participation, but the parameter is not very significant. Nevertheless, if this cost

increased at 10%, fixing other parameters at current effects, participation would

potentially have increased by 2.4%.

The estimated wealth would have had a significant effect on attendance. Also

fixing other variables and increasing the wealth (savings rate) by 10% would

have potentially reduced participation by 2.4%. Overtime had a fairly significant

impact on participation during WW2. If overtime increased at 10%, fixing other

parameters at current effects, participation would potentially decrease by 2.4%.

Due to the multicollinearity nature of the controlled parameters, an increase of

10% of one parameter would most likely change another. However, to what

effect cannot be fully predicted with this model. Nevertheless, an estimate could

be argued that an overall increase of 10% based on the signs of the coefficients

(wage rate + cost of living) (wealth + overtime) a 9.3% increase may have

resulted. This is a small effect based on significant issues pertaining to the living

standards especially due to significant economic shocks.


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On the basis of this factious but nevertheless compelling analysis, pro-social

behaviour may have been evident within this sample of the population in terms of

DRD4. The sporting environment increased through legislation, school

curriculum and general growth in sport participation may have increased normal

DRD4 levels.

In summary of both regressions the following argument can be propounded in

aid of the research question. If attendance increased by 2.86% and participation

by 9.3% regardless of economic shocks or changes in living standards. Then

perhaps these populations valued their involvement due to active pro-social

behaviour.

Therefore, either pro-social behaviour was already pre-disposed or resulted from

the economic shocks? Unfortunately, the research presented in this thesis was

not intended to answer this question. The argument is to understand if pro-

social behaviour was evident within these two samples of the population, and

given the evidence displayed, this is arguably possible.

.


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New Zealands Religion and Sporting Development

Soysa & Jutting, OECD, (2007) Institutions and Development framework will be

used to structure all sources of information relating to religion and sport in New

Zealand. The framework had already been discussed in accordance to the

different sections.

Therefore, combining the exogenous and endogenous factors which contributed

to the development of religion and sports in New Zealand, all sources of

information can be amalgamated. As a consequence of this process, a picture

can be created to understand the developments of these sectors and their

contributions to social cohesion.

A: WW1 the great depression and WW2 had a significant impact in terms of

social and economic development. Total trade, was impacted which increased

the living standards of New Zealanders. The pro-social themes support that New

Zealanders were becoming galvanised as a nation improving social cohesion.

B1: Religion was developed by the 1885 Hospitals and Charitable Institutions

Act, and the Education Amendment Act via the Hospitals and Charitable

Institutions budget. Sport was developed by the 1909 English Board of

Education and Physical Welfare and Recreation Act 1937 via the Education and

Public Instruction budget.

B2:Religious descriptive statistics and pro-social themes support that religious

institutions were supporters of social cohesion. Sport descriptive statistics,

literature and pro-social themes support sport contributed to the development of

New Zealand values which contribute to social cohesion.


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C:Religion initiatives developed through religious schools, Sunday schools, and

charities providing, the elderly, unemployed, and youth support. Sport initiatives

developed through public schools, religious schools, church youth clubs,

physical welfare officers, voluntary officers, and regional and national sports

councils.

D:Religious institutions helped provide health and social education and support,

sport education and participation; therefore social cohesion. Sporting institutions

helped provide education and participation of physical sports, and develop an

economically taxable sector. However, the growth in sport participation and

education contributed to the development of New Zealand values, (leadership,

team spirit, and reliability) therefore, social cohesion.

E: Religious institutions during early government creation were given land as

endowments followed by the Hospitals and Charitable Institutions budget

Furthermore; pro-social themes highlight the potential influence religious

institutions had on political parties. Sporting government departments were

created, such as national and regional sports councils, via the Education and

Public Instruction budget.

In conclusion of this section, identifies links between religion and sporting

initiatives. Religious institutions through religious schools and church youth clubs

also promoted sports. Also, sport education and participation contributed to New

Zealand values that are arguably religious in nature.


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Most importantly, both populations arguably continued to partake in pro-social

behaviour regardless of changes in living standards. The above Information is

illustrated by the following diagram.


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Religion and Sporting Development Framework

A: External Factors: Early Maori Wars: 1stWW, Depression, 2ndWW, Population Heterogeneity, Immigration.These shocks have identified significant changes in the total trade, living standards and Social Cohesion.

E:Earlyendowments to

religious institutions.Religious growth

through the Hospitalsand Charitable Aid

Budget and theEducation Budget.

National and

Regional SportsCouncils established

through theEducation Budget

B1Formal: 1885 HospitalsCharitable Institutions Act.Education Amendment bill, 1909English Board of Education,

Welfare and Recreational Act 1937.

Good: Increases in theThird Sector and Sporting

Participation and

Spectatorship

C. Growth of Charities, Sunday Schools, ChurchYouth Clubs, Public Schools, Religious Schools,

Physical Welfare Officers & Voluntary Officers

Enforced by the State

B2: Informal: Church Attendance & SportParticipation qualitative themes highlight pro-

social behaviour. Cultural values were developedthat is Social Cohesive in nature.

Self-enforced

Social cohesion between both populations maintained regardless of economic shocks on urban male

living standards.

Pro-socialbehaviour

growth

D.Religious institutions improve and increase health, social and sporting education and participation support.Sporting institutions improve sporting participation and spectatorship therefore, creating a healthy productive

population and taxable sector. A connection between religion and sporting institutions and promotion of SocialCohesion.

Figure 13: Religion and Sport Development

Good: Increases ideologicalshift of Social Cohesion


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Chapter 4

5. Conclusion

The analysis has illustrated some important findings which have significance to the

understanding of the impact of engagement in religious and sporting activities which

connects to the literature. Government expenditure has followed a similar trajectory

to that which the literature suggests is essential for growth, i.e. health, social and

educational development.

Government legislation and investment enabled religious institutions to contribute

significantly to the health and social development of the population. Health was

improved through early initiatives to support the elderly and also those unemployed.

This public service was supported by legislation that allowed religious institutions to

create charities eligible for government subsidy. These religious founded institutions

enabled further developments within public health and social initiatives. Further

investigation into the development of this sector identifies the growth of religious

schools and church youth clubs. Both of these institutions were eligible for public

funds that would necessarily increase and improve access to and engagement in

physical activities.

A regression was utilised to understand the elasticity of church attendance relating to

living standards. The results identified all living standard parameters were significant.

Wages identified a significant positive impact and wealth a significant negative

impact on church attendance. However, an overall 10% increase of all parameters

would marginally increase attendance.


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Education attainment was evident by figure 4 which shows a steady increase from

primary schooling through to university education. Education policy also increased

the level of participation in sporting activities through the institution of physical

education in the curriculum. The literature identifies that increased physical

education stimulated the demand for after school sport activities. Consequently,

sport participation by 1926 was estimated to be almost 8% of the total population.

The demand for sport spectatorship was measured by examining the amusement tax

trend. Spectator demand for sport therefore increases exponentially with

improvements in the living standards of urban male earning. Urban male earning had

significant jumps particularly during the 2ndWorld War.

Although fictitious, a regression was utilised to evaluate if an estimated 8% of the

urban population continued to participate in sport, how would the changes in living

standards impact on sport participation. The results identified all living standard

parameters were significant apart from the cost of living. Wages identified a

significant positive impact whereas, wealth and overtime a significant negative

impact on sport participation. However, an overall 10% increase in all parameters

would marginally increase attendance.

These two forms of historically defined informal institutions, enabled the exploration

of two fundamental capitalist ideologies pro-social and competitive behaviour. Pro-

social behaviour enables the exploration of societys factors of production. In

addition, interactive competition across cultural and social economic divides

develops innovation and galvanises cohesion.


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Therefore these two combined institutions, created a culture necessary to explore

and exploit New Zealandsgeographical resources.


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6. Recommendations

This research has identified two potentially significant groups within the early

population of New Zealand. However, the true nature of growth for this period

cannot be solely attributed to these groups. The research only illustrates that

these two groups had an impact in combination with other variables.

Through the undertaking of the research an interest measurement has been

identified. On a macroeconomic scale, could the hormones that create pro-social

and competitive behaviour be aggregated on a national level. For example, if

studies identified that church attendance or sport participation of 100

organisations increased pro-social and competitive behaviour by 30%.

Therefore, could a measurement of population density regarding pro-social and

competitive behaviour be attached to models of economic growth. This could

form the basis of further research to strengthen these preliminary findings.

In advanced capitalist societies, this could be quantified without the neurological

aspect. Quantifying these two samples of the population across nations may help

to understand if they are significant groups. Information relating to dysfunctional

or developing countries, and the ratio of religion and sporting participation could

be captured.

This study has illustrated that the study of institutions and particularly informal

institutions is difficult to quantify in economic terms, due to the number of

possible contributing variables. This is particularly evident for the time period

studied, due to the motivational impact of the world war on the population.

.


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7. Figures

Theoretical Concepts

Figure 1:Different Concepts of Institutions Page: 13

Figure 2:Analysing Institutions and Development Page: 25

Figure 13:Religion and Sports Development Page: 51

Economic Time series Graphs

Figure 3:Religion and Sport Expenditure Page: 46

Figure 6:Total Trade Page: 36

Demographic Time series Graphs

Figure 5:Population Cohesion Page: 35

Figure 7:Urban Male Living Standards Page: 38

Religion and Sports Time series Graphs

Figure 4:Sport Participation Demand Page: 33

Figure 8:Estimated Church Attendance Page: 40

Figure 8:Horse Racing Sector Page: 43

Figure 8:Spectator Sporting Demand Page: 44

Figure 8:Sport Heterogeneity Page: 45

:


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8. Tables

Table 1:Religious School Development Page: 32

Church Attendance Regression

Table 2:Church Demand Regression Page: 40

Sports Participation Regression

Table 5:Sports Participation Demand Page: 46


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9. References.

Journals

Acemoglu, D., Johnson, J., Robinson, J. (2002) Reversal of Fortune:Geography and Institutions in the Making of the Modern World IncomeDistribution. The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 117(4): 1231-1294

Alberto, A., La Ferrara, E. (2000)Participation in Heterogeneous Communities.Quarterly Journal of Economics. 115(3): 847-904

Barro, J, R., McCleary, M, R. (2003) Religion and Economic Growth across

Countries. Journal of American Sociological Review. 68: 760-781

Beattie, J. (2004) Rethinking Science, Religion and Nature in EnvironmentalHistory: Drought in Early Twentieth-Century New Zealand

Chen, C., Burton, M., Greenberger, E., Dmitrieva, J. (1999) PopulationMigation and the Variation of Dopamine D4 Receptor (DRD4) Allele FrequenciesAround the Globe. Journal of Evolution and Human Behaviour. 15(5): 309-324

Easterly, W., Levin, R. (2003)Tropics, Germs, and Crops: How Endowments

Influence Economic Development. Journal of Monetary Economics. 50: 3-39

Glaseser, L, E., LaPorta, R., Lopez-De-Silanes, F., Shleifer, A. (2004) DoInstitutions Cause Growth? Journal of Economic Growth. 9: 271-303

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Nauright, J. (Reprint: 1999)Sport, Power, and Society in New Zealand: Historicaland Contemporary Perspectives.

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Government Commissioned Research

Bartsch, S., Dreschsler, D., Jutting, J., De Soysa, I. (2007)Informal Institutions:How Social Norms Help or Hinder Development. Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development.

http://www.cmi.no/library/online/OECD.Informal-institutions.pdf#page=46

North, C, D. (2003) The Role of Institutions in Economic Development.DiscussionPaper Series. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, Geneva,Switzerl

religion and sport development in new zealand (1893-1946)

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