relief sculpture portrait sculpture - pcd...
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Roman Imperial Sculpture
Relief Sculpture
Portrait Sculpture
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Roman Relief Sculpture
• Among the finest examplesof Roman art
• Often officiallycommissioned
• Recorded Roman history forthe people
• Often used to decoratebuildings, arches,sarcophagi and columns
• Vehicle for RomanPropaganda
• Much still visible in Rometoday
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Roman Triumphal Arch
• Distinctively Roman structure
• Part Architecture, part sculpture
• Commemorates a triumph or victory parade
• Victorious general or emperor paraded with his
troops, captives and booty through the city after a
significant campaign
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Arch of Titus
• Commissioned by the emperor Domitian in honor ofhis brother and deified predecessor Titus
• It was constructed shortly after the death of Titus in81 CE.
• The arch commemorates Titus's capture and sack ofJerusalem in 70 CE.
• Triumphal arch constructed of concrete and facedwith marble
• Has a single arched opening, located on the Via Sacrajust to the south-east of the Forum in Rome.
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Arch of Titus, Roman Forum
Originally, the arch stood as a 50 foot base for a statue of a four horse
chariot and driver, a typical triumphal symbol.
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• Applied to the arch
are columns in the
composite order.
• The inscription on
the top declares that
the Senate and
people of Rome
erected this
monument in honor
of Titus.
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• Over the centuries,
there has been a great
deal of theft and
restoration of the arch.
• However, originalspandrels,decorative frieze andcomposite columnsare intact on theColosseum side ofthe arch.
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• On the insideof the archthere is adetailed reliefsculpturedepictingTitus’s sack ofthe city ofJerusalem in70 CE .
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Titus’s Capture of Jerusalem
• Ended a fierce campaign
to crush a revolt by the
Jews in Palestine in
70CE.
• Romans sacked and
destroyed the Second
Temple in Jerusalem.
• Carried off its sacred
treasures.
• Displayed them in a
triumphal procession in
Rome.
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• Reliefs are located on the inside of the arch and capture the drama of theoccasion.
• Depicts Titus’s soldiers flaunting the spoils form Jerusalem as they paradedthrough Rome.
• The mood in this scene is much different from the relaxed formality wesaw on the Ara Pacis .
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Sculptural Technique
• Sculptors indicated spatialrelationships among the figuresby rendering the closer elementsin high relief and the more distantelements in lower relief.
• In another attempt at realism, themenorah, which is the focal pointin the scene is carved as if seenfrom the low point of view of aspectator at the actual procession.
• The menorah has never beenfound and some archeologistsbelieve it is buried somewhere inRome.
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The other side of the arch depicts Titus
leading the procession in his chariot.
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Emperor Trajan
The Column of Trajan
The column is hollow and
once contained the ashes of
Trajan.
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• Marble, completed in 116 CE, stands 131 ft high.
• Was part of a large area called Trajan’s Forum or Market
• A 700 foot spiraling band of superbly carved reliefs tells the tale of Trajan's
battles in Dacia, present day Romania..
• There are very small windows in the column, which allow just enough light
inside to light up the spiral staircase.
• The column owes much of its survival to the papacy.
• Pope Gregory the Great was moved by a scene depicted on the column
which showed Trajan helping the mother of a dead soldier, so he prayed for
Trajan's soul to be spared.
• The tale goes on to say that God told Gregory that Trajan indeed had been
saved from hell, despite his pagan life.
• As a result, the church allowed his statue to remain atop the column for a
very long time. It was only in 1587 that his statue was finally replaced by
one of St.Peter.
The Column of Trajan
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Trajan’s Column 113-16 CE
• Completed about 35 yearsafter the Arch of Titus.
• Sculptors have furtherdefined the art of thepictorial narrative.
• High point of Roman reliefsculpture
• Base of the column carvedin Laurel wreath, symbol ofvictory
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• Relief at the base ofthe column depictsTrajan’s army at thebeginning of thecampaign.
• The men aremarching on apontoon bridge tocross the DanubeRiver.
• The river isrepresented by alarge river god,sometimes calledFather Tiber.
• Scene above depictssoldiers constructinga battlefieldheadquarters.
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Excellent example of
Roman Propaganda
• On the column, Trajan is
always portrayed as a
strong, stable, efficient
leader.
• Barbarian enemies are
consistently portrayed as
pathetically disorganized
and desperate.
• In this segment of the
relief, Trajan’s soldiers
offer the enemy severed
heads.
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Relief from Haterius
Mausoleum
• Not all imperial sculpture wasfor emperors.
• This relief is from themausoleum of a plebianfamily.
• Depicts a gigantic humanpowered crane beingmaneuvered into place to workon the still unfinishedmausoleum.
• Usually funerary sculpturehonored the dead withportraits, garlands or narrativescenes.
• Historians believe this reliefcommemorates a person whowas a builder or architect.
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Roman Portrait
Sculpture
Rows of Portrait Busts in the
Vatican Museum
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Roman Portrait Sculpture
• A typically Roman style of art.
• Romans demanded a likeness and gravitas in their portraits.
• However, sometimes they preferred a little idealization, especiallyduring the reign of Augustus.
• Other times they wanted an exact image, warts, wrinkles, big noseand all.
• Portrait sculptures were often busts of famous Romans, but notalways.
• Subjects for these sculptures would include various patricians andemperors - multiple copies of which were circulated around theempire; like a picture of the President at the post office.
• Often used as funerary sculpture; helped Romans to honor andcommemorate their ancestors.
• Roman portrait sculpture embodied Roman civic virtues andset the standard for European and American public portraitsculpture.
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Not only politicians, like Cicero, had their
portraits sculpted, so did wealthy Romans.
• Romans had great respect for
ancestors and often commissioned
sculptures.
• Reveals a great deal about styles
and fashions of the da.y
• Archeologists often use hair and
clothing styles to date a piece.
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• Romans demanded a likeness intheir portraits.
• However, sometimes theypreferred a little idealization.
• Other times they wanted an exactimage, warts, wrinkles, big noseand all.
• No idealization here!
• Why do you think this manwanted to be portrayed inthis way?
Remember that……
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• The traditional Romanconcept of virtue called forold-fashioned morality, aserious, responsible publicbearing, and courageousendurance in the field ofbattle.
• Prestige came as a result ofage, experience, andcompetition among equalswithin the establishedpolitical system.
• These are the valuesexpressed in the Romanportraits of bald, grim-faced,middle-aged men, like thisone.
• Gravitas, a certainweightiness or importance.
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• This bust depicts a privateindividual who wished to haveherself portrayed like a memberof the imperial family, bywearing her hair in the samestyle.
• The imitation of imperialhairstyles by Roman women wascommon throughout the RomanEmpire, and this work is one ofmany examples in which privateportraits were stronglyinfluenced by official images ofthe imperial family.
• This points to the widely sharedacceptance of and identificationwith the empire established byAugustus.
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The Flavian Hairstyle
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• During the third century CE, the
idealism of Augustan portraiture
were often put aside in favor of
frankness for women and fiercely
knit brows for men.
• This is an important change in the
nature of portraiture that had
remained, with few exceptions,
flattering and naturalistic since the
end of the first century CE.
• Also during this time, busts were
becoming increasingly taller, so
tall as to become almost half-
statues that included not only the
shoulders and chest but the arms
as well, giving images such as this
an uncannily lively appearance.
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Philip the Arab versus Augustusc. 244 - 249 CE 27 BCE -14 CE
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Middle Aged
Flavian Women
• Late 1st century CE
• More realistic approach
• Revives sculpture style ofthe Republican period (preAugustus)
• Comic writers of the Flavianera often satirized andstereotyped old women whotried disparately to remainyouthful.
• This woman did not fit theirstereotype.
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Antinous130-38 CE
• Found at Hadrian’s villa at
Tivoli.
• In contrast to typical Roman
realistic style.
• Hadrian was a highly traveled
and sophisticated emperor.
• Greatly admired Greek art, but
was familiar with the art of
many cultures.
• Hadrian liked to combine his
favorite images into new
works.
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• Marble, 8’ tall
• Idealized portrait of
Hadrian’s companion,
Antinous, who drowned in
the Nile.
• But is still recognizable as
Antinous with a slightly
flabby middle.
• He assumes the pose of an
Egyptian king, wearing the
kilt and royal headdress.
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Equestrian Statue
of Marcus
Aurelius
•Imperial portraits realistic
or not contain an element
of propaganda.
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Marcus Aurelius
• Prided himself on both his military and intellectual abilities.
• The last of the good emperors.
• This bronze statue survived from antiquity, because very early on it
was mistaken to be a statue of the first supposedly Christian emperor
Constantine, and thus came under the protection of the Church.
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Marcus Aurelius
• Outdoor copy of Roman original.
• Typical Roman orator pose.
• Equestrian statue-horse and rider
• Reflects excellent understanding ofanatomy.
• Weight, hard to distribute on threelegs.
• Nice balance between horse and rider,sometimes in other statues, horse wastoo big taking attention away from therider.
• At one time there was a “barbarian”under the raised hoof.
• Located in a piazza, designed byMichelangelo, above Capitoline Hill.
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The Original Bronze
c. 176 CE
Capitoline Museum Rome
• Of what other work
of art does this
remind you?
• This conquering
emperor wears no
armor, and carries
no weapons.
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The Emperor Commodus
• Unfortunately, Marcus Aurelius was succeeded by his totallyincompetent son, Commodus.
• One historian writes, “Commodus was not just decadent-hewas probably insane.”
• He claimed at various times to be the reincarnation of Herculesand the god Jupiter.
• Even appeared in public as a gladiator
• Commodus devoted his life to luxury and foolish pursuits,with little concern for the empire.
• His mistress arranged to have him strangled in the bath by hiswrestling partner
• However he did attract some of the finest artists of the day forhis commissions.
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Commodus as Herculesc. 191 CE, marble
• Sculptor’s expert modelingenhances the play of lightand shadow on the bust,bringing out the texture ofthe hair, beard, drapery andfacial features.
• Conveys the illusion of lifeand movement, but it alsocapture’s the subject’sfoolishness.
• What are some of theattributes of Hercules youcan see in this piece?
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The Late Empire
The Severan Dynasty
The Third Century
The Tetrachs
Constantine the Great
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The Late Empire• The reign of Commodus at the end of the 2nd century
marked the beginning of a period of political andeconomic decline.
• “Barbarian” groups pressed on Rome’s northernborders.
• Many crossed the borders, settling down and causingunrest within the empire.
• Imperial rule became more and more authoritarian.
• Eventually the army took over the government, andthe Imperial Guard set up and deposed rulers at will.
• Often selected poorly educated, power hungry leadersfrom their own ranks.
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The Severan Dynasty
• However despite all the politicaland economic problems the artscontinued to flourish during theSeveran Dynasty.
• Septimius Severance succeededCommodus.
• He and his Syrian wife, Julia,restored public buildings,commissioned portraits and builtnew structures.
• Their sons Caracalla and Getasucceeded Septimius as co-emperors.
• But Caracalla killed Geta in 211,may be with Julia’s help, andruled alone until, 217 when hewas also assassinated.
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Arch of
Septimius Severus
• Triumphal arch, erected in203 CE to celebrate thevictories of EmperorSeptimius Severus and hissons Caracalla and Geta inthe wars against theParthians and the Osroeni in195 CE and 197 CE.
• The arch is very wellpreserved.
• In medieval times the archwas incorporated partiallyinto a church and partiallyinto a fortress.
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Arch of Septimius Severus,
Roman Forum
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Portrait of Septimius Severance, his wife
Julia and their sons, Geta and Carcalla
• From Fayum Egypt, highlystylized
• Early 3rd century CE
• Notice that Geta has beenscratched out.
• After Caracalla killed him, heordered all images of Geta to beremoved
• This painting is not as subtle orsophisticated as the portraits welooked at from Pompeii
• Rather hard drawing style
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1st Century 3rd Century
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Caracalla• This head is from a statue,
other fragments of whichsurvive.
• Appears cold and ruthless
• Much different than portraitof Augustu.
• Caracalla abandoned theluxuriant hair and beard ofhis predecessors for amilitary style characterizedby close-cropped curls and astubble beard.
• Sculptor enhances theintensity of the expressionwith sharp contrasts of lightand dark.
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Augustus Caracalla1st Century 3rd Century
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Baths of Caracalla
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• Located on the southeast side of Rome.
• The baths alone covered 5 acres.
• The accompanying shops, exercise rooms, gardens,libraries, auditorium and reservoirs covered over 50acres.
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• Begun by Septimius Severance,
finished by his son, Caracalla.
• The bath complex covered
approximately 50 acres.
• The bath building was 750ft long,
380 ft wide and 125ft estimated
height.
• Could hold an estimated 1,600
bathers.
• The Caracalla bath complex of
buildings was more a leisure centre
than just a series of baths.
• The "baths" were the second to
have a public library within the
complex.
• Like other public libraries in Rome,
there were two separate and equal
sized rooms or buildings; one for
Greek language texts and one for
Latin language texts.
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In the early 20th century, the design of the
bath was used as the inspiration for several
modern structures, including Pennsylvania
Station in New York City.
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The Third Century• Continuation of the Severan dynasty.
• Succession of soldier-emperors.
• Lots of turmoil and political unrest.
• Problems with the “barbarians”at the borders
• Art became more abstract and symbolic.
• Becoming more and more difficult to controlthe empire.
• Last Severan emperor, Alexander Severusruled 225-35.
• After his death, a half century of anarchy andturmoil followed.
• In 284 CE, a general, Diocletian, (right)came to power
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Emperor
Diocletian
• Brilliant politician and general.
• Reversed the empire’sdeclining fortunes.
• Had an increasinglyautocratic style of leadership.
• Social structure of the empirebecame increasingly rigid.
• In an attempt to secure moreefficient control of the empire,Diocletian divided the empirein two.
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A Tetrarchy
• Tetrarchy : Greek for "leadership of four people" can be applied to anysystem of government where power is divided between four individuals butis rarely used.
• The most famous Tetrarchy was instituted by Diocletian in 293.
• The establishment of the Tetrarchy usually marks the resolution of theCrisis of the Third Century and the recovery of the Roman Empire.
• The first phase sometimes referred to as the Dyarchy, 'the rule of two'involved the designation of the general Maximian as co-emperor orAugustus.
• Diocletian took care of matters in the Eastern regions of the Empire whileMaximian similarly took charge of the Western regions.
• In 293, feeling more focus was needed on both civic and military problems,Diocletian (with Maximian's consent) expanded the imperial college byappointing two Caesars, like junior emperors, (one responsible to eachAugustus).
• The senior emperors jointly abdicated and retired, allowing Constantiusand Galerius to elevate in rank to Augustus.
• They in turn appointed two new Caesars - Severus II in the west underConstantius, and Maximinus in the east under Galerius.
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The Tetrarchs
c. 300 CE
• Carved from a rare very hardpurple stone, from Egypt calledporphyry, reserved for imperialuse.
• Represents the 2 Augustuses andthe 2 Caesars.
• Dressed in military clothing withswords.
• Hugging representing imperialunity.
• Proclaims peace and unity throughstrength - propaganda.
• Sculpture of Tetrarchs represent aturn toward abstraction andsimplification of natural forms.
• Probably made in Egypt, moved toConstantinople, looted bycrusaders and placed in theCathedral of St Mark’s in Venice.
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Constantine and His Legacy
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End of the Tetrachy
• Diocletian’s idea of the tetrarchs eventually failed and a strugglefor leadership followed.
• Two main contenders emerged in the Western Empire.
• Constantine and Maxentius, were both sons of former Tetrachs
• Constantine defeated Maxentius at the Battle of the MilvianBridge, at the entrance to Rome, taking sole control of theWestern Roman Empire.
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Constantine and
Christianity
• Legend has it that on the night before the
battle, Constantine saw a flaming cross in
the sky, and heard these words, “In this
sign, you shall conquer”.
• The next morning Constantine ordered his
armies’ shields and standards to be
inscribed with the Greek monogram X (chi)
and P (rho), standing for Christos.
• When Constantine was victorious in the
battle he showed his gratitude by ending the
persecution of the Christians.
Constantine’s Dream by Piero della Francesca, 1466 CE
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Painting of Constantine’s Conversion
by Rubens
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Edict of Milan
• Perhaps influenced by his mother, Helen, adevout Christian, Constantine recognizedChristianity as a lawful religion.
• In 313 CE, issued The Edict of Milan, amodel of religious tolerance.
• The Edict of Milan granted freedom to allreligions not just Christianity.
• Constantine, however, remained PontifexMaximus of Rome’s state religion.
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Arch of Constantine
• Arch of Constantine is located near the Colosseum.
• Dedicated by the Senate in AD 315, the tenthanniversary of the emperor's reign.
• Arch of Constantine commemorates the victory ofConstantine over Maxentius at the Battle of MilvianBridge in AD 312 for sole control of the Romanempire in the west.
• The arch is the last and largest in Rome, and the mostflamboyant in its use of colored stone.
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Arch of Constantine
near the Colosseum, Rome
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Triple Arch DesignThree barrel-vaulted passageways, flanked by
composite columns, with laudatory inscription.
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A good deal of the relief sculpture was removed from other
monuments and added to the arch. Why?Two reasons:
1. The work was excellent
2.Constantine wanted to connect himself with Emperors like, Trajan,
Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius
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Notice the differences in the realistic quality of the sculpture between the
circles, (Trajan) and the lower frieze, (Constantine).
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Remember Basilicas?
• In modern usage, a basilica has come to be defined as a place of worship;for example St. Peter’s Basilica.
• During ancient Rome, the basilica was a combination of a court-house,council chamber and meeting hall.
• The basilica of Maxentius and Constantine (sometimes known as theBasilica Nova or Basilica Maxentius) was the largest building in theRoman Forum.
• Today, concerts are held in the Basilica Maxentius in the Roman forum.
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Basilica of Maxentius Rome, 306-12 CE
built by Maxentius during his brief reign
located on southeast side of the Roman Forum.
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The basillica originally measured, 300x215 feet,
and the vaults and central nave rose to 114 feet.
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Check out
the scale
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Performers, like Billy Joel, give concerts in the
summer at the basilica.
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Constantine and the Basilica
• Wanted to impress the people of Rome withvisual symbols of his authority.
• Changed the orientation of the basilica byadding a new entrance in the center of the longside facing the Roman forum.
• Also added a giant apse to be built directlyacross from the new door.
• He finished the building in 306-13 CE.
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Artist’s Reconstruction Drawing of Basilica of Maxentias,
notice unbroken vaulted space.
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Constantine also commissioned an enormous statue of
himself to be place in the original apse.
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• He commissioned a 30 foot tall
portrait of himself.
• The head alone is over 8 feet tall.
• Built on a wooden frame.
• The sculptor combined the head,
chest, arms, and legs carved out
of white marble with bronze
drapery.
• The statue served as a permanent
stand in whenever Constantine’s
presence was required.
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• Combines features of traditional
Roman portraiture with abstract
qualities of the Tetrachs.
• Defining characteristics:
• Heavy jaw, hooked nose and
jutting chin have been
incorporated into tight symmetry.
• His hair, eyes and eyebrows are
simplified into geometric arcs.
• Large eyes are a precursor to
Early Christian art.
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Some of the other remaining parts from the
Colossal Statue of Constantine.Capotiline Museum, Rome
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•Works referenced:
•Janson, History of Art, Abrams 2001
•Marilyn Stockstad’s Art History: Second Edition (Volumes one and two)
•Metropolitan Museum of Art’s “Timeline of Art History.”
•Available online at http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/splash.htm
•Strickland, Carol. The Annotated Mona Lisa. 1992
•“The Web Gallery of Art.” Available online at http://www.wga.hu
•http://www.artchive.com/artchive/E/el_greco.html