relationships among paternal involvement and young children's perceived self-competence and...

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Journal of Child and Family Studies [jcfs] HS075-37 April 4, 2000 9:29 Style file version Nov. 19th, 1999

Journal of Child and Family Studies, Vol. 9, No. 1, 2000, pp. 27–38

Relationships Among Paternal Involvement andYoung Children’s Perceived Self-Competenceand Behavioral Problems

Rex E. Culp, Ph.D., J.D.,1,5 Stephanie Schadle, M.S.,2 Linda Robinson, Ph.D.,3

and Anne M. Culp, Ph.D.4

We examined the relationships of father involvement to young children’s perceivedself-competence and fathers’ and mothers’ perceptions of their children’s inter-nalizing and externalizing behavioral problems. The results indicated that mothersin families in which father involvement is high may have a more positive outlookregarding their child’s behavior than do mothers in families in which father in-volvement is low. Fathers who were highly involved indicated their children havemore behavior problems than fathers who were not highly involved. High fatherinvolvement was associated with increased children’s feelings of paternal accep-tance, a factor that plays a role in the development of self-concept and esteem.

KEY WORDS: father involvement; school-aged children; self-competence; behavior problems;paternal acceptance; dual-career families.

Prior to the late 1970s, most research on parent-child relationships focusedon mothers as the dominant influence on child development, while fathers werethought to play a less prominent role (Zaslow, Rabinovich, & Suwalsky, 1991).Recently, researchers have begun to examine the importance of the father in child

1Professor, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, The University of Alabama,Tuscaloosa, AL.

2Child Development Specialist, Department of Family Relations and Child Development, OklahomaState University, Stillwater, OK.

3Assoicate Professor, Department of Family Relations and Child Development, Oklahoma State Uni-versity, Stillwater, OK.

4Associate Professor, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, The University ofAlabama, Tuscaloosa, AL.

5Correspondence should be directed to Rex E. Culp, Department of Human Development and FamilyStudies, The University of Alabama, Box 870158, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-0158. Electronic mail maybe sent to [email protected].

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1062-1024/00/0300-0027$18.00/0C© 2000 Human Sciences Press, Inc.

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28 Culp, Schadle, Robinson, and Culp

development. This need has developed from societal changes during the past sev-eral years, especially as a result of women entering the out-of-home workforce(Darling-Fisher & Tiedje, 1990; LaRossa, Gordon, Wilson, Bavian, & Jaret, 1991;Marsiglio, 1991).

Research shows that nearly 75% of the mothers of school-age children areemployed outside of the home (DelCampo, 1994). This dramatic rise blurs the tra-ditional division between maternal and paternal childrearing roles. As more moth-ers have become full-time financial providers, the father’s role has been altered.Many people argue this change gives fathers the opportunity to be more involvedin rearing their children. However, studies have shown that while fathers haveincreased their childcare involvement, fathers spend significantly less time thanmothers caring for children, even when their wives work full-time (Amato, 1994;Darling-Fisher & Tiedje, 1990; Marsiglio, 1991; McBride & Mills, 1993; Pleck,1997).

A closer look indicates that fathers’ childcare participation vary by type ofinvolvement. For example, Lamb, Pleck, Charnov, and Levine (1987) reported thatfathers in dual-career families spend more time in direct interaction and being ac-cessible than do fathers from single-career families. However, neither fathers fromdual-career families nor fathers from single-career families demonstrate meaning-ful involvement in the responsibility category. In addition, it is important to notethat Lamb et al. (1987) reported that the increase in the percentages of involvementvis-a-vis mothers among dual-career family fathers reflect a drop in the amount ofinteraction and accessibility of mothers, rather than a substantial increase of timeamong fathers. A study by McBride and Mills (1993) reveals that paternal partic-ipation patterns have not changed significantly in recent years, despite continualincreases in maternal employment. Mothers remain the primary caretakers of thechildren as their interactions are significantly more functional, while fathers’ in-teractions are more play oriented activities. Both mothers and fathers continue toagree that fathers’ participation is limited in responsibility, suggesting the contin-uing pattern of mothers as caretakers and fathers as playmates. However, fathersfrom dual-earner families in this study did report taking a greater responsibility intheir parent-child interactions during weekdays than single-earner family fathers.

Important determinants of father involvement with their children include childand paternal characteristics. Gender differences do exist, in that fathers tend to bemore involved with sons than daughters (Huston, 1983). Possible explanationsfor this finding include the societal belief that fathers should be models for theirsons and should take responsibility for gender-role socialization, teaching skills,and sharing masculine interest. However, some studies have found father-child tobe more egalitarian in dual-career families (Crouter & Crowley, 1990). Crouterand Crowley postulated that this may be true because single-earner family fathersmay hold more traditional gender role attitudes, or that mothers in single-earnerfamilies may serve as “gatekeepers” of father and daughter interactions, as they kept

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Paternal Involvement 29

daughters involved in domestic activities. It has been reported that fathers’ feelingsof self-confidence and skills are related to the amount of paternal involvement.Biller (1993) emphasized the need for fathers to feel confident in their ability tocontribute to their children’s development. Fathers who did not feel confident abouttheir child care abilities were less likely to be highly involved in child care (Lamb,Pleck, & Levine, 1986). Many motivated fathers were not involved because theyfeared they did not have the skills to take proper care of children (Lamb et al.,1986).

Research on the effects of fathers’ involvement with their children is sparse.However, most studies of the effects of paternal involvement on child developmentindicate that fathers offer a distinct and independent contribution, both positiveand negative (see Lamb, 1997). For example, research has shown that fathers oftenpositively influence their children’s intellectual development (Williams & Radin,1993) and moral development (Hoffman, 1981). Fathers have also been shown tobe influential in sex role development, particularly among boys (Biller, 1981).

Children of highly involved fathers tend to benefit from these fathers’ greateracademic expectations, more flexible attitudes regarding employment opportuni-ties and child care roles, and greater social competence. Studies of the effects offather involvement suggest that involved, nurturing fathers are positively associatedwith the social competence, locus of control, intellectual and empathetic abilitiesof their children (Amato, 1994; Gottfried, Gottfried, & Bathurst, 1988). The lim-ited research that has focused specifically on children’s self-competence indicatesthat closeness with the father is an important factor in fostering self-confidence,while paternal deprivation has been associated with feelings of personal insecurityand poor self-concept (Biller, 1993).

Research regarding parental ratings of children’s behavior problems, internal-izing behavior problems (including the withdrawn, somatic complaints and anx-ious/depressed behaviors) and externalizing behavior problems (including delin-quent and aggressive behavior), suggests that maternal work status is associatedwith children’s behavioral problems. In a study of how different levels of maternalemployment affect child development, Greenberger and O’Neil (1992) found thatfathers of 5- and 6-year-old children identified more problem behavior patternswhen mothers worked full-time than when mothers worked part-time or did notwork outside of the home. Furthermore, fathers’ ratings were least similar to teacherratings when mothers worked full-time and most similar when mothers workedpart-time or worked at-home. The authors hypothesized that fathers’ reports maybe influenced by feelings of frustration and dissatisfaction about the increasedresponsibility and demands that accompany mothers’ full time employment. Thefather may be “overstating” their child’s problem behaviors as a result of their feel-ings of increased stress and discord; a perspective that is supported by the decreasein concordance of father-teacher ratings when mothers work full time. Greenbergerand O’Neil have suggested that because full-time maternal employment leads to

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some level of increased paternal involvement, these fathers may simply be exposedto a wider variety of their child’s behavior, including the more problematic ones.

The results of a study by Fitzgerald, Zucker, Maguin, and Reider (1994), withthe parents of 3–5 year-old boys who were at risk for the development of substanceabuse and anti-social behavior, support this notion. Fathers who spend the mosttime with their children perceived them most similarly to the mothers.

The scarcity of research in the area of paternal involvement and young chil-dren’s perceived self-competence and social acceptance and young children be-havior problems point to a need for further study. As more and more mothersare working outside of the home the role of father involvement with their youngchildren is becoming increasing more important. In an effort to add to the limitedamount of literature on the father’s role in young children’s self-perceptions andyoung children’s behavior patterns the following study was undertaken.

The purpose of our study was to examine the relationships (a) among fatherinvolvement, as assessed independently by father and mother, and children’s self-competence and social acceptance and (b) among father involvement and children’sbehavior problems as reported independently by fathers and mothers. We predictedthat there would be a negative relationship between level of paternal involvementand mothers’ reports of children’s internalizing and externalizing behaviors, that isas paternal involvement increased, the mothers would report lower levels of chil-dren’s internalizing and externalizing behaviors problems. We predicted that therewould be a positive relationship between level of paternal involvement and fathers’report of children’s internalizing and externalizing behaviors, that is as paternalinvolvement increased, the fathers would report higher levels of children’s internal-izing and externalizing behaviors problems. Finally, we predicted that there wouldbe a positive relationship between the level of paternal involvement and the child’sperceived self-competence and social acceptance, that is as paternal involvementincreased, the child’s perceived self-competence and social acceptance would bemore positive.

METHOD

Participants

Twenty-five kindergarten and first-grade children (M = 6.2 years;SD= 0.8;15 boys and 10 girls) from intact, dual-career families, and their parents wererecruited as participants through flyers distributed in the children’s public schoolclasses or through the children’s after-school care program. Seven of the target chil-dren had no siblings and 18 had one sibling. Fathers averaged 37.4 and mothersaveraged 35.6 years of age. The couples had been married an average of 10.7 years.All of the fathers and mothers labeled themselves as Caucasian, except one motherand one father (not a couple) who labeled themselves as Native American. The

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participants’ socio-economic status was predominantly middle-class or upper-middle class and all participants lived in a middle-sized Midwest town or in itssuburbs. All of the parents worked at least 30 hours per week with fathers workingan average of 47.0 hours and mothers working an average of 40.2 hours per week.

Procedures

All parents who responded positively to a school-distributed flyer were con-tacted by telephone and a meeting time was established. At the meeting, each fatherindependently completed the Child Behavior Checklist/4–16 (CBCL; Achenbach,1991a, 1991b; Achenbach & Edelbrock, 1993) and the Parental Involvement andChild Care Index (PICCI; Radin, 1982). Each mother independently completedCBCL and the PICCI, taking note that she was to complete the PICCI as it ap-plied to her husband’s involvement with their child. At the same time, a trainedtester, blind to the level of paternal involvement and behaviors problems of thechild, administered the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Ac-ceptance for Young Children (PCSA; Harter & Pike, 1983a, 1983b, 1984) to thechild. All measures were completed in a 45–60 minute session.

Measures

Paternal Involvement and Child Care Index (PICCI)

The PICCI was used as the measure of the amount of paternal involvementin the family’s parenting of the child. The PICCI assesses the levels of pater-nal involvement in five areas: general involvement, child care responsibilities,socialization responsibilities, influence in child rearing decisions, and availability.The instrument contains 23 items, several of which are scored on a Likert-typescale, while also asking parents to determine their percentage of child care respon-sibility. Two total scores of father involvement, namely Father’s Total Score andMother’s Total Score, are calculated based on standard procedures developed byRadin. The possible range for Father’s Total Score and Mother’s Total Score is5–72. Higher scores indicate more father involvement (see Table 1).

Child Behavior Checklist/4–16 (CBCL)

The CBCL/4–16 is a widely used and well-standardized parenting rating scalefor child behavior problems. The CBCL consists of 112 three-point Likert scalequestions and one open-ended question that ask the parent to describe variousbehavioral or emotional problems of the child. Parents indicate the degree orfrequency of occurrence of 112 behaviors on a scale of 0 to 2. The instrument allows

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for summarizing the scores into Internalizing and Externalizing behavior problems.Internalizing behavior problems include the withdrawn, somatic complaints, andanxious/depressed behaviors, while externalizing behavior problems include thedelinquent and aggressive behavior behaviors. Higher scores for both categoriesindicate more behavior problems.

The Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance (PCSA)

The PCSA assesses young children’s perceived self-competence along thedimensions of perceived competence and social acceptance. The conceptual frame-work of this measure maintains that self-concept is central to the adaptive function-ing and well-being of the individual and should be measured as a multidimensionalconstruct (Harter, 1988). For this reason, Harter breaks down the two domains ofgeneral competence and social acceptance into four subscales. General competenceis characterized by cognitive competence and physical competence; social accep-tance is divided into peer acceptance and maternal acceptance subscales. Since thefocus of this study is paternal involvement, the paternal acceptance subscale wasused instead of the maternal acceptance subscale.

The PCSA consists of six dichotomized descriptions of children performingtasks or conducting relationships along each of the four subscales. Participantsare read the description and then are asked to say which and how much of eachdichotomy they associate with themselves. The totals of the responses on eachof the four subscales create the participants’ profile of perceived self-competenceand social acceptance. The range of possible scores for each subscale is 1 to 4,with higher scores indicating more feelings of competence or more feelings ofacceptance.

RESULTS

Descriptive statistics were calculated for the eleven variables of interest. Inaddition, three hypotheses related to father’s role in young children’s perceivedself-competence and social acceptance and young children’s internalizing andexternalizing behaviors were tested.

Descriptive Statistics

On the PICCI, fathers perceived themselves to be more involved than mothersperceived them to be involved (M = 40.4,SD= 6.13; M = 37.5,SD= 7.6, respec-tively). On the CBCL, fathers identified fewer internalizing behaviors among theirchildren (M = 3.7, SD= 3.5) than externalizing behaviors (M = 9.0, SD= 6.2).

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Mothers did the same in their ratings of internalizing and externalizing behaviors(M = 5.4, SD= 4.1; M = 9.7, SD= 7.3, respectively). Overall, mothers tendedto identify more behavior problems than fathers identified, especially internaliz-ing behaviors. However, all CBCL scores were very close to the CBCL’s normscores for 4–11 year-olds. On the PCSA with a possible range of scores from1 to 4, the children in this study reported high levels of cognitive competence(M = 3.6, SD= 0.4), physical competence (M = 3.7, SD= 0.4), and peer accep-tance (M = 3.2, SD= 0.4). They reported a medium level of paternal acceptance(M = 2.9, SD= 0.6).

Do Children Whose Fathers Are More Involved With Their ChildrenHave Mothers Who Report Fewer Behavioral Problems Than Children

Whose Fathers Are Less Involved?

Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated for fathers’ PICCI scoresand mothers’ PICCI scores on father involvement, the mother and father com-bined PICCI scores on father involvement, and the mothers’ CBCL ratings ofboth internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. As expected, a signifi-cant negative correlation was found between mothers’ PICCI scores and mothers’CBCL ratings of externalizing behaviors (r =−.53, p< .01). That is, as mothers’perceptions of paternal involvement increased, mothers’ perceptions of child exter-nalizing behavior problems decreased. Likewise, the combined PICCI scores weresignificantly related to mothers’ CBCL externalizing behavior ratings (r =−.41,p< .05). Contrary to predictions, mothers’ ratings of internalizing behavior prob-lems were found to be significantly and positively related to fathers’ PICCI scoresand combined total PICCI scores (r = .36, p< .05;r = .42, p< .05, respectively).That is, as mothers’ perceptions of paternal involvement increased, mothers’ per-ceptions of child internalizing behavior problems increased. No other significantcorrelations were found among these variables, although all PICCI scores didfollow the same pattern of being positively related to mothers’ ratings of internal-izing behaviors, and being negatively related to mothers’ ratings of externalizingbehaviors (see Table 1).

Table 1. Correlations Among CBCL Ratings and PICCI Scores

Father’s CBCL Ratings Mother’s CBCL Ratings

Internalizing Externalizing Internalizing Externalizing

Father PICCI 0.25 −0.16 0.36* −0.15Mother PICCI 0.04 −0.50∗∗ 0.02 −0.53Combined PCCI 0.15 −0.40∗ 0.20 −0.41∗

∗ p< .05; ∗∗ p< .01.

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Table 2. Correlations Among PCSA Scores and PICCI Scores

PCSA Subscales

Cognitive Physical Peer PaternalCompetence Competence Acceptance Acceptance

Father PICCI 0.16 0.05 −0.14 0.61∗∗Mother PICCI −0.09 −0.18 −0.09 0.71∗∗∗Combined PICCI 0.03 −0.09 −0.13 0.68∗∗

∗∗ p< .01; ∗∗∗ p< .001.

Do Children Whose Fathers Are More Involved Have Fathers WhoReport More Behavioral Problems Than Children Whose Fathers

Are Less Involved?

Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated for fathers’ PICCI scoresand mothers’ PICCI scores on father involvement, the mother and father com-bined PICCI scores, and fathers’ CBCL ratings of internalizing and externalizingbehavior problems. Contrary to predictions, significant negative correlations werefound between mothers’ PICCI scores and between combined PICCI scores andfathers’ CBCL ratings of externalizing behaviors (r =−.50, p< .01; r =−.40,p< .05, respectively). Likewise, fathers’ PICCI scores were negatively relatedto externalizing behavior ratings, although they were not significant. No PICCIscores were significantly related to fathers’ ratings of internalizing behavior, al-though they were related in the expected, positive direction (see Table 2).

Do Children of Fathers Who Are More Involved Report Stronger Feelings ofSelf-Competence and Social Acceptance Than Children of Fathers

Who Are Less Involved?

Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated for fathers’, mothers’, andcombined total PICCI scores of father involvement, and children’s reports of cogni-tive competence, physical competence, peer acceptance, and paternal acceptance.As expected, a significant positive correlation was found between the children’sreports of paternal acceptance and the mothers’ PICCI scores (r = .71, p< .001).A significant positive correlation was also found between children’s reports ofpaternal acceptance and the combined PICCI scores (r = .61, p< .001). Fathersscores followed the same pattern, although the findings were not significant. Noother significant correlations were found among the PICCI scores and the sub-scales of cognitive competence, physical competence, and peer acceptance (seeTable 2).

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DISCUSSION

We investigated the relationships among father involvement in dual-careerintact families, children’s perceived self-competence and social acceptance andmothers’ and fathers’ perceptions of their children’s internalizing and externalizingbehaviors. Three hypotheses were generated based on reviewed literature. Ourresults indicated at least partial support for all three of the hypotheses.

Several limitations of the study should be noted. Most importantly, the smallsample size of this study (25 children and their mothers and fathers). The smallsample size was due primarily to the limited number of families that met the criteriafor inclusion in the study, namely first-born kindergarten or first-grade childrenliving in intact, dual-career families. Such stringent criteria were necessary tocreate a balance for fathers’ versus mothers’ opportunities to be in direct contactwith the child, as well as to control for developmental differences that accompanywide child age ranges. However, changes in American families, such as increasesin single parent and blended families, have greatly diminished the number of“traditional” families.

Other characteristics of this sample limit the scope of this study as well. Theparticipants are predominantly Caucasian, middle-class, college-educated profes-sionals. However, these characteristics are typical of studies examining father in-volvement. Only two of the participants are of another ethnicity (Native American),and none of the families’ income is less than $24,000 per year. Furthermore, thecouples in this study tended to work many hours every week (fathers’ mean was47.0 hours; mothers’ mean was 40.2). Not only does this high amount of work limitthe type of dual-career family being studied, but also suggests why it is difficult torecruit dual-career families to participate in a research study.

However, despite these limitations, several significant findings were reported.In reference to the hypothesis regarding more father involvement being associatedwith mothers’ fewer reports of behavior problems, some evidence is supported.Results indicate that mothers’ and fathers’ perceptions of father involvement wasnegatively related to mothers’ reports of externalizing behavior problems. In otherwords, as parents perceived more father involvement in childcare, mothers reportedfewer externalizing behaviors (e.g., aggressive and delinquency behaviors) of theirchildren. These findings support McMahon’s (1984) finding that mothers with lessinvolved husbands tend to report more externalizing problem behaviors. However,significant findings for mothers’ ratings of child’s internalizing behaviors are pos-itively associated with perceptions of father involvement.

Results of the second hypothesis regarding more father involvement beingassociated with fathers’ reports of more behavior problems were in the expecteddirection. Findings indicated that perceptions of more father involvement are asso-ciated with fewer father reports of externalizing behavior problems. These resultsdo not corroborate Greenberger and O’Neil’s (1992) finding that fathers report

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more behavior problems when mothers work full-time. However, more involvedfathers did report more internalizing behavior problems, as was expected, althoughthese findings were not significant. Interestingly, mothers and fathers followed thesame patterns of rating behaviors, that is more father involvement was associ-ated with fewer externalizing behavior problems, but more internalizing behaviorproblems.

The third hypothesis regarding more father involvement being associatedwith children’s perceptions of self-competence and social acceptance offers no-table insights. Mothers’, fathers’ and combined mothers’ and fathers’ perceptionsof father involvement were positively related to children’s feelings of paternal ac-ceptance. Mothers’, fathers’ and combined mothers’ and fathers’ perceptions offather involvement were not significantly related to cognitive competence, physicalcompetence, or peer acceptance. One possible explanation for this lack of supportmay be the relative advantages of education, wealth, and intactness of these fami-lies. Although more father involvement has previously been found to be associatedwith academic achievement and positive peer relations (Williams & Radin, 1993),perhaps the more distinct factor is thequality of the father-child relationship, afactor that was not directly tested in the current study. A valuable addition to thecurrent research project would have been to use the maternal acceptance subscaleas well, in order to establish a comparison between children’s feelings of paternalacceptance and levels of paternal involvement and maternal acceptance and levelsof paternal involvement.

We examined the role of father involvement in the social-emotional develop-ment of children. Hand-in-hand with this issue is how father involvement affectsthe whole family, including the mother’s relationship with both father and child. Indual-career families, in which time is a limited, but precious commodity, everyonemust work together to find a balance among roles and still provide for the grow-ing needs of the child. Our results suggested some of the benefits of finding sucha balance. Mothers in families in which father involvement is high may have amore positive outlook regarding their child’s behavior, an outlook, which bene-fits mother, child, and their relationship. Fathers who are highly involved may bemore likely to notice the more subtle behavior problems that affect their children.This awareness does not necessarily mean that the children are actually display-ing worse behavior, but maybe fathers know their children and their needs better,a situation that benefits the father, child, and their relationship. Finally, high fa-ther involvement may increase children’s feelings of paternal acceptance, a factorwhich plays a role in the development of self-concept and esteem.

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