relationship between hedonic hunger and health interest on...

Research ArticleRelationship between Hedonic Hunger and Health Interest onHabit and Sodium Intake Patterns in Food Consumption

Imam Santoso 12 SusinggihWijana3 Afita Ismawati1 andWenny Bekti Sunarharum4

1Agroindustrial Management Laboratory Faculty of Agricultural Technology Universitas Brawijaya Malang Indonesia2Creative Agroindustry Research group Universitas Brawijaya Malang Indonesia3Agro-chemistry Technology Laboratory Faculty of Agricultural Technology Universitas Brawijaya Malang Indonesia4Sensory and Applied Food Science Research Group Faculty of Agricultural Technology Universitas Brawijaya Malang Indonesia

Correspondence should be addressed to Imam Santoso imamsantosoubacid

Received 4 March 2019 Accepted 3 July 2019 Published 22 July 2019

Academic Editor Salam A Ibrahim

Copyright copy 2019 Imam Santoso et al This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution Licensewhich permits unrestricted use distribution and reproduction in any medium provided the original work is properly cited

Many people are motivated to eat healthily but find it difficult to override established and less healthy habits Habits by theirnature are unconscious and cued by the environment thus making them powerful determinants of behavior This study examinedhow hedonic hunger and health interest are related to habit and whether sodium consumption is mediated by hedonic hungerhealth interest and habit A total of 117 students of Universitas Brawijaya took part in the study Data analysis were done usingPartial Least Square (PLS) and a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire (SQ-FFQ) PLS was used to analyze the influenceof the relationship between independent and dependent variables SQ-FFQ was used to determine sodium intake in gramsdayThe average sodium intake in this study was 247 gramsday This analysis shows that hedonic hunger and health interest had asignificant impact on health habits but not on sodium intake

1 Introduction

Consumers often mention that health considerations are oneof themotivations for choosing particular foods [1] Adequatenutrition intake is an important aspect of leading a healthy life[2] The importance of health is important to some peoplewhen choosing which food to consume [3] Misguided dietor inappropriate food selection can be factors in developingvarious diseases such as high blood pressure (hypertension)Research shows that people who are very motivated to meettheir health goals form healthy eating habits and do not haveto struggle against unwanted desires [4]

Based on [5] every year 94 million people risk deathfrom heart disease and stroke because of high blood pressureIf these two diseases are combined they are the numberone cause of death in the world Hypertension also increasesthe risk of kidney failure blindness and other diseases andoften coincides with other health risk factors such as obe-sity diabetes high cholesterol Interestingly WHO reportedthat high-income countries had lower rates of hypertensioncompared to low to middle-income countries Based on

Indonesianrsquos Ministry of Health data in 2013 258 of itspopulation suffered from hypertension In Indonesia therehas been a shift in eating patterns to the consumption of fastfood and preserved foods This type of consumption patternhas developed very quickly especially in major cities It isknown that fast food and preserved food contain high saltsaturated fats also low in fat that can cause hypertension

One of the high risk factors in developing hypertensionis increased salt intake [6] Salt is a source of sodium [7]Sodium is not only found in table salt but also foundnaturally in most foods including milk cream eggs meatand clams High quantities of sodium are also found inprocessed foods such as bread crackers processed meatssuch as bacon sausages and ham snacks such as pop-corn and spices such as soy sauce fish sauce and broth[8] According to [9] people are often unaware of theamount of salt they consume Uncontrolled sodium intakeis caused by casual dietary consumption patterns such ashabit hedonic hunger and health interest Decreasing sodiumintake is proven to significantly reduce blood pressure inadults

HindawiInternational Journal of Food ScienceVolume 2019 Article ID 9517140 7 pageshttpsdoiorg10115520199517140

2 International Journal of Food Science

Habit can be defined as a psychological tendency to repeatpast behavior [10] Habits are certain behaviors that a persondoes repeatedly in a fixed situation to pursue his or her goals[11] Although habit formation allows individuals to performhis or her daily routines in a very efficient way habits alsohave negative consequences Several studies have shown thatpeople find it difficult to eliminate unwanted habits one ofthem is the habit of eating everyday foods [12ndash14] Habitplays an important role in maintaining the appropriate levelof nutrition in individuals of all ages [15]

The habit of consuming salty food results in high level ofsodium in the body That habit can be minimized by dietingto control the daily food intake Diet is considered as one ofthe most important determinants in controlling heart diseaseand risk factors as associated with hypertension and obesityEvidence-based data shows that an effective diet regime isimportant in the relationship between health and illness [16]The habit of choosing healthy foods also protects individualsagainst the desire to eat large amounts of food or unhealthyfoods [4]

Hedonic hunger is defined as the driver for people toconsume food when they are not really hungry for exampleconsuming a dessert due to its pleasurable experience [17]The hedonic driver from todayrsquos environment provides a wideselection of very cheap tasty food [18] As a result hedonichunger can be a stimulus for food consumption contradictingto a persons desire for a healthy diet [19] Hedonist behavioralso causes the consumer to make too many dietary mistakeswhen choosing food because of their inability to control theirfood intake [20]

Unhealthy eating behavior is also determined by thehealth interest of the consumer Diet has been shown tobe associated with various diseases such as obesity heartdisease cancer type 2 diabetes The main dietary concernsinclude over consumption of saturated and trans fats and lowconsumption of vegetables fruits and grains Todays food isvery varied in taste and price It is easy for consumers tochoose a healthy diet especially as there is growing evidencethat the easy availability of healthy foods has an impor-tant influence on food choice [21] However only health-conscious individuals are concerned about the importanceof a healthy diet and change the diet accordingly to benefitfrom healthy products [22] The choice of a healthy diet isassociated with the health risks that people face and it isstrongly affected by the health behaviors adopted [23]

Based on the explanations described above this studyaims to determine the relationship between hedonic hungerand health interest against habit In addition this study alsoaims to determine the relationship between hedonic hungerhealth interest and sodium intake patterns

2 Method

21 Population and Sample Thebase population of this studyconsisted of the students from the Universitas BrawijayaThedata used is from 2014 collected from 135 sample studentsout of the 55000 students at the Universitas Brawijaya Thesampling method employed Slovin formula which has an

error margin of 10 thus at least 100 participants wereneeded 135 students were selected to participate in thisresearch The sampling technique was done randomly so allmembers of the parent population had equal opportunity tobe in the sample [24]

22 Measurement The questionnaire was prepared specifi-cally for this study and adjusted tomeasure sodiumconsump-tion habit hedonic hunger and health interests The itemfor each question was a modification of previous researchand was adapted to the purpose of this study which wasto determine the salt consumption of the participants Thehedonic hunger questionnaire was adapted from The Powerof Food Scale (PFS) PFS is a self-made measurement inassessing the extent to which appetizing foods affect onesthoughts and feelings when they are not physically hungry[25] The hedonic hunger questionnaire consisted of 10questions on three levels of food proximity the desire toeat something but not physically present for consumptionfood present but not eaten and food tasted but not consumed[12 25] Health interest was determined by using 5 questionsbased onGHI (GeneralHealth Interest) adapted fromFenkorsquos2015 research which concerned the content of healthy foodsuch as protein nutrients and minerals Habit was measuredby using 7 questions that represented two habits of behaviorrepetitive and automatic with regard to consuming salty foodThe complete question set is given in Table 1

The daily consumption pattern of sodium was measuredby using SQ-FFQ (Semi Quantitative Food Frequency Ques-tionnaire) which is a commonmethod applied for estimationof dietary intake based on long term food intake in large epi-demiological studies [26 27] Measurement of sodium intakewas adapted from salt intake questionnaire of [28] and dietarysodium intake of [29] that had been tested and validated Atotal of 34 items were used to measure daily sodium intakeTo calculate the sodium intake participants estimated howmany times a particular had been food consumed in thelast 3 months Food consumption was measured into fourcategories never daily weekly and monthly In the dailycategory respondents were asked to state how many times afood was consumed in a day similarly for weekly and dailyconsumption

23 Data Analysis The data analysis method employed inthis research was descriptive and inferential Descriptiveanalysis was used to explain the general description thatoccurred to the respondents The software used for descrip-tive analysis was SPSS 180 and NutriSurvey 2007 SPSSwas used to analyse the general descriptions given by therespondents NutriSurvey 2007 was used to determine thenutritional content of a food and determine sodium intake inthis study Inferential analysis was used to perform the con-ceptual test stated in the research hypothesis In accordancewith the hypothesis that had been formulated the methodused in this study was Partial Least Square (PLS) whichis an alternative approach that shifts the covariance-basedStructural Equation Modeling (SEM) approach to variance-based one SEMgenerally tests the causality while PLS ismorepredictive

International Journal of Food Science 3

Table 1 Variable and Research Item

Variable Item NotationHedonic hunger (X

1) I cannot resist eating delicious food when I see it X

11

I worry if my mind concentrates on food X12

I feel so excited right before I taste my favorite food X13

I really want to eat something when I hear people talkabout delicious food X

14

It is hard for me to resist eating certain food eventhough I know that it is unhealthy X

15

Sometimes when I do my daily activities I want to eatsomething that crosses my mind all of sudden X

16

I get more satisfaction when I eat X17

Before I eat my favorite food my mouth starts to bewatery X

18

When I eat a good food I am very focused on the tasteof the food X

19

It is important to me that the food I eat must bedelicious X

110

Health interest (X2)

I am very conscientious about the health aspects of thefood I eat X

21

I always adhere to health and dietary balance X22

It is important for me that my daily diet contains lots ofvitamins and minerals X

23

It is important for me that the food I eat contains lots ofnutrients X

24

It is important to me that the food I eat contains highprotein X

25

Habit (Y1)

I love salty food Y11

I love salty snacks Y12

When I eat and the food not salty I add more salt Y13

It is very difficult for me to avoid salty food Y14

Eating salty food is an act I do without thinking Y15

I eat salty food before I realize it Y16

I try consciously not to eat excessive salty food Y17

3 Results

31 Description of Respondentsrsquo Characteristics There were135 questionnaires distributed in this study However only 117questionnaires were considered valid The results of sodiumconsumption based on respondentsrsquo characteristics can beseen in Table 2 Table 2 shows the mean and standarddeviation of sodium consumption (gramday)

Based on Table 2 it can be seen that the average sodiumconsumed by men was 249 gramday while the averagesodium consumed by womenwas 246 gramdayThe averagesodium consumption consumed by respondents aged 16-20 year old was 2761 gramday while the average sodiumconsumed by respondents aged 21-25 year old was 237Based on the results of this study the consumption ofsodium of respondents at the age of 16-20 year old wasgreater than the respondents aged 21-25 year old Sodiumconsumption for respondents whose monthly expenses wereless than 1 million was 252 gramday As for the respondentswho spent 1-5 million the sodium consumption was 240

gramday The respondents in this study only consisted oftwo BMI categories underweight and normal weight Thesodium intake for normal weight was 255 gramday whilefor the underweight category was 224 gramday This studyindicated that sodium consumption of normal weight peoplewas higher than underweight people It was contrary to thefindings of [30] who showed that there was a significantrelationship between sodium increase and BMI increaseTheresults also revealed that the average sodium consumed perindividual was 248 gramday it was not in accordance withthe WHO recommendation which recommended a sodiumintake of less than 2 gramday or 5 gram of salt per day[31]

32 Results of Data Analysis Using Partial Least Square

321 Result of Measurement Model Evaluation Outerloadings convergent validity average variance extracted(AVE=discriminant validity) and composite reliability (CR)were used to test the reflective model measurement [32] The


Table 2 Description of Respondentsrsquo Characteristics

Respondents Characteristics Mean and Standard Deviation of SodiumConsumption (gramday)

GenderMale 249 (136)Female 246 (137)Age16-20 276 (164)21-25 237 (122)Monthly Expenses of Participantslt 1 million rupiah 252 (146)1-5 million rupiah 240 (117)Body Mass Index (BMI)Underweight (lt 185 kgm2) 224 (120)Normal Weight (185-2499 kgm2) 255 (140)

Table 3 Average Variance Extracted (AVE) Composite Reliability Cronbachrsquos Alpha

Construct Item Loading Average VarianceExtracted (AVE)

CompositeReliability Cronbachrsquos Alpha

Hedonic hunger (X1)

X16

094052 076 061X

17062

X19

0542


X21

077064 084 072X

22082

X23

081

Habit (Y1)

Y11

082

058 089 085

Y12

074Y13

060Y14

088Y15

087Y16

061Sodium (Y

2) Y

21000 1000 1000 1000

Table 4 R Squared Value

Variable R SquaredHabit (Y

1) 0102

Sodium (Y2) 0009

result of reflective measurement model evaluation can beseen in Table 3

Convergence validity test for reflective indicator usedloading value that was correlation value between item scoreand construct score The reflective indicator measurementindicated a change in an indicator in a construct if anotherindicator on the same construct changed (or was removedfrom themodel) In Table 3 it could be seen that the indicatorcontained in the table was a valid indicator representingthe construct that had a loading factor value gt 05 whileother indicators that did not exist in the table having a valueof loading factor lt05 had been removed from the model

Convergent validity was shown by the Average VarianceExtraction (AVE) value In Table 3 it was found that theAVE value for all variables was more than 05 it couldbe stated that all the variables and indicators of this studywere valid In the reliability test the results of the researchoutput showed that the value of composite reliability for allconstructs was above 07 it indicated that all constructs inthe estimated model met the criteria of discriminant validityso that it could be said to be reliable This reliability testwas reinforced by Cronbachrsquos Alpha value indicating thatall constructs were above 06 Thus all variables reinforcedthe latent variables or they were able to measure the latentvariables

322 Result of Structural Model Evaluation The evaluationof the structural model involved model capability testing andrelationship between constructs [32] The structural modelin the PLS was evaluated using R2 The R2 value was usedto determine the variation level of the independent variable


Table 5 Hypothesis Testing Result

Static Hypothesis Path Calculated t t Table NoteHedonic hunger (X

1)997888rarrHabit (Y

1) 0245 2052 198 Significant

Health interest (X2)997888rarrHabit (Y

1) -0197 2236 198 Significant

Hedonic hunger (X1)997888rarrSodium (Y

2) 0003 0024 198 Not Significant

Health interest (X2)997888rarrSodium (Y


Habit (X3)997888rarrSodium (Y


changes toward the dependent variable The R2 value can beseen in Table 4

Based on the result in Table 4 it could be seen thatthe R-square value of the habit variable was 010 It couldbe interpreted that the habit variable was affected by theindependent variables that were hedonic hunger and healthinterest was 102 while the rest was affected by anothervariable For habit variable the R-square value was 0009It could be interpreted that sodium variable was affected byhedonic hunger variable health interest and habit by 09while the rest was affected by another variable which did notexist in this research Based on R-square value the predictiverelevance value which could be used to know how the modelwas able to explain the information contained in the datacould also be calculated The calculation of the predictiverelevance could be done by using the following formula

Q2 = 1 minus (1 minus R1

2) (1 minus R2

2)

Q2 = 1 minus (1 minus 0102) (1 minus 0009)

Q2 = 1 minus (0898) (0991)

Q2 = 0911 = 911

(1)

The result of Q2 calculation indicated a value of 0911 Itmeant that themodel used in this study could explain the datainformation by 919 the value indicated that the model wassufficient to describe the research problems

323 Hypothesis Testing Hypothesis testing was done byusing a resampling bootstrap method Hypothesis testingwas performed by looking at the calculated t value if thecalculated t value gt198 at 5 significant level then it couldbe concluded that the hypothesis was significant The resultsof hypothesis testing can be seen in Table 5 and Figure 1

Table 5 gives the results of the calculated model coef-ficients it can be seen that hedonic hunger positively andsignificantly affect habit with coefficient value of 0245 andcalculated t value of 2052 which is greater than the calculatedt Health interest has a negative effect with the coefficient of -0197 and it was significant with the t value of 2236 Hedonichunger had no significant effect on sodium with coefficientvalue of 0003 and calculated t value of 0024 Health interesthad a positive effect but not significantly influencing sodiumwith coefficient value of 0053 and calculated t value of 0510Even though showing a positive effect habit has no significanteffect on sodium with coefficient value 0091 and calculated tvalue of 0894 Since the habit did not have a significant effect

on sodium habit was not included in themediation variablesThe mathematical model derived from the path diagram wasY1= 0245 X

1- 0197 X

2and Y

2= 0003 X

1+ 0053 X

2+

0091X3

4 Discussion

The result revealed that the average sodium consumptionof 117 students of Universitas Brawijaya was 249 gramday(Table 2) Sodium consumption at this level was above thelevel recommended by [31] which was less than 2 gramdayThe Ministry of Health also recommended consuming nomore than 23 gram of sodium per day High salt intake of thestudents was caused by their inability to control the source oftheir food

The results of hypothesis testing showed that hedonichunger and health interest had a significant effect on habitbut habit was inversely related to the interest of health Therespondents studied in this study were students and theirdietary habit tended to choose fast food This was consistentwith a research conducted by [14] who explained that peoplestill buy fast food even though their intentions are differentThis behavior is difficult to change due to the long-standinghabits College students also had higher education but it didnot have a positive impact on health interest toward habit[33] argued that education is an important socioeconomicfactor in determining the risk of poor food intake but anotherstudy conducted by [34] has shown that knowledge does notnecessarily make a person behave in a healthy manner

Hedonic hunger health interest habit did not have asignificant impact on sodium consumption Respondents hada tendency to eat because of desire and pleasure not becausethey wanted to meet the intake of nutrients in the bodyThis result supported the research conducted by [12] whichshowed that when hedonic hunger is pairedwith habit it doesnot affect daily salt intake that gives an appetizing effect onfood Hedonistic behavior also caused the consumer to maketoo many mistakes when choosing food due to their inabilityto control the nutrients intake in food consumed [20]

Research also showed that consumers are not willingto compromise on the taste for the sake of health [22]Consumers were still concerned with taste rather than healthin choosing various foods such as the selection of corn chips[35] and functional foods [36] It makes consumers ignorethe nutritional content and nutrients intake in the body [37]also described that health labels or logos such as ldquoreducingsaltrdquo or ldquohealthy choicesrdquo aim to facilitate healthy food choicesfor consumers making it a warning to consumers who worrymore about the taste of a product rather than health


0009

0102

Y13

Y16

Y12

Y15

Y14

Y11

Y2

X17

X16

X19

X23

X21

X22

0245

0053

0736

0606

0866

0601

08150879

1000

0812

05420942

0618Hedonic hunger

(X1)

Health interest(X2)

Natrium (Y2)

Habit (Y1) 00910003

-0197

07710820

Figure 1 Research Path Diagram

The habit of adding salt when cooking is a part of theculture of Indonesian society This habit does not controlsodium intake People develop the habit of eating foodbecause they repeatedly eat the same kind and amount of foodin the same way [4 38 39] [40] explained in his research thatdaily dietary consumption determines the healthy nature of adiet

It should be noted that this study was limited on the 117sample students within the University Therefore the resultswill only be applicable to the specific sample populationwhich is Universitas Brawijaya Further research might beexpanded with a larger sample size of University students

5 Conclusion

Based on the research results hedonic hunger and healthinterest have significant impact on habit but both have nosignificant influence on sodium intake However the effectof health interest was inversely related to health Fast foodeating habit and various choices of food with appetizingflavors could make consumers ignore the adverse effects offood on their health The respondents had a tendency toeat based on desire and pleasure rather than fulfilling theirrequired nutritional intake and therefore salt intake was notwell controlled Habits of eating salty food may result inignorance on health and nutritional aspects

Data Availability

Herewith I declare that the quantitative data used to supportthe findings of this study are included within the article

Conflicts of Interest

Authors declare no conflicts of interest

References

[1] M Chen ldquoThe joint moderating effect of health consciousnessand healthy lifestyle on consumersrsquo willingness to use functionalfoods in Taiwanrdquo Appetite vol 57 no 1 pp 253ndash262 2011

[2] ldquoFittnesgov Why Is It Importantrdquo httpwwwfitnessgoveat-healthywhy-is-it-important 2011

[3] L Ruini R Ciati L Marchelli et al ldquoUsing an infographic toolto promote healthier and more sustainable food consumptionthe double pyramid model by barilla center for food andnutritionrdquo Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia vol 8pp 482ndash488 2016

[4] P Lin W Wood and J Monterosso ldquoHealthy eating habitsprotect against temptationsrdquo Appetite vol 103 pp 432ndash4402016

[5] WHO World Health Day 2013Measure Your Blood PressureReduce Your Risk 2013 httpwwwwhointmediacentrenewsreleases2013world health day 20130403en

[6] C Kastorini H J Milionis K Kalantzi et al ldquoThe mediatingeffect of theMediterranean diet on the role of discretionary andhidden salt intake regarding non-fatal acute coronary syndromeor stroke events A casecase-control studyrdquo Atherosclerosis vol225 no 1 pp 187ndash193 2012

[7] H Muaris Yummy amp Healthy Low Salt Food One Dish Mealuntuk Sahur RendahGaram Gramedia PustakaUtama Grame-dia Pustaka Utama Jakarta 2009

[8] WHO ldquoHealthy Dietrdquo httpwwwwhointmediacentrefact-sheetsfs394en 2015


[9] WHO ldquoReducing sodium intake to reduce blood pressureand risk of cardiovascular diseasesrdquo httpwwwwhointelenatitlessodium cvd adultsen 2015

[10] D T Neal W Wood J S Labrecque and P Lally ldquoHow dohabits guide behavior Perceived and actual triggers of habitsin daily liferdquo Journal of Experimental Social Psychology vol 48no 2 pp 492ndash498 2012

[11] M A Adriaanse P M Gollwitzer D T D de Ridder J B F deWit and F M Kroese ldquoBreaking habits with implementationintentions a test of underlying processesrdquoPersonality and SocialPsychology Bulletin vol 37 no 4 pp 502ndash513 2011

[12] P Naughton M McCarthy and S McCarthy ldquoActing to self-regulate unhealthy eating habits an investigation into theeffects of habit hedonic hunger and self-regulation on sugarconsumption from confectionery foodsrdquo Food Quality andPreference vol 46 pp 173ndash183 2015

[13] G de Bruijn W Kroeze A Oenema and J Brug ldquoSaturated fatconsumption and the Theory of Planned Behaviour Exploringadditive and interactive effects of habit strengthrdquo Appetite vol51 no 2 pp 318ndash323 2008

[14] M F Ji and W Wood ldquoPurchase and consumption habits Notnecessarily what you intendrdquo Journal of Consumer Psychologyvol 17 no 4 pp 261ndash276 2007

[15] N Som S K Mishra and S Mukhopadhyay ldquoWeight concernsand food habits of adolescent girls in two contrasting ecologicalregions A comparative study in IndiardquoEating Behaviors vol 20pp 21ndash26 2016

[16] S A McNaughton ldquoUnderstanding the eating behaviors ofadolescents application of dietary patterns methodology tobehavioral nutrition researchrdquo Journal of the Academy of Nutri-tion and Dietetics vol 111 no 2 pp 226ndash229 2011

[17] M R Lowe and A S Levine ldquoEating motives and the con-troversy over dieting eating less than needed versus less thanwantedrdquo Obesity Research vol 13 no 5 pp 797ndash806 2005

[18] G Finlayson N King and J E Blundell ldquoLiking vs wantingfood Importance for human appetite control and weightregulationrdquo Neuroscience amp Biobehavioral Reviews vol 31 no7 pp 987ndash1002 2007

[19] M R Lowe and M L Butryn ldquoHedonic hunger A newdimension of appetiterdquo Physiology amp Behavior vol 91 no 4pp 432ndash439 2007

[20] A Hausman ldquoHedonistic rationality Healthy food consump-tion choice using muddling-throughrdquo Journal of BusinessResearch vol 65 no 6 pp 794ndash801 2012

[21] B Bustillos J R Sharkey J Anding and A McIntosh ldquoAvail-ability of More Healthful Food Alternatives in TraditionalConvenience and Nontraditional Types of Food Stores in TwoRural Texas Countiesrdquo Journal of the Academy of Nutrition andDietetics vol 109 no 5 pp 883ndash889 2009

[22] A Fenko B W Backhaus and J J van Hoof ldquoThe influenceof product- and person-related factors on consumer hedonicresponses to soy productsrdquo Food Quality and Preference vol 41pp 30ndash40 2015

[23] D A Cobb-Clark S C Kassenboehmer and S SchurerldquoHealthy habits The connection between diet exercise andlocus of controlrdquo Journal of Economic Behavior amp Organizationvol 98 pp 1ndash28 2014

[24] P D Leedy Practical Research McMilan New York NY USA2006

[25] M R Lowe M L Butryn E R Didie et al ldquoThe Power of FoodScale A newmeasure of the psychological influence of the foodenvironmentrdquo Appetite vol 53 no 1 pp 114ndash118 2009

[26] MDehghan S del Cerro X Zhang et al ldquoValidation of a Semi-Quantitative Food Frequency Questionnaire for ArgentineanAdultsrdquo PLoS ONE vol 7 no 5 article e37958 2012

[27] A Sunami K Sasaki Y Suzuki et al ldquoValidity of a Semi-Quantitative Food Frequency Questionnaire for CollegiateAthletesrdquo Journal of Epidemiology vol 26 no 6 pp 284ndash2912016

[28] K E Charlton K Steyn N S Levitt D Jonathan J V Zulu andJ H Nel ldquoDevelopment and validation of a short questionnaireto assess sodium intakerdquo Public Health Nutrition vol 11 no 1pp 83ndash94 2008

[29] P Pavadhgul S Sunthonwaraluk S Srisorachatr and P Tem-charoen ldquoDietary sodium intake by semi-quantitative foodfrequency questionnaire among undergraduate students ofMahidol Universityrdquo Journal of the Medical Association ofThailand vol 92 suppl 7 pp 75ndash82 2009

[30] S L Rodrigues P R Souza Junior E B Pimentel et alldquoRelationship between salt consumption measured by 24-hurine collection and blood pressure in the adult populationof Vitoria (Brazil)rdquo Brazilian Journal of Medical and BiologicalResearch vol 48 no 8 pp 728ndash735 2015

[31] WHO Sodium Intake for Adults and Children 2012httpwwwwhointentitynutritionpublicationsguidelinessodium intakeenindexhtml

[32] J F Hair G T M Hult C Ringle et al A Primer on PartialLeast Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLSndashSEM) SAGEPublications Thousand Oaks Calif USA 2013

[33] A M MacFarlane G R Abbott D A Crawford and K BallldquoSociodemographic and behavioural correlates of weight statusamong women with children living in socioeconomically dis-advantaged neighbourhoodsrdquo International Journal of Obesityvol 33 no 11 pp 1289ndash1298 2009

[34] L J Riddell B Ang R S Keast and W Hunter ldquoImpact ofliving arrangements and nationality on food habits and nutrientintakes in young adultsrdquo Appetite vol 56 no 3 pp 726ndash7312011

[35] B J Tepper and A C Trail ldquoTaste or health A study on con-sumer acceptance of corn chipsrdquo Food Quality and Preferencevol 9 no 4 pp 267ndash272 1998

[36] W Verbeke ldquoFunctional foods Consumer willingness to com-promise on taste for healthrdquo Food Quality and Preference vol17 no 1-2 pp 126ndash131 2006

[37] D Liem N Toraman Aydin and E Zandstra ldquoEffects of healthlabels on expected and actual taste perception of souprdquo FoodQuality and Preference vol 25 no 2 pp 192ndash197 2012

[38] I Santoso S A Mustaniroh and D Pranowo ldquoProduct famil-iarity and purchase intention of frozen food the role of productknowledge packaging and social environmentrdquo Jurnal IlmuKeluarga amp Konsumen vol 11 no 2 pp 133ndash144 2018

[39] I Santoso and R Fitriani ldquoGreen packaging green prod-uct green advertising consumers perception and purchasingintentionrdquo Jurnal Ilmu Keluarga amp Konsumen vol 9 no 2 pp147ndash158 2016

[40] K Keller S R Lopez M C Moreno et al ldquoAssociationsbetween food consumption habits with meal intake behavior inspanish adults appetiterdquo Appetite vol 83 pp 63ndash68 2014

Hindawiwwwhindawicom

International Journal of

Volume 2018

Zoology

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Anatomy Research International

PeptidesInternational Journal of



Journal of Parasitology Research

GenomicsInternational Journal of


Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2013Hindawiwwwhindawicom

The Scientific World Journal

Volume 2018


BioinformaticsAdvances in

Marine BiologyJournal of



Neuroscience Journal


BioMed Research International

Cell BiologyInternational Journal of



Biochemistry Research International

ArchaeaHindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018


Genetics Research International


Advances in

Virolog y Stem Cells International



Enzyme Research



MicrobiologyHindawiwwwhindawicom

Nucleic AcidsJournal of

Volume 2018

Submit your manuscripts atwwwhindawicom


Habit can be defined as a psychological tendency to repeatpast behavior [10] Habits are certain behaviors that a persondoes repeatedly in a fixed situation to pursue his or her goals[11] Although habit formation allows individuals to performhis or her daily routines in a very efficient way habits alsohave negative consequences Several studies have shown thatpeople find it difficult to eliminate unwanted habits one ofthem is the habit of eating everyday foods [12ndash14] Habitplays an important role in maintaining the appropriate levelof nutrition in individuals of all ages [15]

The habit of consuming salty food results in high level ofsodium in the body That habit can be minimized by dietingto control the daily food intake Diet is considered as one ofthe most important determinants in controlling heart diseaseand risk factors as associated with hypertension and obesityEvidence-based data shows that an effective diet regime isimportant in the relationship between health and illness [16]The habit of choosing healthy foods also protects individualsagainst the desire to eat large amounts of food or unhealthyfoods [4]

Hedonic hunger is defined as the driver for people toconsume food when they are not really hungry for exampleconsuming a dessert due to its pleasurable experience [17]The hedonic driver from todayrsquos environment provides a wideselection of very cheap tasty food [18] As a result hedonichunger can be a stimulus for food consumption contradictingto a persons desire for a healthy diet [19] Hedonist behavioralso causes the consumer to make too many dietary mistakeswhen choosing food because of their inability to control theirfood intake [20]

Unhealthy eating behavior is also determined by thehealth interest of the consumer Diet has been shown tobe associated with various diseases such as obesity heartdisease cancer type 2 diabetes The main dietary concernsinclude over consumption of saturated and trans fats and lowconsumption of vegetables fruits and grains Todays food isvery varied in taste and price It is easy for consumers tochoose a healthy diet especially as there is growing evidencethat the easy availability of healthy foods has an impor-tant influence on food choice [21] However only health-conscious individuals are concerned about the importanceof a healthy diet and change the diet accordingly to benefitfrom healthy products [22] The choice of a healthy diet isassociated with the health risks that people face and it isstrongly affected by the health behaviors adopted [23]

Based on the explanations described above this studyaims to determine the relationship between hedonic hungerand health interest against habit In addition this study alsoaims to determine the relationship between hedonic hungerhealth interest and sodium intake patterns

2 Method

21 Population and Sample Thebase population of this studyconsisted of the students from the Universitas BrawijayaThedata used is from 2014 collected from 135 sample studentsout of the 55000 students at the Universitas Brawijaya Thesampling method employed Slovin formula which has an

error margin of 10 thus at least 100 participants wereneeded 135 students were selected to participate in thisresearch The sampling technique was done randomly so allmembers of the parent population had equal opportunity tobe in the sample [24]

22 Measurement The questionnaire was prepared specifi-cally for this study and adjusted tomeasure sodiumconsump-tion habit hedonic hunger and health interests The itemfor each question was a modification of previous researchand was adapted to the purpose of this study which wasto determine the salt consumption of the participants Thehedonic hunger questionnaire was adapted from The Powerof Food Scale (PFS) PFS is a self-made measurement inassessing the extent to which appetizing foods affect onesthoughts and feelings when they are not physically hungry[25] The hedonic hunger questionnaire consisted of 10questions on three levels of food proximity the desire toeat something but not physically present for consumptionfood present but not eaten and food tasted but not consumed[12 25] Health interest was determined by using 5 questionsbased onGHI (GeneralHealth Interest) adapted fromFenkorsquos2015 research which concerned the content of healthy foodsuch as protein nutrients and minerals Habit was measuredby using 7 questions that represented two habits of behaviorrepetitive and automatic with regard to consuming salty foodThe complete question set is given in Table 1

The daily consumption pattern of sodium was measuredby using SQ-FFQ (Semi Quantitative Food Frequency Ques-tionnaire) which is a commonmethod applied for estimationof dietary intake based on long term food intake in large epi-demiological studies [26 27] Measurement of sodium intakewas adapted from salt intake questionnaire of [28] and dietarysodium intake of [29] that had been tested and validated Atotal of 34 items were used to measure daily sodium intakeTo calculate the sodium intake participants estimated howmany times a particular had been food consumed in thelast 3 months Food consumption was measured into fourcategories never daily weekly and monthly In the dailycategory respondents were asked to state how many times afood was consumed in a day similarly for weekly and dailyconsumption

23 Data Analysis The data analysis method employed inthis research was descriptive and inferential Descriptiveanalysis was used to explain the general description thatoccurred to the respondents The software used for descrip-tive analysis was SPSS 180 and NutriSurvey 2007 SPSSwas used to analyse the general descriptions given by therespondents NutriSurvey 2007 was used to determine thenutritional content of a food and determine sodium intake inthis study Inferential analysis was used to perform the con-ceptual test stated in the research hypothesis In accordancewith the hypothesis that had been formulated the methodused in this study was Partial Least Square (PLS) whichis an alternative approach that shifts the covariance-basedStructural Equation Modeling (SEM) approach to variance-based one SEMgenerally tests the causality while PLS ismorepredictive





11




14


15


16



18


19


110



21



23


24


25

Habit (Y1)








3 Results













Hedonic hunger (X1)

X16

094052 076 061X

17062

X19

0542


X21

077064 084 072X

22082

X23

081

Habit (Y1)

Y11

082

058 089 085

Y12

074Y13

060Y14

088Y15

087Y16

061Sodium (Y

2) Y

21000 1000 1000 1000



1) 0102

Sodium (Y2) 0009









1) 0245 2052 198 Significant


1) -0197 2236 198 Significant










2) (1 minus R2

2)


Q2 = 1 minus (0898) (0991)

Q2 = 0911 = 911

(1)





1- 0197 X

2and Y

2= 0003 X

1+ 0053 X

2+

0091X3

4 Discussion






0009

0102

Y13

Y16

Y12

Y15

Y14

Y11

Y2

X17

X16

X19

X23

X21

X22

0245

0053

0736

0606

0866

0601

08150879

1000

0812

05420942

0618Hedonic hunger

(X1)

Health interest(X2)

Natrium (Y2)

Habit (Y1) 00910003

-0197

07710820




5 Conclusion


Data Availability




References












































Volume 2018

Zoology











Volume 2018

















Advances in




Enzyme Research





Volume 2018






11




14


15


16



18


19


110



21



23


24


25

Habit (Y1)








3 Results













Hedonic hunger (X1)

X16

094052 076 061X

17062

X19

0542


X21

077064 084 072X

22082

X23

081

Habit (Y1)

Y11

082

058 089 085

Y12

074Y13

060Y14

088Y15

087Y16

061Sodium (Y

2) Y

21000 1000 1000 1000



1) 0102

Sodium (Y2) 0009









1) 0245 2052 198 Significant


1) -0197 2236 198 Significant










2) (1 minus R2

2)


Q2 = 1 minus (0898) (0991)

Q2 = 0911 = 911

(1)





1- 0197 X

2and Y

2= 0003 X

1+ 0053 X

2+

0091X3

4 Discussion






0009

0102

Y13

Y16

Y12

Y15

Y14

Y11

Y2

X17

X16

X19

X23

X21

X22

0245

0053

0736

0606

0866

0601

08150879

1000

0812

05420942

0618Hedonic hunger

(X1)

Health interest(X2)

Natrium (Y2)

Habit (Y1) 00910003

-0197

07710820




5 Conclusion


Data Availability




References












































Volume 2018

Zoology











Volume 2018

















Advances in




Enzyme Research





Volume 2018









Hedonic hunger (X1)

X16

094052 076 061X

17062

X19

0542


X21

077064 084 072X

22082

X23

081

Habit (Y1)

Y11

082

058 089 085

Y12

074Y13

060Y14

088Y15

087Y16

061Sodium (Y

2) Y

21000 1000 1000 1000



1) 0102

Sodium (Y2) 0009









1) 0245 2052 198 Significant


1) -0197 2236 198 Significant










2) (1 minus R2

2)


Q2 = 1 minus (0898) (0991)

Q2 = 0911 = 911

(1)





1- 0197 X

2and Y

2= 0003 X

1+ 0053 X

2+

0091X3

4 Discussion






0009

0102

Y13

Y16

Y12

Y15

Y14

Y11

Y2

X17

X16

X19

X23

X21

X22

0245

0053

0736

0606

0866

0601

08150879

1000

0812

05420942

0618Hedonic hunger

(X1)

Health interest(X2)

Natrium (Y2)

Habit (Y1) 00910003

-0197

07710820




5 Conclusion


Data Availability




References












































Volume 2018

Zoology











Volume 2018

















Advances in




Enzyme Research





Volume 2018






1) 0245 2052 198 Significant


1) -0197 2236 198 Significant










2) (1 minus R2

2)


Q2 = 1 minus (0898) (0991)

Q2 = 0911 = 911

(1)





1- 0197 X

2and Y

2= 0003 X

1+ 0053 X

2+

0091X3

4 Discussion






0009

0102

Y13

Y16

Y12

Y15

Y14

Y11

Y2

X17

X16

X19

X23

X21

X22

0245

0053

0736

0606

0866

0601

08150879

1000

0812

05420942

0618Hedonic hunger

(X1)

Health interest(X2)

Natrium (Y2)

Habit (Y1) 00910003

-0197

07710820




5 Conclusion


Data Availability




References












































Volume 2018

Zoology











Volume 2018

















Advances in




Enzyme Research





Volume 2018



0009

0102

Y13

Y16

Y12

Y15

Y14

Y11

Y2

X17

X16

X19

X23

X21

X22

0245

0053

0736

0606

0866

0601

08150879

1000

0812

05420942

0618Hedonic hunger

(X1)

Health interest(X2)

Natrium (Y2)

Habit (Y1) 00910003

-0197

07710820




5 Conclusion


Data Availability




References












































Volume 2018

Zoology











Volume 2018

















Advances in




Enzyme Research





Volume 2018





































Volume 2018

Zoology











Volume 2018

















Advances in




Enzyme Research





Volume 2018


relationship between hedonic hunger and health interest on...

Documents