reiser - a history of instructional design and technology - part i - a history of instructional...

8/10/2019 Reiser - A history of instructional design and technology - Part I - A history of instructional media.pdf

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5 4

ETR D,Vol. 49, No. 1

W h a t a r e t h e m a j o r f e a t u r e s o f t h i s d e f i n i -

t i o n ? I n m a n y w a y s i t i s s i m i l a r to t h e m o s t

r e c en t A s s o c i a ti o n f or E d u c a t i o n a l C o m m u n i c a -

t i o n a n d T e c h n o l o g y ( A E C T ) d e fi n i t i o n o f t h e

f i e l d ( S e e l s R i c h e y , 1 99 4) . L i k e t h e 1 99 4 A E C T

d e f i n i t i o n , th e d e f i n i t io n p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s a r t i c le

m e n t i o n s f iv e c a t e g o r i e s o f a c ti v i t ie s o r p r a c -

t i c e s : ( a ) design, Co) development, (c) utilization o r

implementation, ( d ) management, a n d ( e ) evalua-

tion, o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e f ie ld ; a n d a d d s a

s i x t h c a t e g o r y , ( f ) analysis. M o r e o v e r , l i k e t h e

1 9 9 4 d e f i n i t i o n , t h e c u r r e n t d e f i n i t i o n r e l a t e s

t h o s e a c t i v i t i e s o r p r a c t i c e s t o processes and

resources o r learning. In

a d d i t i o n , t h e c u r r e n t d e f -

i n i t i o n i n d i c a t e s t h a t research and theory, a s w e l l

a s p r a c t ic e , p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n t h e f i e ld .

I n s e v e r a l r e s p e ct s , h o w e v e r , t h e c u r r e n t d e f -

i n i t i o n g o e s b e y o n d t h e 1 9 9 4 A E C T d e f i n i t i o n .

F o r e x a m p l e , t h e c u r r e n t d e f i n i t io n m a k e s s p e -

c i fi c r e f e r e n c e t o s o m e o f t h e performance technol-

o g y c o n c e p t s t h a t h a v e r e c e n t l y e x p a n d e d t h e

n a t u r e o f t h e f i e l d ( e . g . , analyzing performance

problems in the workplace a n d e m p l o y i n g nonin-

structional solutions, a s w e l l a s i n s t r u c t i o n a l s o l u -

t i o n s , t o s o l v e t h o s e p r o b l e m s ) . M o r e o v e r , t h e

c u r r e n t d e f i n i t i o n h i g h l i g h t s t w o p r a c t i c e s th a t

h a v e , o v e r t h e y e a r s , f o r m e d t h e c o r e o f t h e f i e ld .

T h e s e t w o p r a c t i c e s a r e (a ) the use of med ia for

instructional purposes a n d b ) the use of systematic

instructional de sig n procedures ( o f t e n s i m p l y

c a l l e d instructional design). A l t h o u g h m a n y h a v e

a r g u e d a b o u t t h e v a l u e o f e m p l o y i n g t h e s e p r ac -

t i ce s , t h e y r e m a i n a s t h e k e y d e f i n i n g e l e m e n t s

o f t h e f i e l d o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l d e s i g n a n d t e c h n o l -

o g y . I n d i v i d u a l s i n v o l v e d i n t h e f i el d a r e t h o s e

w h o s p e n d a s ig n i f i c a n t p o r t i o n o f t h e i r ti m e

w o r k i n g w i t h m e d i a , o r w i t h t a s k s a s s o c i a t e d

w i t h s y s t e m a t i c i n s tr u c t io n a l d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e s ,

o r w i t h b o t h .

W h y u s e t he t e rm

instructional design and tech-

nology, r a t h e r t h a n instructional technology, a s t h e

l a b e l f o r t h e f i e l d ? B e c au s e i n s p i t e o f t h e m a n y

e f f o rt s to c l e a r l y d e f i n e t h e b r o a d m e a n i n g o f t h e

l a t t e r t e r m ( R e i s er E l y , 1 9 97 ), m o s t i n d i v i d u a l s

o u t s i d e o f t h e p r o f e s s io n , a s w e l l a s m a n y i n s i d e

i t, w h e n a s k e d t o d e f in e t h e t e r m instructional

technology m e n t i o n c o m p u t e r s , v i d e o s , C D -

R O M s , o v e r h e a d a n d s l i d e p r o j e c t o rs , a n d o t h e r

t y p e s o f h a r d w a r e a n d s o f t w a r e t y p i c a l l y a s s o ci -

a t e d w i t h t h e t e r m instructional media. In o t h e r

w o r d s , m o s t i n d i v i d u a l s e q u a te t h e t e r m instruc-

tional technology w i t h t h e t e r m instructional media.

I n l i g h t o f t h i s f ac t , p e r h a p s i t i s t i m e t o r e c o n -

s i d e r t h e l a b e l w e u s e f o r t h e b r o a d f i e ld t h a t

e n c o m p a s s e s t h e a r e a s o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l m e d i a ,

i n s t r u c t i o n a l d e s i g n a n d p e r f o r m a n c e t e c h n o l -

o g y . W h i l e a n y o f a n u m b e r o f t e r m s c o m e t o

m i n d , I l i k e instructional design and technology

( I D T ) . T h i s t e r m , w h i c h h a s b e e n e m p l o y e d b y

o n e o f t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n o u r f i el d

( P r o fe s s o rs o f In s t r u c t i o n a l D e s i g n a n d T e c h n o l -

o g y ) , d i re c t l y re f e r s to t h e k e y c o n c e p t s m e n -

t i o n e d e a r l i e r - - in s t r u c t i o n a l d e s i g n a n d

i n s t r u c t i o n a l t e c h n o l o g y ( i . e . , i n s t r u c t i o n a l

m e d i a ) . M o r e o v e r , a s m y d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e h i s -

t o r y o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l d e s i g n w i l l i n d i c a t e , i n

r e c e n t y e a r s m a n y o f t h e c o n c e p t s a s s o c i a t e d

w i t h t h e p e r f o r m a n c e t e c h n o l o g y m o v e m e n t

h a v e b e e n r e g u l a r ly e m p l o y e d b y t h o se i n d i v i d u -

a l s w h o c a l l t h e m s e l v e s i n s t r u c t i o n a l d e s i g n e r s .

A s s t a t e d e a r l i e r , t h i s h i s t o r y o f t h e f i e l d w i l l

a p p e a r i n t w o a r t i c l e s i n s u c c e e d i n g i s s u e s o f

t h i s j o u r n a l . T h i s a r t i c l e f o c u s e s o n t h e h i s t o r y o f

i n s t r u c t i o n a l m e d i a , a n d t h e s e c o n d a r t ic l e w i l l

f o c u s o n t h e h i s t o r y o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l d e s i g n . T h i s

i s a n a t u r a l s e p a r a t i o n b e c a u s e , f r o m a h i s t o r i c a l

p e r s p e c t i v e , m o s t o f t h e p r a c t i c e s r e l a t e d t o

i n s t ru c t i o n al m e d i a h a v e o c c u r re d i n d e p e n d e n t

o f d e v e l o p m e n t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n s t r u c t i o n a l

d e s i g n .

I t s h o u l d a l so b e n o t e d t h a t a l t h o u g h m a n y

i m p o r t a n t e v e n t s i n t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e I D T f i e l d

h a v e t a k e n p l a c e i n o t h e r c o u n t ri e s , t h e e m p h a -

s is i n t h is a r t i cl e a n d t h e o n e t h a t w i l l f o l l o w w i l l

b e o n e v e n t s t h a t h a v e t a k e n p l a c e i n t h e U n i t e d

S ta t e s .

H IS T O R Y O F I N S T R U C T I O N A L M E D I A

T h e t e r m instructional media h a s b e e n d e f i n e d a s

t h e p h y s i c a l m e a n s v i a w h i c h i n s t r u c t i o n i s p r e -

s e n t e d t o l e a r n e r s ( R e i s e r G a g n 6 , 1 9 83 ). U n d e r

t h i s d e f in i t i o n , e v e r y p h y s i c a l m e a n s o f in s t r u c -

t i o n a l d e l i v e r y , f r o m t h e l i v e i n s t r u c t o r t o t h e

t e x tb o o k to t h e c o m p u t e r a n d s o on , w o u l d b e

c l a s si f ie d a s a n i n s t r u c t io n a l m e d i u m . I t m a y b e

w i s e f o r p r a c t i ti o n e r s i n t h e f i e l d t o a d o p t t h i s

v i e w p o i n t ; h o w e v e r , i n m o s t d i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e

h i s t o r y o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l m e d i a , t h e t h r e e p r i m a r y


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HISTORYOF INSTRUCTIONALMEDIA

m e a n s o f in s t r u c t i o n p r i o r t o t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y

( a n d s ti ll t h e m o s t c o m m o n m e a n s t o d a y ) - - t h e

t e ac h e r, t h e c h a l k b o a r d , a n d t h e t e x t b o o k - - h a v e

b e e n c a t e g o r iz e d s e p a r a t e l y fr o m o t h e r m e d i a

( c f . C o m m i s s i o n o n I n s t r u c t i o n a l T e c h n o l o g y ,

1 9 70 ). I n o r d e r t o c l e a r l y d e s c r i b e t h e h i s t o r y o f

m e d i a , t h i s v i e w p o i n t w i l l b e e m p l o y e d i n th is

a r t i c l e . T h u s , ins truc t ional media w i l l b e d e f i n e d

a s t h e p h y s i c a l m e a n s , o t h e r t h a n t h e t e ac h e r,

c h a l k b o a r d , a n d t e x t b o o k , v i a w h i c h i n s t r u c t i o n

i s p r e s e n t e d t o le a r n e r s .

i n d i c a t i n g t h a t (a ) t e a c h e r s s h o u l d b e v i e w e d o n

a n e q u a l f o o ti n g w i th i n s t r u c ti o n a l m e d i a - - a s

j u s t o n e o f m a n y p o s s i b le m e a n s o f p r e s e n t i n g

i n s t r u c ti o n ; a n d ( b) t e a c h e r s s h o u l d n o t b e g i v e n

s o l e a u t h o r i t y f o r d e c i d i n g w h a t i n s t r u c t i o n a l

m e d i a w i l l b e e m p l o y e d i n cl a s sr o o m s . H o w -

e v e r , i n t h e b r o a d e d u c a t i o n a l c o m m u n i t y , t h e s e

v i e w p o i n t s h a v e n o t p r e v a i l e d .

The Visual Instruction M ovem en t and

Instructional ilms

School Museums

I n t h e U n i t e d S t a te s , t h e u s e o f m e d i a f o r i n s tr u c -

t i o n a l p u r p o s e s h a s b e e n t r a c e d b a c k t o a t l e a st

a s e a r l y a s t h e f i rs t d e c a d e o f t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y

( S a e t t l e r , 1 9 9 0 ) . I t w a s a t t h a t t i m e t h a t s c h o o l

m u s e u m s c a m e i n t o e x i s te n c e . A s S a e t t l e r (1 96 8)

h a s in d i c a t e d , t h e s e m u s e u m s s e r v e d as t h e

c e n t r a l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e u n i t( s ) f o r v i s u a l i n s t ru c -

t i o n b y ( th e ir ) d i s t r ib u t i o n o f p o r t a b l e m u s e u m

e x h i b i t s , s t e r e o g r a p h s ( t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l p h o -

t o g r a p h s ) , s l i d e s, fi lm s , s t u d y p r i n t s , c h a r t s , a n d

o t h e r i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s ( p . 8 9 ). T h e f ir s t

s c h o o l m u s e u m w a s o p e n e d i n St . L o u i s i n 1 90 5,

a n d s h o r t l y t h e re a f t e r, sc h o o l m u s e u m s w e r e

o p e n e d i n R e a d i n g , P A , a n d C l e v e l a n d , O H .

A l t h o u g h f e w s u c h m u s e u m s h a v e b e e n es ta b -

l i s h e d s i n c e t h e e a r l y 1 9 0 0 s , t h e d i s t r i c t - w i d e

m e d i a c e n te r m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d a m o d e r n - d a y

e q u i v a l e n t .

S a e t t l e r (1 9 90 ) h a s a l s o s t a t e d t h a t t h e m a t e r i -

a l s h o u s e d i n s c h o o l m u s e u m s w e r e v i e w e d a s

s u p p l e m e n t a r y c u r r i c u l u m m a t e r ia l s . T h e y w e r e

n o t i n t e n d e d t o s u p p l a n t t h e t e a c h e r o r t h e te x t-

b o o k . T h r o u g h o u t t h e p a s t 1 00 y e a r s , t h i s e a r l y

v i e w o f t h e r o l e o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l m e d i a h a s

r e m a i n e d p r e v a l e n t i n t h e e d u c a t i o n a l co m m u -

n i t y a t l a r g e . T h a t i s , d u r i n g t h i s t i m e p e r i o d

m o s t e d u c a t o r s h a v e v i e w e d i n s t r u ct i o n a l m e d i a

a s s u p p l e m e n t a r y m e a n s o f p r e s e n t in g i n s t ru c -

t i on . I n c o n t r a s t , t ea c h e r s a n d t e x t b o o k s a r e g e n -

e r a l ly v i e w e d a s t h e p r i m a r y m e a n s o f

p r e s e n t i n g i n s t r u c t i o n , a n d t e a c h e rs a r e u s u a l l y

g i v e n t h e a u t h o r i t y t o d e c i d e w h a t o t h e r i n s t r u c -

t i o n a l m e d i a t h e y w i l l e m p l o y . O v e r t h e y e a r s , a

n u m b e r o f p r o f e s s i o n a l s i n t h e I D T f i e l d ( e.g .,

H e i n i c h , 1 97 0) h a v e a r g u e d a g a i n s t t h i s n o t i o n ,

A s S a e t t l e r (1 99 0) h a s i n d i c a t e d , i n t h e e a r l y p a r t

o f t h e 2 0 th c e n t u r y , m o s t o f t h e m e d i a h o u s e d i n

s c h o o l m u s e u m s w e r e v i s u a l m e d ia , s u c h a s

f i lm s , sl i d e s, a n d p h o t o g r a p h s . T h u s , a t t h e t i m e ,

t h e i n c r e a s i n g i n t e r e s t i n u s i n g m e d i a i n t h e

s c h o o l w a s r e f e r re d t o a s t h e v i s u a l in s t r u c t i o n

o r v i s u a l e d u c a t i o n m o v e m e n t . T h e l a t t e r t e r m

w a s u s e d a t l e a s t a s f a r b a c k a s 1 90 8, w h e n t h e

K e y s t on e V ie w C o m p a n y p u b l i s h e d V i s u a l E d u -

cat ion a t e a c h e r ' s g u i d e t o l a n t e r n s l i d e s a n d s t e -

r e o g r a p h s .

B e s i d e s m a g i c l a n t e r n s ( l a n t e r n s l i d e p r o j e c -

t o r s ) a n d s t e r e o p t i c o n s ( s t e r e o g r a p h v i e w e r s ) ,

w h i c h w e r e u s e d i n s o m e s c h o o ls d u r i n g t h e s ec -

o n d h a l f o f t h e 1 9 th c e n t u r y ( A n d e r s o n , 1 9 6 2) ,

t h e m o t i o n p i c t u r e p r o j e c t o r w a s o n e o f t h e f ir s t

m e d i a d e v i c e s u s e d i n s c h o o l s . I n t h e U n i t e d

S t a t e s , t h e f i r s t c a t a l o g o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l f i l m s w a s

p u b l i s h e d i n 1 91 0. L a t e r t h a t y e a r , t h e p u b l i c

s c h o o l s y s t e m o f R o c h e st e r , N Y , b e c a m e t h e f i r s t

t o a d o p t f i l m s f o r r e g u l a r i n s t r u c t i o n a l u s e . I n

1 91 3, T h o m a s E d i s o n p r o c l a i m e d : B o o k s w i l l

s o o n b e o b s o l e t e i n t h e sc h o o l s . . . . I t i s p o s s i b l e

t o t e ac h e v e r y b r a n c h o f h u m a n k n o w l e d g e w i t h

t h e m o t i o n p i c t u r e . O u r s c h o o l s y s t e m w i l l b e

c o m p l e t e l y c h a n g e d i n t h e n e x t t e n y e a r s ( c i te d

in S a e t t l e r , 1968 , p . 98 ) .

T e n y e a r s a f t e r E d i s o n m a d e h i s f o re c a s t, t h e

c h a n g e s h e h a d p r e d i c t e d h a d n o t c o m e a b o u t .

H o w e v e r , d u r i n g t h is d e c a d e ( 19 1 4 -1 9 23 ), t h e

v i s u a l in s t r u ct i o n m o v e m e n t d i d g r o w . F i v e

n a t i o n a l p r o f e s s i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s f o r v i s u a l

i n s t r u c t i o n w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d , f i v e j o u r n a l s f o c u s -

i n g o n v i s u a l i n s t r u c t i o n b e g a n p u b l i c a t i o n ,

m o r e t h a n 2 0 t e a c h e r - t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s b e g a n

o f f e r i n g c o u r s e s i n v i s u a l i n s t r u c t i o n , a n d a t

l e a s t a d o z e n l a r g e - c i t y s c h o o l s y s t e m s d e v e l -


4/12

5 6 ETR D , Vo l . 49 , NO. 1

o p e d b u r e a u s o f v i s u a l e d u c a t i o n ( Sa et tl er ,

1990).

T h e u d i o v i s u a l I n s tr u c ti o n M o v e m e n t

a n d I n s t r u c t i o n a l R a d i o

D u r i n g t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e 1 92 0s a n d t h r o u g h

m u c h o f t h e 1 9 3 0s , t e c h n o l o g i c a l a d v a n c e s i n

s u c h a r e a s a s r a d i o b r o a d c a s t i n g , s o u n d r e c o r d -

i n g s , a n d s o u n d m o t i o n p i c tu r e s l e d t o i n c r e a s e d

i n t e re s t i n i n s t r u c t io n a l m e d i a . W i t h t h e a d v e n t

o f m e d i a i n c o r p o r a t in g s o u n d , t h e e x p a n d i n g

v i s u a l i n s tr u c t io n m o v e m e n t b e c a m e k n o w n a s

t h e a u d i o v i s u a l i n s t r u c t i o n m o v e m e n t ( F i n n ,

1 9 72 ; M c C l u s k e y , 1 9 81 ). H o w e v e r , M c C l u s k e y ,

w h o w a s o n e o f th e l ea d e r s i n th e f i el d d u r i n g

t h i s p e r i o d , i n d i c a t e d t h a t w h i l e t h e f ie l d c o n t i n -

u e d t o g r o w , t h e e d u c a t i o n a l c o m m u n i t y a t

l a r g e w a s n o t g r e a t l y a f f ec t e d b y t h a t g r o w t h .

H e s t a t e d t h a t b y 1 9 3 0 , c o m m e r c i a l i n t e r e s t s i n

t h e v i s u a l i n s t r u c t i o n m o v e m e n t h a d i n v e s t e d

a n d l o s t m o r e t h a n $ 5 0 m i l li o n , o n l y p a r t o f

w h i c h w a s d u e t o t h e G r e a t D e p r e s s i o n , w h i c h

b e g a n i n 1 92 9.

I n s p i t e o f t h e a d v e r s e e c o n o m i c e f f e ct s o f th e

G r e a t D e p r e s s i o n , t h e a u d i o v i s u a l i n s t r u c t i o n

m o v e m e n t c o n t i n u e d t o e vo l ve . A c c o r d i n g to

S a e t t l e r ( 19 90 ), o n e o f t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t e v e n t s

i n th i s e v o l u t i o n w a s t h e m e r g i n g , i n 1 9 32 , o f t h e

t h r e e e x i s t i n g n a t i o n a l p r o f e s s i o n a l o r g a n i z a -

t i o n s f o r v i s u a l i n s t r u c t i o n . A s a r e s u l t o f th i s

m e r g e r , l e a d e rs h i p i n t h e m o v e m e n t w a s c o n so l -

i d a t e d w i t h i n o n e o r g a n i z a t i o n , t h e D e p a r t m e n t

o f V i s u a l I n s t r u c t i o n ( D V I ) , w h i c h a t t h a t t i m e

w a s p a r t o f t h e N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n A s s o c i a ti o n .

O v e r t h e y e a r s , th i s o r g a n i z a t i o n , w h i c h w a s c r e -

a t e d i n 1 92 3, a n d w h i c h i s n o w c a ll e d A E C T , h a s

m a i n t a i n e d a l e a d e r s h i p r o l e i n t h e f i e l d o f

i n s t r u c ti o n a l d e s i g n a n d t e c h n o l o g y .

D u r i n g t h e 1 9 2 0 s a n d 1 9 30 s, a n u m b e r o f te x t-

b o o k s o n t h e t o p i c o f v i s u a l i n s tr u c t i o n w e r e

w r i t te n . P e r h a p s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t o f t h e se

t e x t b o o k s w a s

Visualiz ing the urriculum

( H o b a n , H o b a n , & Z i s s m a n , 1 93 7) . I n th i s b o o k ,

t h e a u t h o r s s t a te d t h a t t h e v a l u e o f a u d i o v i s u a l

m a t e r i a l w a s a f u n c t i o n o f t h ei r d e g r e e o f r ea l -

i s m . T h e a u t h o r s a l s o p r e s e n t e d a h i e r a r c h y o f

m e d i a , r a n g i n g f r o m t h o s e t h a t c o u l d o n l y p r es -

e n t c o n c e p t s i n a n a b s t r ac t f a s h i o n t o t h o s e t h a t

a l l o w e d f o r v e r y c o n c r e t e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s

( H e i n i c h , M o l e n d a , R u s s e l l, & S m a l d i n o , 1 99 9) .

S o m e o f t h e s e id e a s h a d p r e v i o u s l y b e e n d i s-

c u s s e d b y o t h e rs , b u t h a d n o t b e e n d e a l t w i t h a s

t h o r o u g h l y . I n 1 9 4 6 , E d g a r D a l e f u r t h e r e l a b o -

r a t e d o n t h e s e i d e a s w h e n h e d e v e l o p e d h i s

f a m o u s C o n e o f E x p e ri en c e . T h r o u g h o u t t h e h i s -

t o r y o f t h e a u d i o v i s u a l i n s t r u c t i o n m o v e m e n t ,

m a n y h a v e i n d i c a t e d t h a t p a r t o f t h e v a l u e o f

a u d i o v i s u a l m a t e r i a l s i s t h e i r a b i li t y t o p r e s e n t

c o n c e p t s i n a c o n c r e t e m a n n e r ( S a et tl e r, 1 99 0) .

A m e d i u m t h a t g a i n e d a g r e a t d e a l o f a t te n -

t i o n d u r i n g t h is p e r i o d w a s r a d i o . B y t h e e a rl y

1 93 0s , m a n y a u d i o v i s u a l e n t h u s i a s t s w e r e h a i l-

i n g r a d i o a s t h e m e d i u m t h a t w o u l d r e v o l u ti o n -

i z e e d u c a t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , i n r e f e r r i n g t o t h e

i n s t r u c t i o n a l p o t e n t i a l o f r a d i o , f i l m s , a n d t e l e v i -

s i o n, t h e e d i t o r o f p u b l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e N a t i o n a l

E d u c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n s t a te d t h a t t o m o r r o w

t h e y w i ll b e a s c o m m o n a s t he b o o k a n d p o w e r -

f u l i n t h e i r e f f e c t o n l e a r n i n g a n d t e a c h i n g

( M o r g a n , 1 9 3 2, p . ix ). H o w e v e r , c o n t r a r y t o

t h e s e s o r ts o f p r e d i c ti o n s , o v e r t h e n e x t 2 0 y e a r s

r a d i o h a d v e r y l it tl e i m p a c t o n i n s t r u c t i o n a l

p ra c t i c e s (Cuba n , 1986) .

W o r l d W a r I I

W i t h t h e o n s e t o f W o r l d W a r I I , t h e g r o w t h o f

t h e a u d i o v i s u a l i n s t r u c t i o n m o v e m e n t i n t h e

s c h o o l s s l o w e d ; h o w e v e r , a u d i o v i s u a l d e v i c e s

w e r e u s e d e x t e n s i v e l y i n t h e m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e s

a n d i n in d u s t r y . F o r e x a m p l e , d u r i n g t h e w a r t h e

U n i t e d S t at es A r m y A i r F or c e p r o d u c e d m o r e

t h a n 4 0 0 t r a i n i n g f i l m s a n d 6 0 0 f il m s t r i p s , a n d

d u r i n g a t w o - y e a r p e r i o d ( f ro m m i d - 1 9 4 3 to

m i d - 1 9 45 ) it w a s e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h e r e w e r e m o r e

t h a n f o u r m i l l io n s h o w i n g s o f t r a i n i n g f i lm s t o

U n i t e d S t a t e s m i l i t a r y p e r s o n n e l . A l t h o u g h

t h e r e w a s l i t t l e t i m e a n d o p p o r t u n i t y t o c o l l e c t

h a r d d a t a r e g a r d i n g t h e e f fe c t o f t h e s e f i lm s o n

t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f m i l it a r y p e r s o n n e l , s e v e ra l

s u r v e y s o f m i l i ta r y i n s t r u c to r s r e v e a l e d t h a t

t h e y f e l t t h a t t h e t r a i n i n g f i l m s a n d f i l m s t r i p s

u s e d d u r i n g t h e w a r w e r e e f f e c ti v e t r a i n i n g t o o l s

( S a et tl er , 1 99 0) . A p p a r e n t l y , a t le a s t s o m e o f t h e

e n e m y a g r e e d ; i n 1 9 45 , a f te r t h e w a r e n d e d , t h e

G e r m a n C h i e f o f G e n e r a l S t a ff s a id : W e h a d

e v e r y t h i n g c a l c u la t e d p e r f e c t l y e x c e p t t h e s p e e d


5/12

HISTORY OF INSTRUCTION LMEDI

~

w i t h w h i c h A m e r i c a w a s a b l e t o t r a in i ts p e o p l e.

O u r m a j o r m i s c a l cu l a ti o n w a s i n u n d e r e s ti m a t -

i n g t h e i r q u i c k a n d c o m p l e t e m a s t e r y o f fi lm

e d uc a t i o n ( c i t e d i n Ol s e n & B a ss , 1982 , p . 33 ).

D u r i n g t h e w a r , t r a i n i n g f i lm s a l s o p l a y e d a n

i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n p r e p a r i n g c i v i l i a n s i n t h e

U n i t e d S t a t e s t o w o r k i n i n d u s t r y . I n 1 9 4 1 , t h e

f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t e s t a b l i s h e d t h e D i v i s i o n o f

V i s u a l A i d s f o r W a r T r a i n in g . F r o m 1 94 1 t o

1 9 4 5 , t h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n o v e r s a w t h e p r o d u c t i o n

o f 4 5 7 t r a i n i n g f i lm s . M o s t t r a i n i n g d i r e c t o r s

r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e f i l m s r e d u c e d t r a i n i n g t i m e

w i t h o u t h a v i n g a n e g a t i v e i m p a c t o n t r a i n i n g

e f f e c t i v e n e s s , a n d t h a t t h e f il m s w e r e m o r e i n t e r -

e s t i n g a n d r e s u l t e d i n le s s a b s e n t e e i s m t h a n t ra -

d i t i o n a l t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m s ( S a e t tl e r, 1 9 9 0) .

I n a d d i t i o n t o t r a in i n g f i lm s a n d f il m p r o je c -

t o r s, a w i d e v a r i e t y o f o t h e r a u d i o v i s u a l m a t e r i -

a l s a n d e q u i p m e n t w e r e e m p l o y e d i n t h e

m i l i t a r y f o r c e s a n d i n i n d u s t r y d u r i n g W o r l d

W a r I I . T h o s e d e v i c e s t h a t w e r e u s e d e x t e n s iv e l y

i n c l u d e d o v e r h e a d p r o j e ct o r s, w h i c h w e r e f ir s t

p r o d u c e d d u r i n g t h e w a r ; s l i d e p r o j e c t o r s ,

w h i c h w e r e u s e d i n t e a c h i n g a i r c r a f t a n d s h i p

r e c o g n it io n ; a u d i o e q u i p m e n t , w h i c h w a s u s e d

i n t e a c h i n g f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e s ; a n d s i m u l a t o r s

a n d t r a in i n g d e v i c es , w h i c h w e r e e m p l o y e d i n

f l i gh t t r a i n i ng (Ol se n & B a ss , 1982 ; S a e t t l e r ,

1990).

Po s t W o r ld W a r II D e v e l o p m e n t s a n d

M e d i a R e s e a r c h

T h e a u d i o v i s u a l d e v i c e s u s e d d u r i n g W o r l d

W a r I I w e r e g e n e r a l l y p e r c e i v e d a s s u c c e s s f u l i n

h e l p i n g t h e U n i t e d S t a t es s o l v e a m a j o r t r a i n in g

p r o b l e m - - n a m e l y , h o w t o tr a in e f f ec ti v el y a n d

e f f ic i e n tl y l a r g e n u m b e r s o f i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h

d i v e r s e b a c k g r o u n d s . A s a r e s u l t o f t h is a p p a r -

e n t s u c c e s s , a f t e r t h e w a r t h e r e w a s a r e n e w e d

i n t e r e s t i n u s i n g a u d i o v i s u a l d e v i c e s i n t h e

sc ho o l s (F i nn , 1972 ; Ol s e n & B a ss , 1982).

I n t h e d e c a d e f o l l o w i n g t h e w a r , s e v e r a l

i n t en s i v e p r o g r a m s o f a u d i o v i s u a l r e s e a rc h

w e r e u n d e r t a k e n ( e.g ., C a r p e n t e r & G r e en h i ll ,

1 9 5 6 ; L u m s d a i n e , 1 9 6 1 ; M a y & L u m s d a i n e ,

1 95 8) . T h e r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s t h a t w e r e c o n d u c t e d

a s p a r t o f t h e se p r o g r a m s w e r e d e s i g n e d t o id e n -

t i fy h o w v a r i o u s f e a t u r es , o r a t t r ib u t e s, o f a u d i o -

v i s u a l m a t e r i a ls a f f e c t e d l e a r n i n g ; t h e g o a l b e i n g

t o i d e n t i f y t h o s e a t t r i b u t e s t h a t w o u l d f a c i l i t a t e

l e a r n i n g i n g i v e n s i t u a t i o n s . F o r e x a m p l e , o n e

r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m , c o n d u c t e d u n d e r t h e d i r e c -

t i o n o f A r t h u r A . L u m s d a i n e , f o c u s e d o n i d e n t i -

f y i n g h o w l e ar n i n g w a s a f fe c te d b y v a r i o u s

t e c h n i q u e s f o r e l i c i t i n g o v e r t s t u d e n t r e s p o n s e

d u r i n g t h e v i e w i n g o f i n s t r u c ti o n a l f i l m s

( L u m s d a i n e , 1 96 3) .

T h e p o s t - W o r l d W a r I I a u d i o v i s u a l r e s e a r ch

p r o g r a m s w e r e a m o n g t h e f i r s t c o n c e n t r a t e d

e f f o r t s to i d e n t i f y p r i n c i p l e s o f l e a r n i n g t h a t

c o u l d b e u s e d i n t h e d e s ig n o f a u d i o v i s u a l m a t e -

r i a l s . H o w e v e r , e d u c a t i o n a l p r a c t i c e s w e r e n o t

g r e a t l y a f f e c t e d b y t h e s e r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m s i n

t h a t m a n y p r a c t it i o n e r s e i th e r i g n o r e d , o r w e r e

n o t m a d e a w a r e o f, m a n y o f t h e r e s e a rc h f i n d -

i ngs (Lumsda i ne , 1963 , 1964) .

M o s t o f t h e m e d i a r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s c o n -

d u c t e d o v e r th e y ea r s h a v e c o m p a r e d h o w

m u c h s t u d e n t s h a v e l e a r n e d a f t e r r e c e i v i n g a

l e s s o n p r e s e n t e d v i a a p a r t i c u l a r m e d i u m , s u c h

a s f i lm , r a d i o , te l e v i s io n , o r t h e c o m p u t e r , v e r s u s

h o w m u c h s t u d e n t s h a v e l e ar n e d f r o m l i ve

i n s t r u c t i o n o n t h e s a m e t o p i c. S t u d i e s o f t h i s

t y p e , o f t e n c a l l e d m e d i a c o m p a r i s o n s t u d i e s ,

h a v e u s u a l l y r e v e a l e d t h a t s t u d e n t s l e a r n e d

e q u a l l y w e l l r e g a r d l e s s o f th e m e a n s o f p r e s e n t a -

t i on (C l a rk , 1983 , 1994; S c h ra m m , 1977). In l i gh t

o f t h e s e r e p e a t e d f i n d i n g s , c r i ti c s o f s u c h

r e s e a r c h h a v e s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e f o c u s o f s u c h

s t u d ie s s h o u l d c h a n g e . S o m e h a v e a r g u e d t h a t

r e s e a r c h e r s s h o u l d f o c u s o n t h e a t t r ib u t e s ( c h a r -

a c t e r i s ti c s ) o f me d i a (Le v i e & Di c k i e , 1973); o t h -

e rs h a v e s u g g e s t e d a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f

ow

m e d i a

i n f l ue nc e l e a rn i ng (Koz ma , 1991 , 1994) ; a nd s t i l l

o t h e r s h a v e s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e r e s e a r c h f o c u s

s h o u l d b e o n i n s t r u c t i o n a l m e t h o d s , r a t h e r t h a n

o n t h e m e d i a t h a t d e li v e r th o s e m e t h o d s ( C l a r k ,

1 98 3, 1 9 94 ). I n r e c e n t y e a r s , s o m e o f t h e s e t y p e s

o f s tu d i e s h a v e b e c o m e m o r e p r e v a l e n t.

T h eo rie s o f C o m m u n i c a t i o n

D u r i n g t h e e a r l y 1 9 5 0 s , m a n y l e a d e r s i n t h e

a u d i o v i s u a l i n s tr u c ti o n m o v e m e n t b e c a m e

i n t e re s t e d i n v a r i o u s t h e o r i e s o r m o d e l s o f c o m -

m u n i c a t i o n , s u c h a s th e m o d e l p u t f o r t h b y

S h a n n o n a n d W e a v e r ( 1 9 4 9 ) . T h e s e m o d e l s


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HISTORYOF INSTRUCTIONALMEDIA 59

tional television would leave the educational system

fundamentally unchanged. (pp. 80-81)

Many reasons have been given as to why

instructional television was not adopted to a

greater extent. These include teacher resistance

to the use of television in their classrooms, the

expense of installing and maintaining television

systems in schools, and the inability of television

alone to adequately present the various condi-

tions necessary for student learning (Gordon,

1970; Tyler, 1975).

Sh i ft in g T e r m i n o l o g y

By the early 1970s, the terms educational technol-

ogy and

instructional technology

began to replace

audiovisual instruction

to describe the application

of media for instructional purposes. For exam-

ple, in 1970, the name of the major professional

organization within the field was changed from

the Department of Audiovisual Instruction to

the Association for Educational Communica-

tions and Technology, and later in the decade,

the names of the two journals published by

AECT were also

c h a n g e d - - A u d i o v i s u a l C o m m u -

nication Review

became

Educational Communica-

t ions and Technology Journal and Audiovisual

Ins t ruc t ion became Instructional Innovator. More-

over, the group the United States government

established to examine the impact of media on

instruction was called the Commission on

Instructional Technology. Regardless of the ter-

minology, however, most individuals in the

field agreed that, up to that point, instructional

media had had minimal impact on educational

practices (Commission on Instructional Technol-

ogy, 1970, Cuban, 1986).

Co mp u te rs : F rom the 195 s to 1995

After the interest in instructional television

faded, the next technological innovation to catch

the attention of a large number of educators was

the computer. Although wide-spread interest in

the computer as an instructional tool did not

occur until the 1980s, computers were first used

in education and training at a much earlier date.

Much of the early work in computer-assisted

instruction (CAI) was done in the 1950s by

researchers at IBM, who developed the first CAI

author language and designed one of the first

CAI programs to be used in the public schools.

Other pioneers in this area included Gordon

Pask, whose adaptive teaching machines made

use of computer technology (Lewis & Pask;

1965; Pask, 1960; Stolorow & Davis, 1965), and

Richard Atkinson and Patrick Suppes, whose

work during the 1960s led to some of the earliest

applications of CAI at both the public school and

university levels (Atkinson & Hansen, 1966;

Suppes & Macken, 1978). Other major efforts

dur ing the 1960s and early 1970s included the

development of CAI systems such as PLATO

and TICCIT (Saettler, 1990). However , in spite of

the work that had been done, by the end of the

1970s, CAI had had very little impact on educa-

tion (Pagliaro, 1983).

By the early 1980s, a few years after micro-

computers became available to the general pub-

lic, the enthusiasm surrounding this tool ted to

increasing interest in using computers for

instructional purposes. By January 1983, com-

puters were being used for instructional pur-

poses in more than 40% of all elementary

schools and more than 75% of all secondary

schools in the United States (Center for Social

Organization of Schools, 1983).

Many educators were attracted to microcom-

puters because they were relatively inexpensive,

were compact enough for desktop use, and

could perform many of the functions performed

by the large computers that had preceded them.

As was the case when other new media were

first introduced into the instructional arena,

many expected that this mediu m would have a

major impact on instructional practices. For

example, in 1984, Papert indicated that the com-

puter was going to be a catalyst of very deep

and radical change in the educational system

(p. 422) and that by 1990 one computer per child

would be a very common state of affairs in

schools in the United States.

Although computers ma y eventually have a

major impact on instructional practices in

schools, by the mid-1990s that impact had been

rather small. Surveys revealed that by 1995,

although schools in the United States possessed,


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6 0 ETR D, Vol , 49, No. 1

o n a v e r a g e , o n e c o m p u t e r f o r e v e r y n i n e s tu -

d e n t s , t h e i m p a c t o f c o m p u t e r s o n i n s t r u c ti o n a l

p r a c t i c e s w a s m i n i m a l , w i t h a s u b s t a n t i a l n u m -

b e r o f t e a c h e r s r e p o r t i n g l i t tl e o r n o u s e o f c o m -

p u t e r s f o r i n s t r u c t io n a l p u r p o s e s . M o r e o v e r , i n

m o s t c a s e s , t h e u s e o f c o m p u t e r s w a s f ar fr o m

i n n o v a t i v e . I n e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l s , t e a c h e r s

r e p o r t e d t h a t c o m p u t e r s w e r e b e i n g p r im a r i l y

u s e d f o r d r il l a n d p r a c ti c e , a n d a t th e s e c o n d a r y

l e v e l , r e p o r t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t c o m p u t e r s w e r e

m a i n l y u s e d f o r t e a c h i n g c o m p u t e r - r e l a t e d s k i ll s

s u c h a s w o r d p r o c e s s in g (A n d e r s o n & R o n n k v -

i s t , 1 9 9 9 ; B e c k e r , 1 9 9 8 ; O f f i c e o f T e c h n o l o g y

A s s e s s m e n t , 1 9 9 5 ) .

Recent eve lopments

S i n c e 1 9 9 5 , r a p i d a d v a n c e s i n c o m p u t e r a n d

o t h e r d i g i t a l t e c h n o l o g y , a s w e l l a s t h e I n t e rn e t ,

h a v e l e d t o a r a p i d l y i n c r e a s i n g i n t e re s t i n , a n d

u s e o f , t h e s e m e d i a f o r i n s t r u c t io n a l p u r p o s e s ,

p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t ra i n i n g i n b u s i n e s s a n d i n d u s t r y .

F o r e x a m p l e , a r e c e n t s u r v e y o f m o r e t h a n 7 50

t r a i n i n g i n d u s t r y c o m p a n i e s ( B a s si & V a n

B u r e n , 1 9 9 9 ) r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f

t r a i n i n g d e l i v e r e d v i a s u c h n e w t e c h n o l o g i e s a s

C D - R O M , i n t r a n e t s a n d t h e I n t e r n e t r o s e f r o m

l e s s t h a n 6 % i n 1 9 9 6 t o m o r e t h a n 9 % i n 1 9 9 7 ,

a n d w a s e x p e c t ed t o r is e to m o r e t h a n 2 2 % b y

2 0 0 0 . A n o t h e r r e c e n t s u r v e y r e p o r t e d t h a t , i n

1 99 9, 1 4 % o f a l l f o r m a l t r a i n i n g w a s d e l i v e r e d

v i a c o m p u t e r s ( I n d u s t r y R e p o r t 1 99 9) .

I n t h e p a s t f e w y e a r s , i n t e r e s t i n u s i n g t h e

I n t e r n e t f o r i n s t r u c t i o n a l p u r p o s e s h a s a l s o b e e n

r a p i d l y g r o w i n g i n h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n a n d t h e

m i l i t a r y . F o r e x a m p l e , b e t w e e n t h e 1 9 9 4 -9 5 a n d

t h e 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 a c a d e m i c y e a r s , e n r o l l m e n t s i n d i s -

t a n c e l e a r n i n g c o u r s e s i n h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n i n s ti -

t u t i o n s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s n e a r l y d o u b l e d , a n d

t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f i n s t i t u t io n s t h a t o f f e re d d i s -

t a n c e l e a r n i n g c o u r s e s r o s e f r o m 3 3 % t o 4 4 % ,

w i t h 7 8 % o f p u b l i c f o u r - y e a r i n s t i t u ti o n s o f fe r-

i n g s u c h c o u r s e s . M o r e o v e r , w h e r e a s i n 1 9 9 5

o n l y 2 2 % o f t h e h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n i n s t i t u t i o n s

o f f e r i n g d i s t a n c e l e a r n i n g c o u r s e s u s e d a s y n -

c h r o n o u s I n t e r n e t- b a s e d t e c h n o l o g ie s , b y t h e

1 9 9 7 -9 8 a c a d e m i c y e a r 6 0 % o f t h e i n s t it u t i o n s

d i d s o ( L e w i s , S n o w , F a r r i s , L e v i n , & G r e e n e ,

1 9 99 ). I n t h e m i l i t a r y , i n 2 0 0 0, t h e S e c r e t a r y o f

t h e U n i t e d S t at e s A r m y a n n o u n c e d t h a t 6 00

m i l l i o n w o u l d b e s p e n t o v e r t h e n e x t s ix y e a r s t o

e n a b l e s o l d i e r s t o t a k e d i s t a n c e e d u c a t i o n

c o u r s e s v i a t h e I n t e r n e t ( C a r r , 20 00 ).

S i n c e

1995,

t h e r e h a s a l s o b e e n a s i g n i f i c a n t

i n c r e a s e i n t h e a m o u n t o f t e c h n o l o g y a v a i l a b l e

i n s c h o o l s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . F o r e x a m p l e ,

r e s u l t s o f a

1998

n a t i o n a l s u r v e y ( A n d e r s o n &

R o n n k v i s t , 1999 r e v e a l e d t h a t w h e r e a s i n 1995

t h e r e w a s a n a v e r a g e o f o n e c o m p u t e r f o r e v e r y

n i n e s t u d e n t s , b y

1998

t h e r e w a s o n e c o m p u t e r

f o r e v e r y s i x s t u d e n t s . M o r e o v e r , t h e p e r c e n t a g e

o f s c h o o l s t h a t h a d I n t e r n e t a c c e ss i n c r e a s e d

f r o m 5 0 % i n

1995

t o 9 0 % i n 1 9 9 8 . H o w e v e r , a s

h a s b e e n t h e c a s e t h r o u g h o u t t h e h i s t o r y o f

i n s t r u c t i o n a l m e d i a , a n i n c r e a s e d p r e s e n c e o f

t e c h n o l o g y i n t h e s c h o o l s d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y

m e a n a n i n c r e a s e d u s e o f t h a t t e c h n o l o g y f or

i n s t ru c t i o n a l p u r p o s e s . A n d e r s o n & R o n n k v i s t

a ls o s t a te d t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e n u m b e r o f c o m p u t -

e r s i n s c h o o l s h a s b e e n i n c r e a s in g , m o s t o f th e

c o m p u t e r s a r e q u i t e l i m i t e d i n t e r m s o f t h e s o f t-

w a r e t h e y c a n r u n . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e y i n d i c a t e d

t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e v a s t m a j o r i ty o f sc h o o l s n o w

h a v e I n t e r n e t a c c e s s , i n m a n y s c h o o l s s t u d e n t

a c c e ss to t h e I n t e r n e t i s l im i t e d , w i t h f e w s t u -

d e n t s b e i n g a b l e to u s e i t fo r t h e i r s c h o o l w o r k .

T h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s m a k e i t d i ff i c u lt to a s c e r t a i n

t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r a c t ic e s i n

s c h o o l s h a v e b e e n i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e i n c r e a s e d

p r e s e n c e o f m e d i a .

I n s p i t e o f t h e u n c e r t a i n t y r e g a r d i n g t h e

e x t e n t o f m e d i a u s a g e i n t h e s c h o o l s , m o s t o f t h e

e v i d e n c e c i t e d a b o v e c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e s t h a t , s i n c e

1995, t h e r e h a s b e e n a s i g n i f ic a n t i n c r e a s e in t h e

u s e o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l m e d i a i n a v a r i e t y o f s e t -

t i n g s, r a n g i n g f r o m b u s i n e s s a n d i n d u s t r y t o th e

m i l i t a ry a n d h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n . W h a t a r e s o m e o f

t h e r e a s o n s f o r th i s i n c r e a s e d u s a g e ? I n b u s i n e s s

a n d i n d u s t r y a n d t h e m i l i t a r y , t h e I n t e r n e t h a s

b e e n v i e w e d a s a m e a n s o f p r o v i d i n g i n s t r u c ti o n

a n d i n f o r m a t io n t o w i d e l y d i s p e r s e d l e a r n e rs a t

a r e l a t i v e l y l o w c o st . M o r e o v e r , i n m a n y c a s es ,

t h e e a s y a c c e s s i b i li t y o f c o m p u t e r s m a k e s i t p o s -

s i b l e f o r l e a r n e r s t o r e c e i v e i n s t r u c t i o n , p e r f o r -

m a n c e s u p p o r t ( o f te n i n t h e f o r m o f a n e l e c t r o n i c

p e r fo r m a n c e s u p p o r t s y s t e m o r k n o w l e d g e

m a n a g e m e n t s y s t e m ) , o r b o t h , w h e n a n d w h e r e

t h e y n e e d i t , a s t h e y a r e p e r f o r m i n g p a r t i c u l a r

j o b t a s k s .


9/12

HISTORYOF INSTRUCTIONALMEDIA 6

I n h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n , d i s t a n c e e d u c a t i o n v i a

t h e I n t e r n e t h a s b e e n s e e n a s a l o w - c o s t m e t h o d

o f p r o v i d i n g i n s t r u c t io n t o s t u d e n t s w h o ,

b e c a u s e o f a v a r i e t y o f f a c t o r s (e .g . , j o b a n d f a m -

i l y r es p o n s i b i l i t i e s , g e o g r a p h y ) , m i g h t n o t o t h e r -

w i s e h a v e b e e n a b l e to r e c e i v e it . H o w e v e r ,

q u e s t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e c o s t e ff e c ti v e n e ss o f

s u c h i n s t ru c t io n r e m a i n u n a n s w e r e d ( H a w k -

r id ge , 1999 ).

A n o t h e r r e a s o n t h a t t h e n e w e r m e d i a a r e

b e i n g u s e d t o a g r e a t e r ex t e n t m a y b e t h e ir

i n c r e a s e d i n t e r a c t i v e c a p a b i l i t i e s . M o o r e (1 98 9)

d e s c r i b e d t h r e e t y p e s o f i n t e r a c ti o n s a m o n g t h e

a g e n t s u s u a l l y i n v o l v e d i n a n i n s t r u c t i o n a l

a c t i v i t y . T h e s e i n t e r a c t i o n s a r e ( a ) b e t w e e n

l e a r n e r s a n d i n s t r u c t i o n a l c o n t e n t , (b ) b e t w e e n

l e a r n e r s a n d t h e i n s t ru c t o r , a n d (c ) a m o n g l e a r n -

e r s t h e m s e l v e s . B e c a u s e o f t h e i r a t t r i b u t e s , t h e

i n s t r u c ti o n a l m e d i a t h a t w e r e p r e v a l e n t d u r i n g

s o m e p o r t i o n o f t h e f i rs t t w o t h i r d s o f th e p a s t

c e n t u r y ( e . g . , f i l m s a n d i n s t r u c t i o n a l t e l e v i s i o n )

w e r e p r i m a r i l y e m p l o y e d a s a m e a n s o f h a v i n g

l e a r n e r s i n t e r a c t w i t h i n s t r u c t i o n a l c o n t e n t . I n

c o n t r a s t , t h r o u g h t h e u s e o f s u c h f e a t u r e s a s e -

m a i l , c h a t r o o m s , a n d b u l l e t i n b o a r d s , t h e I n t e r-

n e t i s o f t en u s e d a s a m e a n s o f h a v i n g l e a r n e rs

i n t e r a c t w i t h t h e i r i n s t r u c t o r a n d w i t h o t h e r

l e a r n e r s , a s w e l l a s w i t h i n s t r u c t i o n a l c o n t e n t .

T h i s is o n e e x a m p l e o f h o w s o m e o f t h e n e w e r

m e d i a m a k e i t e a s ie r to p r o m o t e t h e v a r i o u s

t y p e s o f i n t e r a c t i o n s d e s c r i b e d b y M o o r e .

I n a d d i t i o n , a d v a n c e s i n c o m p u t e r t e c hn o l -

o g y , p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e i n c r e a s i n g

m u l t i m e d i a c a p a b il i ti e s o f th is m e d i u m , h a v e

m a d e i t e a s i e r fo r e d u c a t o r s t o d e s i g n l e a r n i n g

e x p e r i e n c e s t h a t i n v o l v e m o r e c o m p l e x i n t e r ac -

t i o n s b e t w e e n l e a r n e r s a n d i n s t r u c t i o n a l c o n t e n t

t h a n h a s p r e v i o u s l y b e e n t h e c a se . F o r e x a m p l e ,

a s t h e a m o u n t a n d t y p e o f i n f o r m a t i o n ( e.g .,

p r i n t , v i d e o , a u d i o ) t h a t c a n b e p r e s e n t e d b y

c o m p u t e r s h a s i n c r e a s e d , t h e t y p e o f f e e d b a c k ,

a s w e l l a s t h e t y p e o f p r o b l e m s , t h a t c a n b e p r e -

s e n t e d t o l e a r n e r s h a s g r e a t l y e x p a n d e d . T h e s e

i n c r e a s e d i n s t r u c ti o n a l c a p a b i l i t i e s h a v e

a t t r a c t e d t h e a t te n t i o n o f m a n y e d u c a t o r s . M o r e -

o v e r , t h e a b i l i t y o f c o m p u t e r s t o p r e s e n t i n f o r -

m a t i o n i n a w i d e v a r i e t y o f f o r m s , a s w e l l a s to

a l l o w l e a r n e r s t o e a s i l y li n k t o v a r i o u s c o n t e n t,

h a s a t t r a c t e d t h e i n t e r e s t o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l d e s i g n -

e r s h a v i n g a c o n s t r u c t i v is t p e r s p e c t i v e . T h e y

a n d o t h e rs w h o a r e p a r t i c u l a r ly co n c e r n e d w i t h

p r e s e n t i n g a u t h e n t i c ( i .e ., r e a l - w o r l d ) p r o b l e m s

i n l ea r n i n g e n v i r o n m e n t s i n w h i c h l e a r n e r s h a v e

a g r e a t d e a l o f c o n t r o l o f t h e a c t i v i t i e s t h e y

e n g a g e i n a n d t h e t o o l s a n d r e s o u r c e s t h e y u s e ,

f i n d th e n e w d i g i t a l t e c h n o l o g y m o r e a c c o m m o -

d a t i n g t h a n i ts p r e d e c e s s o r s .

A s s o m e o f t h e e x a m p l e s i n t h e p r e v i o u s f e w

p a r a g r a p h s d e m o n s t r a t e , in t h e p a s t f ew y e a r s

c o m p u t e r s , t h e I n t e r n e t a n d o t h e r d i g i t a l t e c h -

n o l o g y h a v e o f te n b e en u s e d t o p r o m o t e l e a rn -

i n g a n d p e rf o r m a n c e v i a s o m e n o n t r a d i t i o n a l

m e a n s . F o r in s t a n c e, c o m p u t e r - a s s i s t e d e l e c -

t r o n i c p e r f o r m a n c e s u p p o r t s y s t e m s ( S t e v e n s &

S t e v e n s , 1 99 5), k n o w l e d g e m a n a g e m e n t s y s t e m s

( R o s s e t t & D o n e l l o , 1 9 9 9 ) , a n d l e a r n e r - c e n t e r e d

l e a r n i n g e n v i r o n m e n t s o f t e n s e r v e a s a l t e r n a -

f i v es t o t r a i n i n g o r d i r e c t i n s t ru c t i o n . W h e n t h e

c u r r e n t - d a y i m p a c t o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l m e d i a i s

b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d , th e s e t y p e s o f a p p l i c a ti o n s

s h o u l d n o t b e o v e r l o o k e d .

Conclusion

O f t h e m a n y l e ss o n s w e c a n l ea r n b y r e v i e w i n g

t h e h i s t o r y o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l m e d i a , p e r h a p s o n e

o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t i n v o l v e s a c o m p a r i s o n

b e t w e e n t h e a n t i c i p a t e d a n d a c t u a l ef fe c ts o f

m e d i a o n i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r a c t ic e s . A s C u b a n

( 19 86 ) h a s p o i n t e d o u t , a s y o u l o o k b a c k o v e r t h e

p a s t c e n t u r y o f m e d i a h i s t o r y , y o u a r e l i k e l y t o

n o t e a r e c u r r e n t p a t t e r n o f e x p e c t a t i o n s a n d o u t -

c o m e s . A s a n e w m e d i u m e n t er s th e e d u c a t i o n a l

s c e n e , t h e r e i s a g r e a t d e a l o f i n i t i a l i n t e r e s t a n d

m u c h e n t h u s i a s m a b o u t t h e e f fe c ts it i s l i k e l y t o

h a v e o n i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r a c t i c e s . H o w e v e r ,

e n t h u s i a s m a n d i n t er e s t e v e n t u a l l y fa d e , a n d a n

e x a m i n a t i o n r e v e a ls th a t th e m e d i u m h a s h a d a

m i n i m a l i m p a c t o n s u c h p r a c ti c e s . F o r e x a m p l e ,

E d i s o n ' s o p t i m i s t i c p r e d i c ti o n t h a t f i l m s w o u l d

r e v o l u t i o n i z e e d u c a t i o n p r o v e d t o b e in c o r r e ct ,

a n d t h e e n t h u s i a s m f o r i n s t r u c t i o n a l t e l e v is i o n

t h a t e x i s t e d d u r i n g t h e 1 95 0s g r e a t l y a b a t e d b y

t h e m i d - 1 9 6 0 s , w i t h l it tl e i m p a c t o n i n s t r u c t i o n

i n t h e s c h o o l s. B o t h o f t h e s e e x a m p l e s i n v o l v e

t h e u s e o f m e d i a i n s c h o o ls , t h e s e t t i n g i n w h i c h

t h e u s e o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l m e d i a h a s b e e n m o s t

c l o se l y e x a m i n e d . H o w e v e r , d a t a r e g a r d i n g t h e

u s e o f in s t r u c t i o n a l m e d i a i n b u s i n e s s a n d


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6 *~ ETR D,Vol. 49, No. 1

indu stry supports a similar conclusion: namely

that, in spite of enthusiasm about the use of

instructional media in business and industry,

until recently media have had a minimal impact

on ins tructiona l practices in that envi ronme nt.

What about the predictions, first made in the

1980s, that computers would revolutionize

instruct ion? As the data from schools reveal, by

the mid-1990s that revolu tion had no t occurred.

However, data from the second half of the

decade indicate a growing presence, and per-

haps instruct ional use, of computers a nd the

Internet in schools. Moreover, during the past

five years, these medi a have taken on an increas-

ingly larger instructional and performance sup-

port role in other settings such as business and

indus try and higher education.

Will the impact of media on ins truction be

greater in the future tha n it has b een in the past?

In light of the aforementioned reasons for the

increasing use of the newer media, I think it is

reasonabl e to predict that over the next decade,

computers, the Internet, and other digital media

will bri ng about greater changes in instructional

practices than the media that preceded them.

However , i n light of the history of media and its

impact on in structiona l practices, I also think it

is reasonable to expect that such changes, both in

schools and in other instru ctional settings, are

likely to come about more slowly and be less

extensive than most media enthusiasts currently

predict. []

Robert A. Reiser is a professor in the Instructional

Systems program at Florida State University, and

may be reached by e-mail at [email protected]~

Port ions of this article are from a chapter that will

appear in Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and

Technology (Reiser & Dempsey, in press). Some

segments of the article previously appeared in a book

chapter by Reiser (1987).

The author would like to thank Walter Dick, Don

Ely, and Kent Gustafson, each of whom reviewed

various portions of this manuscript and provided

him with invaluable feedback.

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