registration open house—thursday, jan. 29 th – 6:00-8:00pm (room #246) sign-sheet is on the...
TRANSCRIPT
Registration Open House—Thursday, Jan. 29th – 6:00-8:00pm (Room #246)
Sign-sheet is on the table by the door…sign up for 20-minute time slot = CAN CREDIT on Unit 7 Test.
The Genetics of Viruses & Bacteria1. What do you know about viruses?2. How big are viruses?
- really small!!!
0.25 m
Virus
Animalcell
Bacterium
Animal cell nucleus
The Genetics of Viruses & Bacteria1. What do you know about viruses?2. How big are viruses?3. What are the components of a virus?
- Nucleic acid genome (DNA or RNA)- Protein capsid
18 250 mm 70–90 nm (diameter) 80–200 nm (diameter) 80 225 nm
20 nm 50 nm 50 nm 50 nm(a) Tobacco mosaic virus (b) Adenoviruses (c) Influenza viruses (d) Bacteriophage T4
RNA
RNACapsomereof capsid DNA
Capsomere
Glycoprotein Glycoprotein
Membranousenvelope
Capsid DNA
Head
Tail fiber
Tail sheath
Table 18.1 Classes of Animal Viruses
The Genetics of Viruses & Bacteria1. What do you know about viruses?2. How big are viruses?3. What are the components of a virus?4. How do viruses identify appropriate cells to infect?
- Viruses bind to specific receptors- May cross species or be tissue-specific
- Bird flu; infects respiratory passage cells5. What is the lytic cycle of a bacteriophage?
Figure 18.6 The lytic cycle of phage T4, a virulent phage
Attachment. The T4 phage usesits tail fibers to bind to specificreceptor sites on the outer surface of an E. coli cell.
Entry of phage DNA and degradation of host DNA.The sheath of the tail contracts,injecting the phage DNA intothe cell and leaving an emptycapsid outside. The cell’sDNA is hydrolyzed.
Synthesis of viral genomes and proteins. The phage DNAdirects production of phageproteins and copies of the phagegenome by host enzymes, usingcomponents within the cell.
Assembly. Three separate sets of proteinsself-assemble to form phage heads, tails,and tail fibers. The phage genome ispackaged inside the capsid as the head forms.
Release. The phage directs productionof an enzyme that damages the bacterialcell wall, allowing fluid to enter. The cellswells and finally bursts, releasing 100 to 200 phage particles.
12
4 3
5
Phage assembly
Head Tails Tail fibers
The Genetics of Viruses & Bacteria1. What do you know about viruses?2. How big are viruses?3. What are the components of a virus?4. How do viruses identify appropriate cells to infect?5. What is the lytic cycle of a bacteriophage?6. What is the lysogenic cycle of a bacteriophage?
Figure 18.7 The lytic and lysogenic cycles of phage , a temperate phage
Many cell divisions produce a large population of bacteria infected with the prophage.
The bacterium reproducesnormally, copying the prophageand transmitting it to daughter cells.
Phage DNA integrates into the bacterial chromosome,becoming a prophage.
New phage DNA and proteins are synthesized and assembled into phages.
Occasionally, a prophage exits the bacterial chromosome, initiating a lytic cycle.
Certain factorsdetermine whether
The phage attaches to ahost cell and injects its DNA.
Phage DNAcircularizes
The cell lyses, releasing phages.
Lytic cycleis induced
Lysogenic cycleis entered
Lysogenic cycleLytic cycle
or Prophage
Bacterialchromosome
Phage
PhageDNA
The Genetics of Viruses & Bacteria1. What do you know about viruses?2. How big are viruses?3. What are the components of a virus?4. How do viruses identify appropriate cells to infect?5. What is the lytic cycle of a bacteriophage?6. What is the lysogenic cycle of a bacteriophage?7. How do retroviruses (like HIV) reproduce?
- Reverse transcriptase – RNA back to DNA- Attacks helper T cells within our immune system
Reversetranscriptase
Viral envelope
Capsid
Glycoprotein
RNA(two identicalstrands)
Figure 18.10 The reproductive cycle of HIV, a retrovirus
Vesicles transport theglycoproteins from the ER tothe cell’s plasma membrane.
7
The viral proteins include capsid proteins and reverse transcriptase (made in the cytosol) and envelope glycoproteins (made in the ER).
6
The double-stranded DNA is incorporatedas a provirus into the cell’s DNA.
4
Proviral genes are transcribed into RNA molecules, which serve as genomes for the next viral generation and as mRNAs for translation into viral proteins.
5
Reverse transcriptasecatalyzes the synthesis ofa second DNA strandcomplementary to the first.
3
Reverse transcriptasecatalyzes the synthesis of aDNA strand complementaryto the viral RNA.
2
New viruses budoff from the host cell.9
Capsids areassembled aroundviral genomes and reverse transcriptase molecules.
8
mRNA
RNA genomefor the nextviral generation
Viral RNA
RNA-DNAhybrid
DNA
ChromosomalDNA
NUCLEUSProvirus
HOST CELL
Reverse transcriptase
New HIV leaving a cell
HIV entering a cell
0.25 µm
HIV Membrane of white blood cell
The virus fuses with thecell’s plasma membrane.The capsid proteins areremoved, releasing the viral proteins and RNA.
1
The Genetics of Viruses & Bacteria1. What do you know about viruses?2. How big are viruses?3. What are the components of a virus?4. How do viruses identify appropriate cells to infect?5. What is the lytic cycle of a bacteriophage?6. What is the lysogenic cycle of a bacteriophage?7. How do retroviruses (like HIV) reproduce?8. How do “new” viruses emerge?
- Mutation of an existing virus since there is no proofreading- Spread of an existing virus from 1 host species to another- Spread of viral disease from a small isolated population
9. What is the difference between horizontal & vertical transmission?- Horizontal – 1 organism spreads to another- Vertical – 1 organism inherits disease from parent
10. What are viroids & prions?- Viroids – tiny molecules of naked, circular RNA that infect plants,
several hundred nucleotides long- Prions – infectious proteins (NO genetic material)
- Slow incubation period – at least 10 yrs- Virtually indestructible
Figure 18.13 Model for how prions propagate
Prion
Normalprotein
Originalprion
Newprion
Many prions
Mad cow diseaseCreutzfeldt-Jakob disease (in humans)
The Genetics of Viruses & Bacteria1. What do you know about viruses?2. How big are viruses?3. What are the components of a virus?4. How do viruses identify appropriate cells to infect?5. What is the lytic cycle of a bacteriophage?6. What is the lysogenic cycle of a bacteriophage?7. How do retroviruses (like HIV) reproduce?8. How do “new” viruses emerge?9. What is the difference between horizontal & vertical transmission?10. What are viroids & prions?11. How is bacterial DNA different from eukaryotic DNA? (refer to Ch. 19 notes)
Bacterial EukaryoticCircular chromosome Linear chromosomesNucleoid region NucleusNo introns (all exons) Introns & exonsTranscription coupled w/ translation Transcription & translation separateMore mutations Fewer mutations (proofreading)
12.How does bacterial DNA replicate its circular chromosome?- Figure 16.16
Figure 16.16 A summary of bacterial DNA replication
Overall direction of replication
Helicase unwinds theparental double helix.
Molecules of single-strand binding proteinstabilize the unwoundtemplate strands.
The leading strand issynthesized continuously in the5 3 direction by DNA pol III.
Leadingstrand Origin of replication
Laggingstrand
Laggingstrand
LeadingstrandOVERVIEW
Leadingstrand
Replication fork
DNA pol III
Primase
PrimerDNA pol III Lagging
strand
DNA pol I DNA ligase
1
2 3
Primase begins synthesisof RNA primer for fifthOkazaki fragment.
4
DNA pol III is completing synthesis ofthe fourth fragment, when it reaches theRNA primer on the third fragment, it willdissociate, move to the replication fork,and add DNA nucleotides to the 3 endof the fifth fragment primer.
5 DNA pol I removes the primer from the 5 endof the second fragment, replacing it with DNAnucleotides that it adds one by one to the 3’ endof the third fragment. The replacement of thelast RNA nucleotide with DNA leaves the sugar-phosphate backbone with a free 3 end.
6 DNA ligase bondsthe 3 end of thesecond fragment tothe 5 end of the firstfragment.
7
Parental DNA
5
3
43
21
5
3
The Genetics of Viruses & Bacteria1. What do you know about viruses?2. How big are viruses?3. What are the components of a virus?4. How do viruses identify appropriate cells to infect?5. What is the lytic cycle of a bacteriophage?6. What is the lysogenic cycle of a bacteriophage?7. How do retroviruses (like HIV) reproduce?8. How do “new” viruses emerge?9. What is the difference between horizontal & vertical transmission?10. What are viroids & prions?11. How is bacterial DNA different from eukaryotic DNA?
Bacterial EukaryoticCircular chromosome Linear chromosomesNucleoid region NucleusNo introns (all exons) Introns & exonsTranscription coupled w/ translation Transcription & translation separate
12.How does bacterial DNA replicate its circular chromosome?- Figure 16.16- But…since DNA is circular, there is a problem…OVERTWISTING- Solved – topoisomerase
Table 16.1 Bacterial DNA replication proteins and their functions
Topoisomerase: corrects overwinding in bacterial DNA by cleaving, untwisting, and re-connecting the double helix.
Figure 18.14 Replication of a bacterial chromosome
Replicationfork
Origin of replication
Termination of replication
The Genetics of Viruses & Bacteria1. What do you know about viruses?2. How big are viruses?3. What are the components of a virus?4. How do viruses identify appropriate cells to infect?5. What is the lytic cycle of a bacteriophage?6. What is the lysogenic cycle of a bacteriophage?7. How do retroviruses (like HIV) reproduce?8. How do “new” viruses emerge?9. What is the difference between horizontal & vertical transmission?10. What are viroids & prions?11. How is bacterial DNA different from eukaryotic DNA?12. How does bacterial DNA replicate its circular chromosome?13. Can bacterial cells do genetic recombination?
- 3 (4) ways- Transformation – uptake of external DNA by a cell – Griffith - Transduction – phage transfers bacterial DNA- Conjugation – bacterial sex – direct transfer of genetic material- (Transposons)
Figure 18.16 Generalized transduction
Phage DNA
Donorcell
Recipientcell
A+ B+
A+ B+
A+
A+ B–
A– B–
A+
Recombinant cell
Crossingover
Phage infects bacterial cell that has alleles A+ and B+
Host DNA (brown) is fragmented, and phage DNA and proteins are made. This is the donor cell.
A bacterial DNA fragment (in this case a fragment withthe A+ allele) may be packaged in a phage capsid.
Phage with the A+ allele from the donor cell infects a recipient A–B– cell, and crossing over (recombination)between donor DNA (brown) and recipient DNA(green) occurs at two places (dotted lines).
The genotype of the resulting recombinant cell (A+B–) differs from the genotypes of both the donor (A+B+) and the recipient (A–B–).
1
2
3
4
5
Figure 18.17 Bacterial conjugation (CENSORED)
Figure 18.17 Bacterial conjugation
Sex pilus 1 m
Figure 18.18 Conjugation and recombination in E. coli
1 A cell carrying an F plasmid(an F+ cell) can form amating bridge with an F– celland transfer its F plasmid.
A single strand of the F plasmid breaks at a specific point (tip of blue arrowhead) and begins tomove into the recipient cell. As transfer continues, the donor plasmid rotates(red arrow).
2DNA replication occurs inboth donor and recipientcells, using the single parental strands of the F plasmid as templates to synthesize complementary strands.
3The plasmid in the recipient cell circularizes. Transfer and replication result in a compete F plasmid in each cell. Thus, both cells are now F+.
4
F Plasmid Bacterial chromosome
Bacterial chromosomeF– cell
F+ cell
F+ cell
F+ cell Hfr cell
F factorThe circular F plasmid in an F+ cellcan be integrated into the circularchromosome by a single crossoverevent (dotted line).
1
The resulting cell is called an Hfr cell (for High frequency of recombination).
2
Since an Hfr cell has all the F-factor genes, it can form a mating bridge with an F– cell and transfer DNA.
3A single strand of the F factorbreaks and begins to move through the bridge. DNA replication occurs in both donor and recipient cells, resulting in double-stranded DNA
4The location and orientation of the F factor in the donor chromosome determine the sequence of gene transfer during conjugation. In this example, the transfer sequence for four genes is A-B-C-D.
5 The mating bridgeusually breaks well before the entire chromosome and the rest of the F factor are transferred.
6
Two crossovers can result in the exchange of similar (homologous) genes between the transferred chromosome fragment (brown) and the recipient cell’s chromosome (green).
7The piece of DNA ending up outside thebacterial chromosome will eventually be degraded by the cell’s enzymes. The recipient cell now contains a new combination of genes but no F factor; it is a recombinant F– cell.
8
Temporarypartialdiploid
Recombinant F–
bacterium
Conjugation and transfer of an F plasmid from an F+ donor to an F– recipient
(a)
Conjugation and transfer of part of the bacterial chromosome from an Hfr donor to an F– recipient, resulting in recombination
(b)
A+B+ C+
D+
F– cell A–B–
C–
D–
A–B–
C–
D– D–
A–
C–
B– D–
A–
C–
B–
A+
B+C+D+A+
B+C+D+A+B+
D+C+
A+
A+
B+
A–B–
C–
D–
A–B+
C–
D–
A+
B+ B–
A+
A+
B+
F+ cell
Mating bridge
Plasmid – extra-chromosomal, small, circular, self-replicating DNA
Figure 18.19 Transposable genetic elements in bacteria
(a) Insertion sequences, the simplest transposable elements in bacteria, contain a single gene that encodes transposase, which catalyzes movement within the genome. The inverted repeats are backward, upside-down versions of each other; only a portion is shown. The inverted repeat sequence varies from one type of insertion sequence to another.
(b) Transposons contain one or more genes in addition to the transposase gene. In the transposon shown here, a gene for resistance to an antibiotic is located between twin insertion sequences. The gene for antibiotic resistance is carried along as part of the transposon when the transposon is inserted at a new site in the genome.
Insertion sequence
Transposase geneInvertedrepeat
Invertedrepeat
Inverted repeats Transposase gene
Insertion sequence
Insertion sequence
Antibioticresistance gene
Transposon
3
5
3
5
5
3
5
3
A T C C G G T…
T A G G C C A …
A C C G G A T…
T G G C C T A …
The Genetics of Viruses & Bacteria1. What do you know about viruses?2. How big are viruses?3. What are the components of a virus?4. How do viruses identify appropriate cells to infect?5. What is the lytic cycle of a bacteriophage?6. What is the lysogenic cycle of a bacteriophage?7. How do retroviruses (like HIV) reproduce?8. How do “new” viruses emerge?9. What is the difference between horizontal & vertical transmission?10. What are viroids & prions?11. How is bacterial DNA different from eukaryotic DNA?12. How does bacterial DNA replicate its circular chromosome?13. Can bacterial cells do genetic recombination? 14. How does genetic regulation occur? / What is an operon?
- Group of genes whose products function together/are regulated together.- Repressible – usually on – makes tryptophan – trp operon - Inducible – usually off – makes enzymes for digesting lactose –
lac operon
Figure 18.21 The trp operon: regulated synthesis of repressible enzymes
(a) Tryptophan absent, repressor inactive, operon on. RNA polymerase attaches to the DNA at the promoter and transcribes the operon’s genes.
Genes of operon
Inactiverepressor
Protein
Operator
Polypeptides that make upenzymes for tryptophan synthesis
Promoter
Regulatorygene
RNA polymerase
Start codon Stop codon
Promoter
trp operon
5
3mRNA 5
trpDtrpE trpC trpB trpAtrpRDNA
mRNA
E D C B A
DNA
mRNA
Protein
Tryptophan(corepressor)
Active repressor
No RNA made
Tryptophan present, repressor active, operon off. As tryptophanaccumulates, it inhibits its own production by activating the repressor protein.
(b)
Figure 18.22 The lac operon: regulated synthesis of inducible enzymes
DNA
mRNA
ProteinActiverepressor
RNApolymerase
NoRNAmade
lacZlacl
Regulatorygene
Operator
Promoter
Lactose absent, repressor active, operon off. The lac repressor is innately active, and inthe absence of lactose it switches off the operon by binding to the operator.
(a)
5
3
mRNA 5'
DNA
mRNA
Protein
Allolactose(inducer)
Inactiverepressor
lacl lacz lacY lacA
RNApolymerase
Permease Transacetylase-Galactosidase
5
3
(b) Lactose present, repressor inactive, operon on. Allolactose, an isomer of lactose, derepresses the operon by inactivating the repressor. In this way, the enzymes for lactose utilization are induced.
mRNA 5
lac operon
• Before the invention of antibiotics, the clean modern hospitals of India, which were mostly reserved for Europeans, reported cholera death rates of 86%. Meanwhile, in other more crowded and less hygienic hospitals, the death rate from cholera was only 27%. WHY? Based on knowledge gained from the case study, explain the most likely process that occurred in the crowded hospitals that led to such a low death rate from cholera.