reggae and identity in malmö sweden, matswetu takura & suonpää mervi

Suonpää & Matswetu 2009

Malmö University IMER C. uppsats

Suonpää & MatswetuReggae music and Identity in Malmö.

Takura Matswetu and Mervi Suonpää2009


CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Aim and Research Question

1.2 Method

1.3 Previous Research

1.4 Description of the material

2 BACKGROUND OF REGGAE

2.1 History of Reggae

2.2 Elements of Reggae

3 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

3.1 Michel Foucault: Technologies of the self, heterotopia, biopower

3.2 Identity and culture

3.3 Nation and nation building

3.4 Race/ Ethnicity and Class

3.5 Gender

3.6 Globalisation

4 THE RESEARCH

4.1 Used material

4.2 Scientific and philosophical basis of study

4.3 Material collation and coverage

4.4 Reliability and validity

5 ANALYSIS

5.1 The Community

5.1.1 Reggae and Belonging

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5.1.2 Criterion for Exclusion

5.1.3 Ethnicity and Class

4.1.4 Religion or Subculture?

5.2Gender perspective

5.2.1 Women in Reggae

5.2.2 Masculinity

5.2.3 Femininity

5.3 The Local and Global Bonds

5.3.1 The Nation of the Reggae

5.3.2 Globalisation

6 CONCLUSION

SOURCES

APPENDIX

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1 INTRODUCTION

Dreadlocks waving to the rhythm of reggae, smoke filling the air while the emotional

features of the dancer gestures among the tempo, thoughtful faces full of ideas, looks

towards the future - or neighbours hips.

This could be one of those stereotypical images that public has about reggae in general,

although it’s not totally wrong, but it is definitely one-sided and shallow. The

phenomenon of reggae is more than all these stereotypical descriptions; it has its own

meaning to the people that live that lifestyle or listen to the message of the music, - at

least this was the starting point and hypothesis for this research. Therefore, the motivation

to the research rose firstly from the interests towards reggae music, its culture and its

position within Malmö. Secondly the relation between reggae as a subculture, social

exclusion and the gender perspective appear extremely fascinating and relevant to study

since more similar studies about other subcultures are available to find. Simply said, our

study focuses primarily and most importantly to the reggae subculture and their criterion

for inclusion and exclusion in relation to gender, race, class and even features of

globalisation.

Evidently Sweden has had a higher influx of migrants due to various global factors

whether they are classified as push or pull depending on which time frame one may

decide to focus on. The increase in immigration to Malmö specifically has created a

melting pot here of cultures, traditions and languages; which in turn has sparked great

interest by sociologists and other researchers in the field of replicable integration

practices and cultural relations. (Nilsson 2008) This paper is therefore focusing on the

cultural aspects of reggae music and how do they portray in Malmö. We have chosen

Michel Foucault together with several other sociological point of views to present some

of the problems that we encountered during our research in the reggae (sub) culture. The

aim of the study is consequently to present a broad overview about aspects that bring

together the elements of a subculture and specially the elements of reggae from a

sociological point of view.

This paper follows a structure where some starting points of the research are introduced

under introduction chapter, even though the broader clarification of the research itself is

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available in a chapter four. In the second and third chapters the backgrounds of reggae

and theory are introduced so that reader can easily follow how they are connected to the

researched material in an analytical part (chapter five). The last chapter is reserved for

discussion and conclusion.

1.1 Aim and Research Question

The main interest in this work is to study those elements that demarcate what is included

in the definition of what it means to ‘belong’ to the reggae subculture. The intention is to

come up with a possible understanding of this subculture and how it functions in different

arenas. Some of the things that are of interest to us include the criteria which is used by

those involved to identify each other, who are excluded and why as well as how they

view themselves in their cultural sphere parallel to popular culture and society at large.

We intend to study reggae’s role as a subculture through analysing six (6) reggae artists

lyrics1, and by observing some reggae events, with aim to explore the processes of

inclusion and exclusion in this subculture. We have chosen some songs to be analysed

from the artists that are born between in 1970s and 1980s. We want to focus on reggae as

a wide phenomenon that has spread largely around the world so therefore we have chosen

artist from different parts of the world. Thus, based on our research limits we do not focus

on different time periods when the lyrics were produced.

Through our research, we strive to achieve results that may explain the processes by

answering the following questions:

What does it take to belong to the reggae subculture in Malmö?

Which factors are important for inclusion/exclusion processes,

according to analysed material?

What function does globalization have in the reggae subculture?

1 All used lyrics are presented in Appendix section.

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In connection to the second question, we share a presumption, based on a basic

understanding of the reggae subculture, that reggae is usually connected more to non-

white population, which affects the processes of inclusion and exclusion.

1.2 Method

Between the two types of research methods, quantitative and qualitative, we have chosen

to use the later because it is more relevant to the nature of this study, a quantitative

method involves numerical data and results. The aim of this work is to closer attempt to

fathom the complex social context in which the topics that we will discuss occur and

attempt to present our analysis descriptively, from multiple viewpoints and capture the

non numerical value of the exchange between our subjects and the society they live in.

The study follows a descriptive sociological study design based on so-called triangulation

(University of California 2008), which is a combination of data from several sources in

order to strengthen the understanding of a complex phenomenon. We have decided to

collect our information not only by analyzing the texts but also in natural settings by

observation at reggae concerts, reggae clubs and house parties, thus collecting

information from Music Television (MTV) and internet. Moreover, the observation

material from events, concerts and other social occasions were conducted in Malmö,

Sweden.

When implementing this research, we wanted to analyse certain developments which

influence the interpretations of individuals who belong to a certain subculture (and in

who’s terms) and how the people who find themselves being a member of a certain

subculture relate their own culture as ‘us’ in comparison with ‘others’. Furthermore the

deviation to ‘we’ and ‘them’ can even lead to the concept of an enemy image, which is

related to exclusion (Harle 2000, 10, Ottosen 1995, 98, Huntington 1993, 29, Nieuwkerk

2004, 245-246).

We based the analysis of our study on both primary and secondary sources. The

difference between these two elements is that primary sources makes the creative work of

a researcher more possible which might include information collected during for instance

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observation, while all kinds of data researcher applies from other researchers or

institutions is regarded as a secondary source (Punch 2005: 103,186). In our study,

secondary sources are the analysed material from eight (8) songs and primary sources our

own remarks during the observations. Besides the analyses of the reggae texts, we have

applied different theoretical approaches that are related to our study

1.3 Previous Research

There are high amount of studies that are relating the subjects of our research and we

have decided to give a short review on few of them which are interesting for our study or

have inspired us to take a deeper analysis on some parts of reggae as a (sub) culture.

Guerro-Monteno (2006) discusses the multiple meanings of music for Panamanian Afro-

Antillean identity in the Caribbean, by placing musical genres such as soka, calypso and

reggae to the context that she chose (tourism). She argues that Afro-Antillean musical

genres as well as appropriations of "national" musical genres have provided black

populations in the Panamanian Caribbean with ways to assert characteristic identities in

the Panamanian cultural mixture. According to her, black people in Caribbean are

experiencing a cultural recovery of their Antillean identities, through the process of

tourism consumption. Furthermore, the results show that they are also asserting their

identities as an international group, with enough transnational connections to access

musical worlds that are not the domain of other ethnic groups in the country. (Guerro-

Monteno 2006, 633, 663-664)

Erskine writes about women’s’ role within Rastafarian movement in his book From

Garvey to Marley (2005), and asks how a group which is fighting for liberation can at the

same time have a strong male dominance within own group. Many Rasta’s claim, that a

woman can only be seen as a member of the movement only through a man. A man gives

a woman guiding and the woman becomes dependent on him so that she could be a part

of a community. Men are seen mentally, spiritually and ideologically as a head of a

family, and women as children, which can be illustrated with a phrase in rasta world that

says “to grow a dawta”. Maureen Rowe (1980) on the other hand has done her studied

about women’s role in Rasta community and concluded that the attitude from daughter-

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farther relation has changed in 1980 and given women a more fair position in the

movement (16-20).

Dick Hebdige’s ethnographig case study about rastas in 1979 (The Meaning of Style) are

clearly significant an earlier era, thus his conceptualization has also been outstripped by

more modern developments in cultural, social and political theory (Hebdige 1997: 131;

Jenks 2005: 5). Chris Jenks on the other hand studied subcultures in a conceptual level in

connection with they development of social and cultural theory in 2004. (Jenks 2005: 4-5)

In his book, Jenks represents researches about subcultures, for example William Foote

Whyte’s study of a ‘Street Corner Society (1955) or different studies made of ‘Victorian

London’ by several researchers. These studies represent important piece of sociology and

gives a base for further studies and gave inspiration for us to be digging deeper the world

of reggae.

1.4 Description of the material

As mentioned above, in form of the lyrics, the analysed material includes texts from six

different reggae artists, two are females and four are males. The lyrics are selected

unsystematically, so they selection does not follow any specific pattern when it comes to

chosen songs, although the criteria for the artists was been born either in 1970s or 1980s.

In order to produce general knowledge about the writers of analysed material, we give a

short summary about them. At the same context we present the names of the analysed

songs. Detailed information about the gathered material from the observations will be

discussed after the artist descriptions.

Sizzla, Jamaica, analysed lyrics: Beautiful People, Be Strong

Miguel Orlando Collind alias Sizzla was born in August Town, Jamaica in 1977 to a rasta

family. He is an active member of Bobo Ashanti movement, which is the most orthodoxy

branch of Rastafari standing against western values. Sizzla is often critized of his

homophobic texts, but mainly he writes about poverty, homelessness, police brutality and

cultural pride from religious and political aspects.

Lady Saw, Jamaica, analysed lyrics: No Less of A Woman

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Lady Saw was born in Saint Mary, Jamaica in 1972 and she is known as ‘the first Lady of

Dancehall’. She is a first woman to win Grammy Award, certified triple-platinum and to

headline outside her native Jamaica. She has sang lyrics with heavy sexual dose, knows as

‘slackness’ from her own perspective as a woman.

Queen Ifrika, Jamaica, analysed lyrics: Daddy

Fyan Muma, also known as Queen Ifrica, took the music world by surprise, when in 1995

she turned on a scorcher of a performance in a talent contest at the aptly named Club

Inferno in Montego Bay. Her music has remained grounded in her own way of life, her

community and her children. In her rebel lyrics she has a strong social consciousness thus

she supports her words with actions, being an active participant in several community

outreach activities.

Gentleman, Germany, analysed lyrics: Intoxication, Trodin On

Otto Tillman, known as Gentleman was born in Köln, Germany in 1975 to a family where

the father was a priest. At the age of 16 he started to travel to Jamaica and came in contact

with reggae music. Nowadays him been a European artist he is honoured to be recognised

as a popular artist also in Jamaica. In his lyrics he shows strongly his relation to God,

whereby he adheres to no religion.

Raappana, Finland, analysed lyrics: Ainoo

Janne Pöyhönen, known as Raappana, was born in Lahti, Finland 1983. He is one of

Finnish reggae artists that have raised the popularity of reggae with Finnish lyrics during

this decade. He is opinionated artist with easy-going lyrics about life in general and

societal issues.

Matisyahu, USA, analysed lyrics: Jerusalem

Matthew Paul Miller, Matisyahu, was born in West Chester, Philadelphia and brought up

a recontructionist Jew. He found the passion for music and started making reggae mixed

with hip-hop and rock sounds. Through his music he wants to spread the message of

peace and unity.

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We took a predominantly observative stance with our research, the reasons for this was

that our initial idea to have interviews was not so successful because we were at the

mercy of our participants for their will to be involved. The observations relating to the

study were conducted in Malmö and of these the most prevalent forms were music events

and summer social gatherings at different functions hosted by, amongst others,

Möllevångsfestivalen, Club Bodoni and Kultur Bolaget. We had the opportunity to

interact with Djs and musicians of reggae in the Malmö area whose names shall, for the

purposes of anonymity, not be disclosed. In our active groups, the majority of the

participants on the other hand were from neighbourhoods such as Rosengård,

Augustenborg, Möllevången, Nydala and Sofielund. Some of the participants were

unemployed and either studying Swedish for foreigners or were on social welfare, but

approximately over half of them were permanently employed; the most common career

among these was cleaners, personal assistants and seasonal workers for the municipality.

Most are of African decent but there are almost as many Swedish natives.

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2 THE BACKGROUND OF REGGAE

2.1 History of Reggae

Reggae refers to the music of Jamaica under a general umbrella. Specifically, it points out

the genre of music that developed from Ska and Rocksteady. It has its origins in African

and Caribbean music and is influenced by American Rhythm and Blues, thus the genre

was mainly popularized by Bob Marley. (Bradley 2000, 397-399; Gilroy 1993: 347)

The “Sound Systems”2 where importing a lot of Rhythm ‘n’ blues from the US and in the

unavailability of diverse clubs in the poor ghettos of Jamaica, the Sound systems became

the “clubs on wheels” for the ghetto public and the “Selectors”3 became their entertainers

as well as local heroes. The selector would spin records and “toast”4 over them. Toasting

involved putting together words and metaphors with rhymes. This method eventually

evolved into social commentaries about the situation of the ghetto people and politics,

which in the end are basic elements of reggae. (Gilroy 1993: 345-346)

The increasing popularity of the sound system and their music prompted the up come of

local recording studios, first in 1954 Ken Khouri opened up a studio that began recording

local bands that made music similar to that of the Caribbean as well as rhythm ‘n’ blues.

Among them developed a sound that paid special attention to the bass guitar and made the

sound of it a dominant instrument, and this sound was baptized as Ska. The ska songs

possessed an upbeat tempo, Afro-American vocal harmonies, horn sections, jazzy riffs

and confusing guitar notes. The Wailers, including also the young Bob Marley, slowed

down the rapid ska beat in their music in 1963, even though the appealing leaders of the

ska movement can be said to be the Skatalites, a group of veteran ex-jazzmen. Ska music

was relatively calm and optimist, a natural soundtrack to that age of peace and wealth

(Bradley 2000: 22-25, 126, 134-136, 138; Gilroy 1993: 342).

In the end the word "reggae" was established around 1960 in Jamaica to categorize a

"ragged" style of dance music which had its roots in New Orleans rhythm 'n' blues. Soon

reggae obtained the grieving-like style of mantra and emphasized the syncopated beat.

2 traveling dance-halls on wheels run by disc-jockeys such as Clement Dodd (the "Downbeat") and Duke Reid (the "Trojan"3 Disk Jockey4 Chant over music in patois

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Reggae tied also a clear relationship with the underworld of the "Rastafarians"5. The

connection on Rastafarians was not seen only in lyrics but also in using the African

drumming style (Bradley 2000: 65-66, 74-77; Gilroy 1993: 342-345). Paradoxically,

reggae music is called as a unique genre from Jamaica even though its roots are actually

not Jamaican at all, having its foundations in the USA and Africa.

Reggae started to spread though films in the 70s and the popularity of reggae music rose

also because known artists like Eric Clapton played cover versions of Bob Marleys song I

Shot the Sheriff. With these actions reggae gained acceptance as a global phenomenon

and it reached also ‘white public’ and soon after been radio played in the UK the first

‘Golden Age of Reggae’. (Gilroy 1993: 442, 447)

2.2 Elements of Reggae

Generally, the reggae music is often very simple, and sometimes a whole song will have

no more than one or two chords whereas genres typical features are based on the

dominance of bass guitar and the strong rhythm from the drums, and together with bass

they are often called as riddim. Horn sections are also frequently used in reggae, when

the vocals in reggae are less of a defining characteristic of the genre than the

instrumentation and rhythm. All in all, the genre gives a rather hypnotic effect with the

importance of bass and message of lyrics.

Lyrically reggae is known for its tradition of social criticism, even though many songs

discuss lighter and more daily subjects such as sex, love and socializing. Occasionally

lyrics attempt to raise the political consciousness by criticizing surroundings and

controversial matters and subjects. The genre promotes also the use of cannabis or

religious topics, and it’s often associated with Rastafarian movement. Furthermore, other

socio-political topics that are commonly discussed are racism, capitalism, political

systems and Babylon, thus sometimes homophobia can also be seen from the lyrics.

(Bradley 2000: 67, 86, 430, 433)

Reggae as a genre includes several subgenres, such as dub, lovers’ rock and roots of

reggae and dance hall. Dub is a genre of reggae that involves extensive remixing of

5 African faith

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recorded material and focuses clearly on bass and drum line. Lover rock on the other hand

represents more aggressively played reggae with more apolitical lyrics, where roots

reggae is the name given to a spiritual type of music whose lyrics are predominantly in

praise of Jah (God). Dancehall is a style which is characterized by a deejay rapping or

singing or toasting over fast rhythms. Newer styles of reggae and the spin-offs are hip hop

and rap and reggeaton. (Bradley 2000: 443, 447- 448)

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3 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

3.1 Michel Foucault: Technologies of the Self, Heterotopia, Bio Power

It is important to this thesis, as a theoretical framework and as a point of reflection, to

present and eventually discuss Michel Foucault’s work on The Technologies of the Self,

as well as his concepts of the heterotopias and bio power.

According to Foucault technologies of the self are the methods and techniques that

individuals employ to create or define what constitutes oneself. He claims that individuals

are constantly engaged in processes of exchange with the atmosphere and what is

contained in it wherefrom an ethical self understanding is drawn. For Foucault these

technologies are knowledge and methods that “permit individuals to effect by their own

means or with help of others a certain number of operations on their own bodies and

souls, thoughts, conduct, and way of being, so as to transform themselves in order to

attain a certain state of happiness, purity, wisdom, perfection, or immortality.” (Foucault

1988:18) This is what is described by Giddens as ontological security (Giddens 1991, 36-

40; Chatzoglakis 2006).

For Foucault there are four types of technologies each consequentially being formula for

reason:

Technologies of production – for production, transformation and manipulation;

Technologies of sign systems – use of signs, meanings, symbols and signification;

Technologies of power – determine individual conduct, submitting them to ends or

domination, objectivising the subject;

Technologies of the self – enable individual effect out of personal means or those of

others operations on their bodies, souls, thoughts, conduct and well being to attain states

of happiness, purity, wisdom, perfection or immortality.

These four types of technologies are not independent of each and generally function

simultaneously. Foucault manages to independently assert them as well as present their

constant interaction in the example of Karl Marx’s Capital where each production

technique requires modification of individual conduct in skills as well as in attitudes. The

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interaction between the technologies of domination of others and those of the self is

referred to as governmentality (Foucalt 1988; Foucault 1984).

The concept of governmentality, in our understanding, refers to the art of individual

reduction to becoming an ideal under the sight of a government so as to maximise the

chances of the effects of policy implementation. In his lectures from College De France,

Foucault uses the term broadly to include most control techniques including the

biopolitical control of populations. For Foucault power must not only be seen in terms of

a hierarchical, top-down structure but rather the inclusion of all disciplinary institutions

such as schools, hospitals, prisons etc. and the various forms of knowledge. That power

has a positive manifestation in the production of knowledge and discourse internalised,

though knowledge leads to more efficient methods of social control through individual

governance (Burchell, Gordon & Miller 1991).

Foucault discusses that knowing oneself has come to the forefront of taking care of

oneself due to the change on the moral foundation of Western Society and that as a result

taking care of oneself is an indulgence in immorality. Instead to adopt Christian morality

means to deny oneself of worldly pleasures and thus acquire salvation. However we adopt

as well the secular in which the observance of external law is a foundation for morality.

In essence for Foucault to “take care of oneself” and to “know oneself” have swapped

place value in antiquity and modernity, where in modernity the knowledge of the self is

the foundation 6 (Burchell, Gordon & Miller 1991).

The heterotopia is a concept developed by Michel Foucault to denote place and space that

functions without hegemonic conditions. These are the spaces of otherness that are not

specifically defined or demarcated and exist in both the physical and the mental (Dehaene

& De Cauter 2008).

He uses the term to describe spaces that contain meaning and relationships to other things

and places than those that are directly visible or accessible. It is therefore a representation,

physically or otherwise, of a utopia even culminating the parallel in which undesirable

entities exist that become a hinder to the attainment of the utopian ideal, facilitating

6 This will be important in the discussion of the fundamental principles of the Rasta and how they believe there is

a moral defiance by modernity and modern social structures that is permeating the individual and social being.

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therefore the definition of what the utopia would be (French journal of Architecture

/Mouvement/ Continuité 1984), e.g. Zion and Babylon.

In Foucault’s heterotopology he describes heterotopias as a “simultaneously mythic and

real contestation of the space in which we live...” His assumption is that as a constant, all

cultures have heterotopias though they may manifest themselves in different forms. He

however creates two categories of heterotopias: the first being a crisis heterotopia, spaces

of privilege or those that are forbidden and are reserved for those individuals who are in

crisis. For example there are boarding schools for adolescents, hospitals for the sick and

mental institutions for the psychologically disturbed, though mental institutions much like

prisons are referred to as heterotopias of deviation where those whose behaviour is

outside of the norm are placed (French journal of Architecture /Mouvement/ Continuité

1984; Dehaene & De Cauter 2008).

The second principle is those that arise out of the transformation of the function of one

heterotopia, from the evolution of societies or a specific one, to another function.

Foucault uses the example of the cemetery and its significance in historic and modern day

society, how it has been placed in the heart of the city by the church and how it has now

changed. In modern “atheistic” civilization however the dead body which is now

considered to be unclean, and may bring disease to the living is located at the outskirts of

the city, in a time where beliefs in resurrection and the soul are fading (French journal of

Architecture /Mouvement/ Continuité 1984).

Third is the capability of amalgamating multiple incompatible real spaces into a single

one, like in theatre or in the cinema but more elaborately the garden. The fourth principle

is that heterotopias are connected to slices of time, opening therefore onto what Foucault

calls heterochronies and at this point the heterotopias is considered most effective when

individuals disassociate themselves completely with traditional time (French journal of

Architecture /Mouvement/ Continuité 1984).

Heterotopias are in the same instance isolated and penetrable, but they are not freely

accessible entry is either compulsory or through the submission to “rites and

purifications”7 states the fifth principle. All may enter heterotopic sites though essentially,

access therein is but illusion. According to Foucault, as we enter, in action we are

7 These are the things that define what it means to belong in the heterotopias.

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excluded access merely because of the action. The sixth and last principle of heterotopias

is that they work connected to the rest of the space around them. They create an “other”

space that reveals the real spaces around it and thereby affects the real. This “other” space

maybe the “ought to be”, the ideal contrast to the actual which is a heterotopia of

compensation. (Dehaene & De Cauter 2008; French journal of Architecture /Mouvement/

Continuité 1984)

According to Foucault bipower is a technology of power that encompasses various

techniques into a single technology of power. It is political technology that allows for the

total control of entire populations and is essential to the modern nation state and modern

capitalism. It directly means having power over bodies, he defines it as “an explosion of

numerous and diverse techniques for achieving the subjugation of bodies and the control

of populations” (Chatzoglakis 2007; Foucault 1990; Gutting 2005). It concerns itself with

the governments concern with fostering the life of the population, and is centred on the

poles of intellectual disciplines such as biology etc. “Anatomo-politics of the human

body”

Foucault approaches the bio power and the analysis behind his work in general though a

“repressive hypothesis” which can be said to be the modern Western culture’s long

standing attitude towards sex and sexuality over the past centuries (Foucault 1990). The

discourse of sex and the act of sex in itself is, under the repressive hypothesis, described

as being continuously and increasingly being repressed since around the 17 th century and

culminated itself in the Victorian era where sex was treated as a taboo and was restrained

and contained within the confines of the bedroom of the nuclear family or in domains of

profit such as prostitution and psychiatry. Here, one must bear in mind that in this period

a bedroom was not something the average family had as is today, which made sex a

luxury if it was not purely for reproductive purposes. This repression put in a controlled

environment, since sex was considered to be something that was “anti” capitalistic

production the repression itself formed, therefore, part of the “oppressive regime of

capitalism” (Foucault & Rabinow, 1984; Foucault 1990).

It seems therefore that there exists a rebellious entity within this hypothesis that holds that

within the operation of power is an element of oppression through its system of rules and

laws. That which is oppressed is the “truth” which would work against the power and

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therefore our goal is to fight the power and reveal the truth from which we would attain

liberation and freedom. In this sense talking about sexuality and exposing it is a

revolution in itself, against capitalism (Foucault & Rabinow, 1984). Moreover, Foucault

does not believe that we have this view genuinely because we have been oppressed but

rather that this view is not totally wrong but is twisted. He suggests that rather than being

oppressed, sex was an obsession for the Victorians as an example. Their discussions on

sex took up a scientific umbrella and were drawn out of the lay domain of gossip and

caused the topic to become more discussed in various discourses (Foucault & Rabinow,

1984).

For Foucault bio-power represents the shift from aristocratic modes of power, the rule of

the sword, to one that is inline with modernity and civilization (Foucault & Rabinow,

1984). According to Foucault, bio power may ne seen through factors: the regulation of

the population, the discipline of the individuals and finally the “dispositifs sexuels” which

function is to be a link between the previous two components (Foucault 1990).

In the regulation of the population bio-power seeks to increase life and life processes. As

a result such forces as eugenics, racism and demography have come to play in the modern

world. These forces have caused man to reflect on himself in a new light in relation to his

surroundings and others pertaining concepts such as the “species” and “races”, meaning

that the human has become a biological object and as result can be applied to sciences of

quantity and space. This view of race enables the re-evaluation of the necessity of

survival as a “species” against other species competing for the same things, which

justifies wars between nations as opposed to the struggle for sovereignty. Individually

there was and still is more focus on disciplinary and rehabilitative action rather than

actions of retribution so as to save the population so that it may contribute to the power of

the state. Foucault expresses that this had the least to do with humanitarian sentiments but

rather an increase in the influence of the concept of bio-power. One must express a

concern of ours here and genuinely question how much of these bio-power concepts were

consciously applied by states to achieve the seemingly subliminal results. Mr Foucault

proposes, this is not to underestimate the intelligence of the state but he may have run the

risk, and successfully thereto, of proving an unintended conspiracy and at the same time

shed light on a power unknown to the state. Through this at best the state may learn to

17


limit and control it for its positive traits, at worst learn to harness its full capacity for evil

intents (Foucault 1990).

It is important to understand that historically the connection between capitalism and bio-

power has been one that reflects that of the abrasion between biology and history,

according to Foucault. The freedom that Western Europeans got from the threat of death

from famines and epidemics in the “classic age” due to increased productivity in

agriculture, encouraged population growth and prosperity and as a result thereto men

became aware of the possibility of taking control over life’s processes and therefore their

measurement and almost specifically calculate policies and reorganize institutions to

enhance them, which is partly the origin of bio-power. The other has to do with the

European Interaction Sphere (EIS) in which the explicit control and enhancement of life

processes was at this time practiced and reinforced. Eventually, according to Foucault, all

European states were engaged in competition with the church, internally, and externally

with one another and s a result of this they exercised more power on their populations and

natural geography which was therefore scientifically objectified, calculated, quantified,

and exploited. As this competition intensified in the EIS continually after 1500 each state

reinforced to being nation-state which was founded on and fuelled by bio-power, mass

government and capitalism (Foucault 1990; Foucault Rabinow 1984).

3.2 Identity and culture

One way of defining identity is through Anthony Gidden’s (1991) ideas that combine

modernity’s challenges to the definition of oneself. Giddens describes how people

transmit one selves as selves in the modern world and that belonging is central to the

understanding of existence, and therefore also identity. As a result from the modernity,

one of the fundamental principles of its character questions everything and therefore

scepticism becomes a part of the reality. On the other hand the trust to knowledge is

extremely high, for instance scepticism has rarely space in peoples confidence on modern

medical knowledge. Although modernity leaves a room for everyone to make up their

own mind where goes the lines of doubt. One can not abstain from evaluating or

interpreting the way one exists, when the process is carried by in forms of clothing,

18


hairstyle or e.g. by beliefs. Simplifying answering to the question ‘please tell something

about yourself’ is already handling existential matters in forms of identity. Everything is

happening in the sense of awareness and if not in connection to discursive consciousness

but at least in means of practical consciousness. Individual places one self to the

surroundings according to the feeling of safety, which can be gained through routines,

planning or simply by everyday activities. (35-36, 43-44; Chatzoglakis 2007)

Several different influencing forces are shaping identity, but the ground lays on

acceptance from the surroundings. Self-identity can be called to be a reflexively

organised attempt to be one among the others- either in group and/or as an individual. In

other words identity can be seen as something that one is not inborn with; rather, identity

is shaping as an impulsive project that one continuously forms and reflects on in life. The

meaning system is formed through many aspects such as the worldview, social order,

norms or legimitation, and its being ‘tested’ with anxiety in situations where the known

pattern can not be used (McGuire 2002, 25-32, Giddens 1991). After successfully fronted,

handled and possibly shaped existence of identity by answering to the existential

questions, the balance in ontological safety is gained. Therefore anxiety is used as a tool

to ‘gain freedom’, to question reality and attain new authenticity (Giddens 1991, 42-43,

47-48). In relation to existential questions the process of conversion is evident because

through such progression, where individual recognizes the rest of the society and own

personal place in it, the whole meaning system is transformed to a new phase by reshaped

position and feeling of belonging (McGuire 2002, 73-74; Nordin 2006). According to

Giddens, self-identity is one of the four existential questions in one’s life, among

existence of itself; others and human life, and they all play a role in shaping the

ontological safety to one’s life. (47-55)

Ontological safety, according to Giddens, is a “confidence or trust that the natural and

social worlds are as they appear to be, including the basic existential parameters of self

and social identity” (Giddens, 1984, 375). It is a need for trust and safety, which are

gained through planning, action and routines of various forms. The feeling of security

arises from discursive and practical consciousness among daily routines and everyday

activities. (35-36, 43-44) Heidegger (1999) on the other hand defines ontology as “the

doctrine of being” that deals with the general principles of being in the sense that one

19


shapes one’s own destiny and freedom but is closely related to the society where the

person is living in. Thus Giddens and Heidegger’s views of ontology combine at least on

the level where a person is closely influenced by the surroundings. Giddens points out

that the practical consciousness has an emotively and cognitively important role in

ontological safety where the natural attitude involving the questions of ourselves, world

and others are taken for granted in order to continue everyday activity in the same form as

usually. (Giddens 1991, 36-37) The safety is experienced through networks or for

example with the non-existence of conflicts, fear or threats. Security can be settled by

letting citizens to be involved in local networks including the sense of belonging,

activities and in any other way where the activity is visible and expected within the

community. This kind of deviation can be seeing e.g. in steady environment, child-

parents-relationship or even put into a context of relationship.

Therefore, by placing the feeling of safety to the everyday life, one needs to se the

connection to the sense of identity that is founded on social interactions. The belonging

and therefore a big part of identity is shaped through communities and the shared values,

practices and beliefs. These factors can also reflect the ‘lifestyle’ that one has chosen to

live, since the idea of belonging on something, is essential for one’s understanding on

giving meanings to the life itself. The lifestyle that one finds his identity suitable in can

also be a result of a negotiation with the society. Identity is formed by the environments,

but also the environment is changing and accommodating because of the identities

surrounding it. In a modern society in order to find one’s identity, the focal questions of

‘What to do? Who to be? And How to act?’ needs to be answered. Thus since the identity

formation is a reciprocal process, by creating the ‘other’, also the self-identity is created

(Giddens 1991, 70).

Culture is a very complicated concept which is clearly connected to the concept of

identity. Its definition has been changing constantly over time thus the study of multiple

cultures from a more anthropological perspective has developed only slowly (Jandt 2001).

Nowadays the understanding of culture includes something that defines it as a shared

‘way of life’ of a certain group (Hall 1997, 2). Culture and culture identity is a

combinations of shared behaviours, traditions or for example way of clothing, but

members of the same culture must also share sets of concepts, ideas and images which

20


allow them to think and feel about the world, and thus to interpret the world, in around

comparable ways. Furthermore important for the shared culture is that the members are

able to share, broadly speaking, the same ‘cultural codes’ (Hall 1997, 4). A certain culture

may be attributed to any group, may it be a social class, an age group, a sports team or

only a group of friends, although in general the term culture is used in reference to

national cultures and to the division of the world into different cultural spheres. All

cultural elements are learned through interaction with others within the culture (Jandt

2001, 9).

Everyone has a cultural identity, which according to Jandt, is an “identification with and

perceived acceptance into a culture” (Jandt 2001, 499), a sense of cultural belonging,

although not everyone necessarily emphasizes his culture as an essential part of his

identity. Cultural identity is constructed when people encounter difference, i.e. the contact

with people who behave different from the own conventions creates the “other” and the

“self”. As Jandt puts it in an essentialist way: “we can have no direct knowledge of a

culture other than our own” (Jandt 2001, 7). Therefore, other cultures than our own

always remain rather mysterious for us which provides ground for stereotyping and

prejudice, thus highlighting mainly the differences to the own culture.

3.3 Nation and nation building

The idea of nation is based on pattern that rests it grounding on cultural or social

community. Nationhood on the other hand is a philosophical and ethnical concept and

therefore it has the basis for nationalism and ideologies. (Chatzoglakis 2006, Nordin

2006) One way of approaching religion is seeing it simplified to ideology where members

share the same kind of identity or feeling of belonging (Nordin 2006), which is also one

of the most important aspects in nationalism as well. Nationalism is closely tied to nations

which consist on many layers in social contexts, religion being one part of them. The

reason why religion is found as one of the most powerful influencing forces in the

societal world is the fact that it has impact not only on individuals but also on developing

and shaping societies. Therefore discussing nationalism as “religion” brings up several

21


interesting indicates and can be seeing a part of nationalism or approached also in the

sense where nationalism has similar kind of ‘force’ to people than religion. Religion is

also a sign of social unity (McGuire 8-13, 37) just like sharing a nationalist view which

may be strengthened using for instance powerful language while giving speeches or

ensuring of being blessed and special or when nations are using the concept of the

‘Chosen people’ by trying to create the feeling of being selected and furthermore by

gaining a community feeling (Baumann 1999, 42-45).

Both religion and nationalism are also based on plausibility structures and consequently

sharing a common meaning system (37), thus they are making a difference between “us”

and “them” and strengthening the primordial ties to the group added to the connection

with sovereignty (Eriksen 2002, 96-98; Chatzoglakis 2006) making the individual feel

like being a member of something and belonging to the group, therefore nationalism may

be discussed to have the same effect on people than religion.

At this point it is relevant to mention the relation between globalization and nation-state,

even though the issue will be discussed further on the chapter 3.6. As modernity and

globalization are influencing to the meanings of a nation-state, there are many point of

views how one can contemplate the character of a nation-state in a globalized world.

Several international contracts, alliances and unions, such as EU have inevitably chanced

the character of a nation-state. Also other the phenomenon of a globalization, such as

increased migration or rapidly developed communication network, has automatically

composed a nations-state against new political and economic challenges. At the same

time globalization invites nation-states to strengthen the national feeling and protect the

sovereignty in a new level when states need to accommodate to the changed international

atmosphere. Furthermore, when a nation-state can be defined as a certain form of state

with sovereignty among people with the same cultural or ethnic entity, it is obvious that

migration and multiculturalism as parts of globalization is threatening the traditional way

of explaining a nation-state (Castles 2003: 253, 286-8; Boli & Thomas 2000: 265-8;

Eriksen 2002 96-8, 107-8, 166).

Here, it is important to notice also the fact that state can be said to be formed with social

organisations which are based on kinship (Eriksen 2002:108) and that the willingness to

22


maintain or continue the development of the nation is related to national reproduction.

Generally, all nations are interested in a way or in another about the way how structures

are changing within the population and how they modify nation’s economy, culture or in

general the future. The nations opinion about the national and ethnic collectivity may vary

from the ‘common origin’ to the ‘common destiny’ depending on for example nations

own history.

3.4 Race/ Ethnicity and Class

Race and ethnicity are really important aspects on individual and group identity, and

sometimes people may identify themselves with more than one racial, ethnic or socio-

cultural group. The identity that is created may even change varying on the specific

context or circumstances. The fluid feature of belonging on something according to the

race or ethnicity allows individuals to react to societal or individual changes and therefore

feel part of societies, communities or other groups easily. All in all people seem to have

‘a natural instinct’ to make oneself as a part of some assembly. (Marsh et.al. 2007)

The word ‘ethnicity’ has in all possible definitions something to do with ‘classification

people and group relationships’ (Eriksen 2002:4) and in other words ethnicity means that

a group of people share the same culture or have a common history. The same culture can

be a language, religion or other symbols. Language is an important element and moreover

one of the key factors when talking about a group’s ethnicity (Hutchinson & Smith1997).

According to Balibar (1996) all kinds of characteristics, both visible and invisible may

create a fiction about racial identity and therefore representing natural differences

between social groups in the nation. The individual’s origins transfer from generation to

generation; this creates a kinship between people in the nation. People that are living in

the same nation compose one people and are all related to each other (Hutchinson &

Smith 1997).

Relating to the ‘class’ issues, we will briefly discuss Karl Marx’s class theory as there is

much talk social differentiation based on class in reggae rhetoric. Societies have always

23


created and maintained a hierarchy among their members, dividing people to categories

according to wealth, strength or for example leadership. The perception of class has its

basis often on the type of a job the people are having or to which family one is born, and

therefore they portray one’s the social status, economic resources and the access to

political power within the society (Marsh et. al 2007).

Marx was the first person to criticise Victorian Britain’s class structures, approaching not

only those of upper class hereditary status but as well those that did not work hard enough

to deserve the luxurious lifestyles. He too attacked the ruling class, the church

stratification and the military use to maintain such power. His basic stance was that class

entails that individuals share long term economic interests based on the (non) ownership

of production means and that these individuals are in agreement and recognize the

common interest. This description, though not in depth will be sufficient for the purposes

of this paper (Marsh et al 2007).

3.5 Gender

The concept of “gender” has being highly debated since the distraction between social

and biological gender was questioned. In this context we want to discuss “gender” mainly

as a cultural designation, not a biological one. It has become clear that a fully sociological

understanding of gender disturbed the notion of biological difference as an

uncomplicated, sort of a ‘given’ fact. The social division into men and women, including

also the cultural distinction, raises questions concerning what does it mean to be a woman

or a man in certain situations, cultures, places and in this case as a part of reggae culture

(Jackson & Scott 2001).

Judith Butler has defined gender as not being a noun or set or attributes that would

possibly be subjectively free. “Gender” is a part of rationality that gender roles have

created, thus it also seems to be rather performative, and more importantly as constituting

the identity that is claimed to be existing. Therefore, according to Butler, gender can not

be defined straight as gender identity behind the expression of gender, since the ‘gender’

24


is performed by various expressions which are said to be the results of belonging to a

gender. (Butler 1990)

According to Brett (1991), gender is culture specific, and it not only varies from a culture

to another, but it may also vary within cultures over time. Therefore also gender roles

within a sub culture may vary according to the time and even location. Simply put, as

culture itself, gender as a concept, is not a static one, but changing perception. Gender is

therefore portraying all factors of the society, including the determination according to

the culture, economic aspect or for example the socio-political factors.

3.6 Globalisation

The ongoing globalisation of production is a complex process about which no common

definition or even a general acknowledgement of its existence can be reached amongst

experts and scholars. Globalisation can be tried to explain as a broadly affecting

phenomenon that is taking over the world in means of international technological,

political, economical and even cultural unification. The world is gradually turning more

towards a global market with fewer restrictions, where services, products and even ideas

are available for everyone in any hour of the day or night. The influence of globalisation

has made state borders to loose their traditional significance and partly change even their

identity in some extent and to focus more inclusively into the developments within

economy, communication and for example politics on a global level (Dicken 2007: 122,

173, 179; Giddens 1991: 225).

Therefore one can state that globalizing world is all about flows and exchange. The

people, goods, money and even cultural influences are flowing across national boarders

easier and more effectively. Therefore we can divide the phenomenon into a cultural,

economic or political globalization. The world has always been interconnected but the

magnitude of interaction has been exceptional in the past history due to the technological,

economic and political developments. The time and space have shrunk and we can speak

for instance about a time-space compression, that accelerates the experience of time thus

reduces the significance of distance with different technologies connected to travelling,

25


economics or communication. (Harvey 1990: 240; Nilsson 2008; Lechner & Boli 2000:

119, 137, 145, 195, 283; Hobsbawm 2000: 56; Giddens 1991: 21-2, 32)

Globalization and nation-state have interesting relation between each other because of the

changes that globalizing world demands from a nation-state. There are several opinions

whether globalization is making a nation-state to loose its significance or not and what

global world is doing for the feeling of being a part of a state, member of a community or

for example as a member of sub culture under the mainstream national culture (Ohmae

2000: 208-11). Globalization invites nation-states to strengthen the national feeling and

protect the sovereignty in a new level when states need to accommodate to the changed

international atmosphere. Furthermore, when a nation-state can be defined as a certain

form of state with sovereignty among people with the same cultural or ethnic entity, it is

obvious that migration and multiculturalism as parts of globalization is threatening the

traditional way of explaining a nation-state thus it is taking the concept of sub culture also

to a new level. (Castles 2003: 253, 286-8; Boli & Thomas 2000: 265-8; Eriksen 2002 96-

8, 107-8, 166)

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4 THE RESEARCH

4.1 Used Material

The lyrics that were analysed were by birth period criteria, the artists are born between

the 1970s and 1980s. Another criteria used was that the material was from European,

American, Scandinavian, African and West-Indies reggae artists. The profound motive

for this limitation rises from the fact that when studying reggae as a subculture, one has to

take into consideration that the ‘phenomenon’ occurs all over the world8.

The used analysis methods in this study were a mixture of material-based analysis of

contents and discursive textual analysis, which were introduced by Tuomi and Sarajärvi

(2002). They consists of three steps: simplifying, categorise and creating theoretical

concepts. The used methods were partly shaped to be more relevant to the material gained

from the interview and the size of the study leaving out some smaller analysing parts. The

method can be used as a tool to study the gained material by making different and clear

categories from the topics or for example simple words mentioned in the data. In other

words the used methods could also be seen simply as coding, and it is based on an

interpretation and deduction, with the aim of gaining main concepts from the analysed

text and in our case from the notes of the observations. (Tuomi & Sarajärvi 2002, 110–

112, 115)

In the first stage the lyrics were reduced. In other words all the irrelevant material was

excluded and therefore the focus remained on material that was relevant to the operational

questions. From relevant information some were used as quotes to illustrate perceptions

and the results. (Tuomi & Sarajärvi 2002, 110–112, 115) In the second step the

expressions and words were categorised so as to devise a narrative of the reggae society

in Malmö, a sort of national identity to be specific. Together with the analysed lyrics the

observations were combined through interpretation and deduction into main concepts that

are represented under analysis and conclusion.

8 ‘All over the world’ refers in this context to a broad audience that is not connected to any physical place.

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4.2 Scientific and philosophical basis of the study

Every study has its own philosophical questions or so called basic assumptions. These

assumptions may concern the world or for example the people and general opinions

(Hirsjärvi, Remes & Sajavaara 2004, 120) and in our case attitudes about reggae as a

subculture and the narratives that for the identities of its participants. The hypothesis that

we have as individuals, are due to the picture that media is giving about the musical

sphere of reggae, or how we have experienced ourselves within the subculture. Therefore

one of the challenging factors of this study was that we as researchers had to consider the

matter in its true aspects and not how we experience reggae by ourselves. Our pre

assumptions were neutralized and the results of the study came out as reliable.

The understanding of scientific and philosophical basis of the study is especially

important in the beginning of the research process and the basis of the study can be

contemplated from four different aspects: Logic, epistemology, ontology and teleology.

Epistemological and ontological notions are not only especially vital for the study but

also problematic. Epistemological analysis deals matters related to gathering information

with the questions like “How will I receive information about the wanted matter?”

Ontology on the other hand focuses on the nature of the truth with questions like “How do

I understand the subject that I study?” With the help of these questions the frame of the

study is accomplished thus the wanted approach was also shaped. (Hirsjärvi et. al. 2004,

121; 114–115, 120, Alasuutari 1999)

4.3 Material collation and coverage

As mentioned before the lyrics were selected without any specific criteria, but the artists

were chosen based on their geographical location. The main idea was to construct as wide

representative group as possible by choosing people with different cultural and historical

backgrounds, thus include the language as possible influencing factor to the analysis. The

argument for this kind of selection was that when studying subcultures it is interesting to

see if there are some differences based on the dominant culture. Moreover the possible

differences in relation to the dominant culture are planned to be seen easier though

28


observation done by the researchers. The amount of representatives is restricted to the

time limits of the study, but surely the subject should be studied further with bigger

coverage as well.

Moreover, as the aim of the study was primarily to gain an understanding of reggae

identity in surroundings of Malmö, and therefore also the observations were done in those

surroundings. Even though the study was focusing on possible special features of reggae

in Malmö, our attention was not to exclude mainstream observations about reggae culture

in general. These ‘other’ observations were gained from MTV and through internet and

they were combined with the findings of observations in Malmö surroundings.

4.4 Reliability and Validity

The research aims on reliable results but still the possible negative sides that could have

influenced on those needs to be noted. Reliability measures how well the results could be

repeated in another similar study (Hirsjärvi et. al. 2004, 216). Concerning our study, we

believe that if the study would be repeated with a similar coverage it would give similar

results, unless the lyrics would be selected with different base. For example, if the lyrics

would be selected based on song names so that similar names such as ‘love’ or ‘power’

would be used as a criteria, the results would probably more narrow. We do acknowledge

the fact that Malmö as a studied surrounding represents a bit different presentation of

population that other Swedish cities because of the high percentage of multiculturalism in

relation to the total amount of inhabitants in Malmö, and therefore only through

observations the character of the findings might variate a bit. All in all, we believe that

the results would still not have significant variation because of the general character of

reggae. Moreover, in this point, it is important to mention that this study will follow the

ethical values of Swedish Research Councils research ethics9.

Another concept that measures study’s quality is validity, which means that the focus is

on the chosen study method, and furthermore is that is the best to measure and analyse

wanted topics. Sometimes different methods do not give answers to wanted questions, for

example questioners could be understood in different ways. In other words the risk to the

misunderstanding is firstly when the questioner is answered and secondly when it is

9 The research ethnics may be read from the URL address: http://www.vr.se/mainmenu/researchethics.4.69f66a93108e85f68d48000116.html

29


interpreted. Moreover, in a qualitative research the reporting is really important so that

reliability is guaranteed through well explained study process (Hirsjärvi et. al. 2004, 216–

217).

In general we find the research reliable and valid, but few matters are relevant to mention

about analysis. The reliability is stressed when straight quotes are included to the study

results, so that reader can see were the conclusions started. Furthermore all quotes are

written precisely in the same way as the artists have published them. The lyrics are often

written in slang form, so that the meaning can be said to be less obvious to a reader. In a

listened form the interpretation is often easier to shape. To avoid a possible risk for

misunderstanding we read lyrics and listened the songs so that the message became

obvious. On the other hand, occasionally the way how texts are expressed changes the

interpretation, and the way how these variations are interpreted can give different results.

Another factor that made analysis challenging, is that the language, slang and expression

in reggae music are not always easily understood.

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5 ANALYSIS

The analysis part is divided under smaller headings where the results are introduced and

examined, and they will be discussed further and summed up on the conclusion chapter.

Thereby every heading represents a part of the results gained from the used analysis

methods that were introduced by Tuomi and Sarajärvi (2002) and thereby gives a piece of

an answer to the question ‘What includes a concept of reggae as a subculture in itself?’

Used method consisted of three steps: simplifying, categorise and creating theoretical

concepts and since this method is based on an interpretation and deduction, and the aim

was to gain main concepts from the analysed text and they are discussed and argued

under each result. All in all, every heading is in this manner one of the main concepts that

came out after analysis process.

5.1 The Community

The ‘community’ became as one of the three main concepts after using Tuomi and

Sajajärvi’s methods of analysing chosen lyrics and observations. Theoretical concept was

found after classifying analyzed lyrics and their keywords and sayings into smaller sub-

concepts together with the interpretation from the happenings. Furthermore, the findings

are presented under smaller headings that describe the concept ‘community’ more

defiantly.

5.1.1 Reggae and Belonging

The idea of belonging is fundamental to our understanding of how people’s lives become

meaningful as both Giddens and Foucault states. The identity that makes life meaningful

is created though social interaction which show the shared practices, beliefs and for

example traditions among the group. One could argue that people have a ‘natural need’ to

belong, and through different choices in everyday life one can strengthen the feeling of

belonging. The choices can be anything from clothing and music to position in a group,

community or a network one is living in. Human being develops a sense of belonging

automatically and it involves a process of membership or exclusion. Some groups create

31


and develop naturally, such as family. Other groups and belonging to them, like

belonging into reggae subculture, is one’s own choice in some level to become a member

of the group.

Reggae seems to have obvious relation on giving definitions of belonging through music.

The concept of belonging can be interpreted as a defined group, as one unit, where the

belonging can be based on race, culture, sex, religion, ethnicity or social status. Belonging

in reggae culture is also based on these elements, and they get highlighted depending on

the chosen song. Therefore belonging may be based on for example the unifying elements

of strength or been not a part of majority population or on the other hand been a woman

or for example a member of ‘a black community’ or an immigrant community in general.

During our observations and talks with the participants we found out that many of them

seemed to have feeling and experience of some sort of social exclusion and

discrimination leading to less involvement in official social, civil and political life in the

host country of Sweden. At the same time, many of the participants showed important

signs of integration, for example how their bilingualism and trans-national identity and

consciousness work as special skill in the Swedish society. However, when segregation

from the majority population exists it decreases the economic and social well-being of

ethnic minorities because it is both a cause and consequence of inequality in the housing

system, labour market, and access to the more general opportunity structure. All these

details combined together gives also another type of understanding for reggae as a

unifying factor and as a creator of a shared community among immigrants, even though

the community includes also local people in Malmö.

In sociology a ’community’ has traditionally been defined as a group of interacting

people living in a common location, although the word is often used to mean an urban

community. (Thornton 1997, 2) However, the definition has evolved and been enlarged to

mean individuals who share characteristics, regardless of their location or type of

interaction, so reggae as a subculture can be placed into this definition. In other words,

this kind of "community" can mean a community of interest. Therefore, not depending on

what these meaning to the word ‘community’ includes, they all refer to the strength of the

ties between the members of the groups. In terms of reggae this character may be seen

with simple phrases when other members are called as ‘brothers’ and ‘sisters’ in order to

32


show the unity within the community. At the same time the community, experiences in

terms or reggae culture, mostly does not define the members according to any religion,

race or for example origin and therefore the ‘community’ can be defined as people who

are searching for harmony. As following lyrics show, the unifying nature of the reggae

and belonging that is not excluding anyone is one of the main messages that have tried to

be given to the audience:

Simmer down, gather round and share the vision - Brothers and Sisters lift your voice and

we will listen in the midd´s of last days, as we pray for new beginnings make a mends for

the past and find new ways to make decisions , to the Muslims, Jews and Christians burn

the borders and baptize all our sons and daughters on common shores of common waters,

understand the metaphor,: see the race goes not to the swift but to he who adore.

(Gentleman, Trodin’ On)

In our participatory discussions with people who considered themselves a s a part of

reggae culture relating to ‘the community’ and more specifically ‘belonging’, the

participants stressed that their affinity to each other is on an individual and personal level,

and they felt that their relationships outside the subculture is to survive since they had a

common and uniting ground in reggae. The participants listened as well to other types of

music, mostly hip hop. We wondered why those that felt that if they were to have an

obvious affinity to any other music it would be hip hop; they said it had the same roots as

reggae does.

As a conclusion, reggae seems to have rather clear relation on giving definitions of

belonging through lyrics. The concept of belonging can be interpreted as a defined group,

as one unit, where the belonging can be based on race, gender, religion, social status,

culture or ethnicity or even as a culmination of all these things together as we also noticed

on our observations.

5.1.2 Criterion for Exclusion

In order to be able to discuss the criterion for exclusion, the belonging to the culture

needs to be understood as something that may be based on race, gender, religion, social

33


status, culture or ethnicity or even as a culmination of all these things together as stated

above. As we think logically, inclusion on some group creates automatically exclusion,

since the division of needed characters is conceptualised.

The individuals within the community of reggae can be seen as relying a lot on the

ontological safety, by knowing that they are a part of something bigger while they can

relate their problems and dreams on the lyrics. In Foucault’s terms of ‘Technologies of

the self’ the participants can relate themselves through the music when they are part of

something and when they transform themselves to the atmosphere in order to attain a state

of purity, wisdom, happiness or even a feeling of immortality with other participants who

feel the same unity. Simultaneously, not fully understanding of the message of music and

lyrics may also work as criteria for exclusion, although sometimes exclusion is totally

chosen opportunity based on for example different music taste.

During the course of our research we were flooded with different emotions and reactions

pertaining individual relations towards reggae. We noticed that amongst Africans in

particular, there were those that partook in the reggae subculture and felt much closer

relation to the subculture and felt that they had a higher claim towards the subculture

because the music expressed and talked more about their lives and their social context as

compared to the natives.10 The natives lay no claim nor did they recognise the claim of

any other group over the subculture because those we interacted with expressed that the

unity proposed in reggae texts is one of love that should neither be limited by race nor

demarcated by nationality. Take note, the Africans in Malmö that we interacted with in

the subculture expressed no desire or intention that non-Africans should not partake in the

subculture, as a rule from the bedrock of reggae: “Rasta nah discriminate!” this was a

statement reiterated often by individuals in the interaction groups. On the other hand, the

division to hierarchies can be seen in many ways through the lyrics, even though the

people taking part to the events would not pay attention the messages in the songs.

Taking one example of obvious exclusion may be taken from Sizzla’s song ‘Beautiful

People’ that makes a straight statement about what is considered beautiful and what not.

If the song would be interpretedsimply according to what is said, tha message would be

that any other population than black in excluded from the belonging to the culture.

10 Swedish natives, participant in the reggae subculture in Malmö.

34


He sings:

“Beautiful world, beautiful people, Praise Rastafari and study no evil, Beautiful world,

beautiful black people” (Sizzla, Beautiful People)

The lyrics express a narrative that is being used by the listeners to selectively mould a

reggae discourse in Malmö. Even though the lyrics speak of race and black race

supremacy the participants seem to selectively avoid those lyrics, and exclude them from

their own specific narratives.

When discussing the ways of exclusion, as said the skin colours and ethnicity comes up in

reggae lyrics and times to time also in observations (both sites such as MySpace or for

example how people gather together in events creating ethnic groups by choosing their

place to stand). Exclusion may also be seen when it comes to economical- and societal

status as will be further discussed in later parts under the analysis heading in this paper.

5.1.3 Ethnicity and Class

In general the message from reggae lyrics may be seen as the aim of unity, unifying all

ethnicities together as one sub-cultural entity without paying attention on one’s race or

class. On the other hand the deviation into ethnic groups can be seen as it is clear that for

example Sizzla like other Jamaican reggae artists refers a lot to Ethiopians, and Africa

and the royalty of black people with similar characters as for example Eriksen (2002)

describes to be important for ethnicity and nation building. A t the same time Sizzla’s

lyrics are speaking of the need to love all equally without prejudice which gives him a

double standard in relation to ethnicity’s and class’ importance. The message in reggae

lyrics may often be hidden, when the first ‘provocative’ or one could say ‘a hard line’

remains in the mind of the listener. As discussed before in relation to exclusion, Sizzla

highlights the beauty of black people in the song ‘Beautiful People’ by saying:

”Beautiful world, beautiful black people” but he continues:

“So then yuh betta be wise, and open up yuh eyes

35


And help di people to rise, be unified, never divide, whoa whoa whoa!!!”

and therefore in the end he wants to accomplish a message saying that all people should

unify and live wisely. But on the other hand the fact that the glorification of some race

above other races is a sign of exclusion, discrimination and in some term even racism. As

an opposite perspective to “black reggae”, the European and American artists we study

refrain from employing race in their musical texts. Gentleman for example states an equal

pride in the origin and history, no matter where they are from and how they are like. He

states:

“Blessed with roots and culture” (Gentleman, Trodin On)

Gentleman’s lyrics are an example of the highlighting of one race, human race, together

with stressing the fact that no matter what class one is from, we are all the same and we

should be good for each other. He sings:

“Let us find a resting place no mater culture critter race

Ina world dat fast pace communication often double face

Beyond dem cost of living may hays dem move on

Let us form a bond det´s everlasting like the past to trod upon “ (Gentleman, Trodin On)

From the analysed lyrics of this study we can make a simplified conclusion that reggae as

a subculture represents an idea that aims on creating an own class from different

ethnicities based on people who unify themselves with an ideology and music and the

message from them. Support for this way of interpreting the lyrics was found while

speaking to the members of reggae scene in Malmö.

5.1.4 Religion or Subculture?

The reggae music and its lyrics handle a lot of religious matters, how to do the right thing

and the relation to God in general so thereby it can be discussed whether reggae can be

seen as a religion or as a subculture. Therefore both of these concepts need to be briefly

defined.

36


Religion can be defined in two ways, through substantive- and functional definitions’,

focusing what religion is and what does it do. Religion is also a sign of social unity

(McGuire 8-13, 37) just like sharing a nationalist view which may be strengthened using

for instance powerful language while giving speeches or ensuring of being blessed and

special or when groups are using the concept of ‘Chosen people’ by trying to create the

feeling of being selected and furthermore by gaining a community feeling. (Baumann

1999, 42-45). In general religion can be said to be a set of beliefs and practices, which is

often centred upon specific moral claims about reality or for example good way to live

the life. Prayers, rituals and religious laws guide the religion and it has strong traditions.

The term "religion" refers to both the personal practices related to communal faith and to

group rituals and communication branching from shared belief. The relationship between

Rastafarian religion and reggae exists and it could be said not only to be a religion but a

way of life. Rastafarians and reggae music speaks about poverty, inequality and

oppression, which are not only religious problems, but global issues. (McGuire 28, 52-56,

99, 210, 242).

Within sociological sphere mainly four different narratives have been dominating the

understanding of changes connected to religion. They focus on religions place, role and

future in one’s world, and how people find religion as a part of their life and in which

levels. McGuire 2001: 285, 299) Therefore we started focusing on these same four

concepts in the events we were observing and realized that they work also in relation of

trying to find understanding for reggae cultures role in one’s life. Reggae seems to have

similar role to people than often is described to be the main characters of religion in forms

of safety, continuation and for example comforter.

The religious symbols are often mentioned in the analysed texts. Sometimes they are cited

only with words like ‘Jah’, ‘God’ or for example ‘pray’, but usually religious side can be

interpreted from the message that the song has. Gentleman’s song ‘Trodin On’ is a

describable example how the song use religious symbols as a powerful courier to the

message. At the same time, the equality, unification and acceptance can obviously be seen

as one of the many messages in the song:

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‘Brothers and Sisters lift your voice and we will listen in the midd´s of last days, as we

pray for new beginnings make a mends for the past and find new ways to make decisions,

to the Muslims, Jews and Christians burn the borders and baptize all our sons and

daughters on common shores of common waters, understand the metaphor,: see the race

goes not to the swift but to he who adore.’

The songs mention religion often as a helping power in life, and praise the greatness and

let listeners know what the artist believes in. Therefore the openness to show one’s own

belief is natural part of reggae. Sizzla sings:

Uh huh! Boom! Solomon shaker, Rastafari is the creatorKalonji a di greatest, uh huh!!!My desire is to get higher I’m inspired by the most high, yeah yeah yeahMy desire is to get higher I‘m inspired by the most high, Rastafari!!! (Sizzla, Beautiful People)

And he continues: “Praise Rastafari and study no evil” (Sizzla, Beautiful People)

Subculture in a concept that refers to a subdivision of a national culture which creates the

basis of belonging with the combination of social situations such as class status, religious

attachment, residence or for example ethnic background, or any other factor that

functionally unify the act or a group collectively on each member (Gordon 1997:40-43;

Jenks 2005: 7). The members share often also a common language or special slang, which

may be clearly noticed while listening to reggae. Pierre Bourdieu (1986) and afterwards

also Sarah Thornton (1995) described subcultural capital as the cultural knowledge and

characteristics acquired by the members of a subculture, raising their status and helping

distinguish themselves from the members of other groups. (Gelder 1997: 148, 201-202)

While trying to recognize subcultures, age, race, ethnicity, class and for example gender

can be characteristic factors that create and establish subculture. Members of a certain

subculture often signal their belonging to the group through a characteristic and symbolic

use of style. By ’style’ is meant in this connection the way of using manners or for

example fashion (Gelder 1997). Therefore, the study of a subculture often consists of the

study of the symbols attached to clothing, music and other visible gestures, and also how

these same symbols are seen by the members of the dominant culture and the style can be

38


used as a communication way with the world outside the subculture (Nilsson 2008;

Gelder 1997, Hebdige 1997: 134) Therefore, religion and subculture are partly

overlapping each other, when religious attachment is giving a reason to be a member of

subculture.

On the other hand, one can say that subculture is an idea with a highly restricted currency

yet it has radical political dimensions and purposes which can either progress or

reactionary political sentiments (Jenks 2005: 129-135). With ‘style’, symbols and even

the conscious political dimension, reggae may be seen as a subculture rather than religion.

5.2Gender perspective

Julia Kristeva has argued that all forms of language are sites of struggle, and undoubtedly

the discussion over sexes and genders has been extremely exciting. The concepts of

‘woman’, ‘man’ and the cultural values that they carry have been highly discussed as re-

thought. (Fjellestad 1997: 13) Furthermore according to Michel Foucault sexuality is not

a natural quality of the body, but rather an effect of culturally and historically specific

power relations (151). Historically speaking, in patriarchal societies females are viewed

as the “weaker sex” and sexism rises from the idea, that women are inferior and men

privilege, and the discrimination against women is based on feminine gender and sex

(Tang Nain 2002, 117-120). Therefore the way reggae culture seems to be representing

rather traditional ways of portrays gender, sexuality and sexes it is extremely valuable to

take a deeper look on these matters.

Through the used language reggae may be identified with strong connection to valuating

strength, which occurs in interesting way in relation to gender. Strength and been strong

comes up often in reggae culture and in a way it may even give a person a reason to be a

member of the culture. Fighting against the negative sides of the world and been a loving

and tolerant person makes a person to be included and accepted to the ‘group’. Sizzla

states in ‘Be Strong’:

“Yes you got to be strong, and be all the that you can

The world is out there conquer your fears, and don't you wait too long”

39


The connection between been strong and gender relations may be seen for example when

reggae often carries a message that wants to point out the struggle that is to be taken up

by the men for the women and the children against Babylon, and when the women are to

support and hold on through the struggle because they must understand the struggle that

their men are going through. Queen Ifrica is a female artist representing reggae music by

singing for example about a woman who has been abused by her own father and therefore

her song is bringing up not only the struggle from female point of view. The lyrics are

really common way of reggae encouraging people to be strong and to believe in brighter

future:

“When yuh feel like giving up

Just shake it off and live it up

Di most high will deliver you

Cyaah jump di rope if yuh nuh try

Suh wipe da tears deh from yuh eye

Get di wings of confidence fi mek yuh fly

Tribulations a just fi mek yuh stronga

Love yuh self and it will help yuh fi get ova

Any flesh weh hurt a likkle yute will neva prospa

A passing on di message from di masta” (Queen Ifrica, Daddy)

Gender may be said to be presented in real traditional way, where man is the head of the

family without any exception which leaves space for the same question that Erskine 11

asked stating how a group that is fighting for ‘liberation’ can simultaneously have a

strong male dominance within own group. On the other hand, this does not exclude the

appreciation of women as mothers, wives or daughters. Moreover, reggae represents often

an opinion where homosexuality is not considered as accepted or so called normal sexual

behaviour. These issues will be discussed further on next three smaller headings.

11 Erskine’s study (2005) was discussed under the chapter ‘Previous research’.

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5.2.1 Women in Reggae

Reggae lyrics seem to be handling more issues that touch men’s life and the struggle of

life everyday life of women. On the other hand the way women are romanticised,

appreciated or seen as objects of affection may also be seen clearly from the way lyrics

represents womanhood.

Women’s roll has always been limited in reggae culture, mainly because of the Old

Testament. In the 1950’s women started to have hairstyles (dreadlocks), turbans and

scarves. Since dreads were one sign of acceptance, women became more accepted as a

part of the culture. Women, who respect the rules that involve them, may gain more

respect, even though active women within Rasta movement are clearly a minority. Dress

codes, language and the fact that women are active in the movement through men keep

women down. Furthermore in reggae music women are often represented as a sex

symbols or dependent of men (Cooper 1993: 48-52, 131) although the respect towards

mothers is often markable. The sexual side of reggae can especially be noticed through

observations in social events were people dance and show the interest on others on a

differential way than from the lyrics can be seen. The representation of women as sex

objects occurs also in so called conscious reggae lyrics, were the ways how women

should handle their men or how women’s task is to make men happy are often discussed

and the greatest expectation of these is to bear children. (Cooper 1993: 48-52, 131)

As strength is portrayed as a key character of a man, it is also emphasized as an important

nature in women. The strength among women infolds strength to stand by their man, to

understand their man and the strength as a mother.

The women are also portrayed in connection to the appreciation of true love. Many lyrics

handle the uniqueness of some specific woman or women in general. Raappana and

Gentleman sing:

“Prinsessa sä oot mun ainoo, ”Prinsess you are my only one,Sormus ei tee aviomiestä ei vaimoo Ring does not make a husband or neither a wifeSun kauneus aamusin, Your beauty in the mornings,Mun sielun aamia, its my souls delight

41


Teet joka päivä mulle olon kuninkaan.” Every day you make me feel like a king.”12 (Raappana, Ainoo)

”No mistaking in every thing you doAnd I will always be a part of youJah jah made us and he will see us throughAlways and forever babygirl this love is trueI´ve been searching for the longest timeAlmost givin´ up never thought I would findSeen many roses die on the vineBut a hidden tressure in you I man find” (Gentleman, Intoxication)

5.2.2 Masculinity

The stressing of masculinity is important in reggae since maintaining/gaining/decreasing

the manly honour and manhood are one of the obvious main areas of reggae. Masculinity

as a concept refers to the initiative that culturally ideal man behaviour exists and which

verify the dominant position over some other men thus subordination of women (Hearn &

Kimmel 2006). Reggae culture seems to be following the way of thinking where

characters such as drive, strength, ambition and for example self-reliance are highly

valued and since these qualities are considered also as a markable part of masculinity,

reggae culture can be said to be masculine culture.

Aggressiveness is also considered as a nature of masculinity, which can also be noticed

from the reggae culture. The message of being violent or aggressive is usually not aimed

on people and especially men to be aggressive against each other, but against the system,

the society, the Babylon. Aggressiveness is often used as a way to be heard through

different yells and expressions in the beginning of a song or between the choruses. One

example of making the message stronger and to be heard from Sizzla explains the usage

of aggressive expression as a tool:

Whoa oooh! Whoa whoa yerah!!!! Whoa ay!!! Whoa hey!!!Yeah, you got to get goin, no time for sitting downSome people not knowing life is a cycleYou gotta know how to get around, Woo! Ha! (Sizzla, Be Strong)

12 Free translation from Finnish to English,

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On the other hand when aggressiveness as a part of masculinity is wanted to see in

relation to the reggae culture, it should be aimed more towards Dancehall Reggae and the

tone it has while singing and the way people dance on it rather than the reggae this study

is focusing on. The way reggae culture sees a man as attractive is not because of the used

masculinity in the ‘traditional way’, but also because of their personality, intellectuality or

even because of economical status.

5.2.3 Femininity

Femininity is a concept that refers to behaviour and features that are ideally associated

with women and girls. On reggae culture these features are supportive and understanding

wife, warm and safe mother, hardworking housewife and for example good, well

behaving daughter. Therefore it could be said that the way how a woman is portrayed in

reggae includes many dimensions: the centre as a loved person, sexual creature, a nurturer

and as a queen, but it must be understood still that reggae narrative from the texts is

patriarchal and does not represent equality between the sexes. Sexual side of femininity

may be seen on the way media presents ‘youth music’ in general and therefore sexuality

of reggae occurs through clothing and for example through dance moves.

The importance of women to men may be seen from several texts that express man’s love

to his woman and the faithfulness they share.

‘Anytime me look ina your face You make my world a brighter place’ and ‘Love is what

you giving me throughout the years’ ( Gentleman, Intoxication)

Fertility is also often connected to femininity and reproductive system and these aspects

are especially appreciated in reggae culture. Therefore the motherhood is always

portrayed in a special light and during this study we felt like the most important role for

women in reggae culture is been a mother. Therefore it is interesting to establish that in

reggae the female’s significance is laid high but in a position that is complementary to the

male, and for the purposes of procreation and failure to do so affect your position in the

community. On the other hand Lady Saw as a writer for one of the analysed lyrics brings

up another dimension of femininity by talking about incapability to have children and the

woman’s value together with these problems.

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I may not know the joy of giving birth,

May not experience the pain and all the hurt,

But I know how it feels to lose a child,

And if pain is pain then I am hurting inside

If infertility makes me less than a girl,

What would I say to many women in this world

Would you tell them have faith,

Would you tell them be strong

Or would you tell them that they're less than a woman?

(No Less Than a Woman, Lady Saw)

Femininity is highly valued within women, but as femininity may also be connected to

men and their sexuality, it is important to note that reggae is strict in the sense that

homosexuality is highly condemned. During our research on this specific topic, it seemed

that in Malmö there is more tolerance on this issue, though possibly because of the

environment.

5.3 The Local and Global Bonds

In our study we came across some interesting issues about how reggae as a (sub) culture

is portrayed/influenced/influencing others in local and global context. As we know, the

globalization process has been going on for ages by cultures influencing on each other in

different ways. Trades across boarders, immigration together with sharing of ideas, music

and cultures in general have always been a form of globalization. Nevertheless, in recent

decades the volume has been totally different when progress in communication systems

and a fast increase in economics have made the international and cultural connections

much more easier even across continents. When these kinds of connections have been

made, it is unavoidable to face cross-cultural exchange and partly even conflicts. The

variety between social motives and the way how culture affects ones way of thinking and

decision making are aspects that influence not only the world but also individuals

(Kornadt 2002, Güss 2002, Strohschneider 2002). Globalization challenges nations to

react on the changing world, but what is most interesting for this study – it also ‘forces’

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individuals to adapt new forms to behave and understand differences while adapting to

other ones at the same time.

As this study was done not only through lyrics but also through observations by partaking

into reggae events it is important to discuss Malmö as a part of local and even global

bonds. The urban ethnic minorities, people with many cultural backgrounds and therefore

hybridity are markable element of the colorful Malmö and especially Möllan. People

gather together, make their own groups based on colour or for example language and

creates almost an own tiny nation in the middle of the surrounding Swedish society. The

tension between heterogeneity and homogeneity can be marked while the groups create

small imagined communities13 within the nation with similar type of people. In some

cases one can even question the relation between diaspora and hybridity, even though the

volume for this comparison might be too small in a Swedish context. However, the

immigration and its’ outcomes are clearly seen in the variety of colours and ethnicities in

Malmö, making the city a hybrid product and cultural effect of globalization. (Kraidy

2005, 148; Eriksen 2002,152, 167; Lenhner 2000, 320, 325, 331; Nilsson 2008)

In other words, as it has been said more often that not global phenomena needs to be

studied in their local expressions, thus the cultural globalisation is practically the same as

globalisation (Eriksen 2002, 166-7, Lechner & Boli 2000, 119, 123-5). This represents

the idea of thinking globally and acting locally. This gives reggae culture its specific

character in Malmö, as the local bonds are formatting the wider picture of reggae and

therefore interesting for this study is that global bonds may be broken with local bonds.

By this we mean for example the previously discussed femininity among men and

homosexuality, and how the attitude is different locally in Malmö. On the other hand as

the study was made only covering Malmö, wider attitudes were not studied other wise

than through the chosen lyrics which only highlighted the power of masculinity and the

importance of women’s different roles. Therefore if the mainstream idea is this traditional

appreciation of gender roles, then local bonds and attitudes of Malmö are breaking the

ideology in this case.

13 Concept by Benedict Anderson.

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When talking about global bonds, the unifying element of reggae is obviously in the key

role. Lyrics touch the usually shared understanding of worlds principles and values

binding people as one unity together, and at the same time sharing the common interest of

been interested how other people are doing. At the same time the evil things, which may

be for example connected to the political issues are noticed and used as a tool to

strengthening the global reggae bonds. Illustrative example of this unifying element may

be understood from Queen Ifrica’s statement:

"Yeah, we know the world is made up of positive and negative energies. But in the end,

we know that positive is the one that will be standing out predominant. So we want to be

on that side." - Queen Ifrica

Good local and also global bonds are portrayed as highly dependant on sharing, love and

caring. Love is exposed as one of the main factors of good life and the value of it is seen

as a common interest both in local and global context. Sizzla’s lyrics describe the

importance in a following way:

That’s why yuh betta keep sharing, and yuh betta keep givin

And yuh betta keep carin, that is how yuh keep believing (Sizzla, Beautiful People)

A part of identity based of reggaes values questions also the selfishness of human beings

and therefore the criticism against it works as a unifying force. The way how reggae

portrayed global bonds are in the ways where world’s injustice is discussed, partakers

blamed and ideas how to make world a better place are discussed. The same pattern is

noticeable both through the music and by listening the opinions of the members of reggae

culture. An example of the criticism can be understood from Kapten Röd’s song

‘Galenskap’ (Craziness14):

Istället för att hjälpa till, stänger vi grinden. Och känslan av att vilja finns , men vi stänger in den. Så vi säger.Woooaahoy Vilken Galenskap, när en ung man blir till en soldat, igen YO.Woooaahoy vilken Galenskap, när ungen förvandlas till hat, så vi säger till dom.Woooaahoy vilken Galenskap, i London är det bomb bomb bomb bomb, eheheey.Woooaahoy vilken Galenskap.

14 Own translation from Swedish to English.

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Instead of helping out, we close the barrier. The feeling of wanting exists, but we close it in. That is what we say.Woooaahoy What a Craziness, when a young man becomes a soldier, no YO.Woooaahoy What a Craziness, when a kid transforms into hate, that is what we tell them.Wooaahoy What a Craziness, in London it is bomb bomb bomb bomb, eheheey.Woooaahoy What a Craziness.

(Kapten Röd, Galenskap, Craziness)

This kind of criticism is connected to the categorization of people, which is also known as

the Us-them dichotomy. It is a question of belonging, and identifying one self as a part of

a certain in-group and as a result from belonging the exclusion of the out-group is created.

(Hinton 2000, 107). This is a common feature in reggae culture, where the criticism is

given against the societal system, politicians and nation-state in general and therefore

distinguishing people into ‘us’ and ‘them’. However, stereotyping others and classifying

them as different is a natural process to construct identity and a social and cultural feeling

of belonging. It is something that happens automatically and permanently, in every

situation and with all people we meet, since identities constantly require new negotiation.

Matisyahu’s song ‘Jerusalem’ is another example of the criticism against the rest of the

world and there portraying the world as ‘them’:

“Caught up in these ways, and the worlds gone craze

Don't you know it's just a phase

Case of the Simon says

If I forget the truth then my words won't penetrate

Babylon burning in the place, can't see through the haze

Chop down all of them dirty ways,

That's the price that you pay for selling lies to the youth” (Matisyahu, Jerusalem)

In general the element of protest is important in reggae culture. The participants highlight

the wrongness and unfairness in life and make suggestions how to make life more

beautiful and functioning better. The rebellious attitude is aimed on both local and global

bonds when it comes to political structures and people in power.

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Gentleman and Sizzla sings and shows what are their opinions about the politics as

followed:

“Burn down Rome and dem politics structure” (Gentleman, Trodin On)

“Children can't go to school, the system killing us” (Sizzla, Strong)

5.3.1 The Nation of the Reggae

As discussed on previous chapters, race and ethnicity do play a role in formation of the

understanding reggae as a culture and therefore creating a concept of the nation of reggae.

Even though the messages given through reggae music can be based on cultural heritage,

skin colour or for example race, still the mainstream reggae carries a message of uniting.

Gentleman sings:

‘Let us find a resting place no mater culture critter race

Ina world dat fast pace communication often double face

Beyond dem cost of living may hays dem move on

Let us form a bond det´s everlasting like the past to trod upon’ (Gentleman, Trodin On)

When seen reggae as a nation, obviously exclusion of the citizens needs to be discussed

as we have argued before. Reggae the lyrics have often double message that excludes

each other and the interpretation is left to the listener. One example of this is Sizzla’s

song ‘Beautiful people’ which firstly makes is clear that black people are beautiful as we

discussed under the chapter ‘Criteria of exclusion’, but on the chorus he sings:

‘So then yuh betta be wise, and open up yuh eyes

And help di people to rise, be unified, never divide, whoa whoa whoa!’

Reggae as a sub culture is focused on the struggle against the society outside the reggae,

and therefore the nation of reggae may be said to exist. The society, politic, capitalism

and religions are often seen as a threat to human kind and by staying strong, people can

overcome the difficulties.

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‘Yes you got to be strong, and behave the best you can

The world is out there conquer your fears, and dont you wait too long’ (Sizzla, Strong)

According to the traditional definitions of a nation-state that is closely connected to

another concept of sovereignty reggae does not full fill the needed requirements. The key

factors involved in the definition of a nation-state are: the principle of the sovereignty of

states and the fundamental right of political self determination, the principle of territorial

integrity, the principle of (legal) equality between states, and the principle of non-

intervention of one state in the internal affairs of another state (Lechner & Boli 2000).

Even though globalisation has changed this classical definition, but still one could only

state that reggae as a nation-state can only exist on a fictional level, as a unifying force to

the participants and as a subculture among other cultures of the real nation-state. On the

other hand according to another definition, where it is said that the idea of nation is based

on pattern that rests its grounding on cultural or social community, where nationhood is a

philosophical and ethnical concept (Chatzoglakis 2006, Nordin 2006) reggae as a nation-

state is more suitable than on the classical definition. All in all, even though the idea of

reggae as a nation-state is interesting, the lyrics and the interpretation of reggae as a

whole makes it obvious that the nation-state is only a ‘aim’ on a fictional level, where all

the people are equal and where love and respect are important. As a conclusion one could

state that the nation-state of reggae represents good values of life.

5.3.2 Globalisation

Globalization is broadly affecting phenomenon that is taking over the entire world in

means of international technological, political or economical unification. The world is

gradually turning more towards a global market where services, products and even ideas

are available for everyone in any hour of the day or night- meaning that also reggae and

any other type of a subculture is getting more easily accessible. The influence of

globalisation has made state borders to loose their traditional significance in some extent

and to focus more inclusively into the developments within economy, communication and

for example finances on a global level, making therefore even the expansion of reggae

easier and more efficient (Dicken 2007, 122, 173, 179). This factor of globalisation may

49


easily be notices in a reggae event, where reggae is played al around the world and even

with different languages.

Gordon claimes that a sub culture can include separate units of the same sub cultures for

example if groups of the same culture are located far away from each other (Gordon

1997:42). According to this idea, reggae suits the description of a sub culture, when the

genre has been listened and the cultural principles practised widely around the world.

Simply argued, the globalisation of reggae can easily be seen from the variation of the

reggae artists nationalities and cultural heritages, and bringing reggae into a global

phenomenon.

Broadly said, globalization has its economic roots and political consequences that emerge

in different cultural variations depending in which environment the process takes place in.

In Malmö and especially in Möllan the cultural diversity can easily be seen in comparison

to many other parts in Sweden. We feel that at the same time when Malmö is special with

it multicultural character but also excluding somehow with the eyes of an immigrant. At

the same time one can feel home within different people, but on the other hand the

difference from natives comes always up in the end. The globalization may break the

general picture of the nation-state as traditionally thought, but it also makes it even

stronger. Roughly said, globalization creates similarity and diversity, unifies but also

separates- just like reggae culture in the context of Malmö.

As the world is going through political, economic, cultural and for example social

changes, it has also presented people some new ways to belong into networks and social

groups. Belonging to communities are even exceeding the virtual and physical boundaries

when one may be a representing a culture as a member through TV from our living rooms

or internet and in those ways interact with the wider social world.

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6 CONCLUSION

As the analysis chapter discusses, the main areas gained from the triangulation of the

study methods brings out the characteristic features for reggae as a subculture. According

to our analysis they are: the community, gender and local and global related issues.

Within these main areas one can see other features that defines more precisely what does

is mean to belong in reggae culture or for example how to be excluded. These were also

two of the main research questions of this study together with the third question of

function of globalisation in connection to reggae as a subculture, and here we are to

conclude the main findings of our research.

We can say that subculture is an idea with a highly restricted currency. It has radical

political dimensions and purposes which can either progress or reactionary political

sentiments (Jenks 2005: 129-135). In this it is political in the nature that the narrative of

reggae identity is contested in music in so many different spheres. The winning narratives

of this imagined community are collected to create a discourse in which shared meanings

and understandings are created within it from which participant individuals may draw a

sense of ontological security to which they refer in the daily negotiation of their identities.

This proceeds into the way they understand their surroundings and the manner in which

they may behave as a collective entity.

This narrative includes racial, ethnic nationalistic, religious and gender based traits and

Malmö’s reggae community seem to be in the constant negotiation of all of these

elements. On a local level, we found out that in Malmö it is not a racial, nationalistic or

ethnically based even though this is expressed in some reggae texts, maybe due to the fact

that Malmö is so multicultural. On a global scale, as reggae music has expanded to the

bigger level, where different people around the globe are making reggae with their own

terms and therefore creating different narratives of what they understand reggae to be.

This is one consequence of globalisation as it has been said that the globe has been turned

into a village by the electronic mass media. Therefore this concept of Global Village15 is

also relevant for the understanding of reggae as a culture, and furthermore that for the

15According to McLuhan (1962) the globe has been turned into a village by the electronic mass media.

51


same reason reggae has expanded also to other entities that are considered as subcultures,

such as hip-hop.

In reggae there is an aura of spirituality but it does not graduate to religious adherence or

reference. Reggae as a culture talks a lot about believing in greater powers, God and

glory, but as discussed in the analysing part, with the reggae ‘style’, symbols and even the

conscious political dimension, reggae may be seen as a subculture rather than religion,

even though the importance of religion may be easily seen.

In Malmö there are a lot of women taking part in the reggae subculture but majority of

participants seems to be men. Men represent also the majority of musicians in Malmö that

do reggae. The gender stance in the subculture in Malmö is expressed in a courting type

of fashion and sexuality rather than the glorious statures of queens and nurturers. This

could also be because we observed the culture at social events, i.e. concerts and night

clubs and therefore the reality might have been different in different environments.

The analysed songs in this study seemed to have different categories where each one of

them included women and social system. These main features can be divided on three

different groups: one handling private domestic power and powerlessness involving love

and suspicion, second socio-political and domestic issues, and third as fallen woman

posing ideological problems. One could claim that gender issues are rather important for

the whole reggae set-up, where men are portrayed as head of the family with their

struggle with masculinity and woman as a feminine supportive woman standing by their

men. But as it became obvious, gender does have other dimensions on reggae as well, for

instance the issue of homosexuality. While equality and understanding are important

factors within reggae, it shows intolerance towards ‘sexual otherness’. Therefore one

could claim that the gender sector has remained in a purely traditional phase in the culture

of reggae, although the observations in Malmö showed tolerance towards everyone who

was taking part on the events.

As mentioned before, one of the obvious main elements of reggae is to courage people to

be strong, both in local and global level. The appreciated strength can be strength as a

woman, as a masculine man or simply as an individual in a world. Simply said strength is

considered as a pillar of good life. The attitude handles often the will to manage to do

something, to do well in life and be strong in the name of family, femininity, masculinity

52


or God. Consequently what is important to conclude is that strength is a factor that

remains always in reggae culture as a global matter.

As this paper has discussed reggae’s relation to people as an influencing factor in the

fields of religion, identity, community and even nation-state it is important to remember

that these concepts may have bilateral connection between each other. For example

having connection with identity thereby the concept of religion has confluences to gender,

culture, historical background and ethnicity. These are also the very same aspects that are

building and creating nations and therefore a part of nationalism. Thus, ethnic groups are

found to be divided, shaped, combined, mixed, or for example separated by the impact

and effect of religion as well as by nationalism.

Globalization is a phenomenon that refers to the cyclical tendency for the world to

become more interconnected in an economic, and at times cultural sense as well. It also

invites nation-states to strengthen the national feeling and protect the sovereignty in a

new level when states need to accommodate to the changed international atmosphere.

Furthermore, when a nation-state can be defined as a certain form of state with

sovereignty among people with the same cultural or ethnic entity, it is obvious that

migration and multiculturalism as parts of globalization is threatening the traditional way

of explaining a nation-state. Therefore, when many people have left their place of origin

where their cultural heritage is originally from and are relocated elsewhere, in this study

case to Malmö, they may unify with each other with common features of the culture that

they were used to before. In Malmö, the people of the reggae scene are uniting not only

because of the common clothing style, or even the music itself, but also because of the

common factor of ‘foreignness’. This does not exclude the Swedish population from this

interpretation, because they identify themselves to the situation among the music and

atmosphere, making one nation, the imagined nation of reggae culture.

53


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59


Appendix

Sizzla: Beatiful People

Intro:Uh huh! Boom! Solomon shaker, Rastafari is the creatorKalonji a di greatest, uh huh!!!My desire is to get higher I?m inspired by the most high, yeah yeah yeahMy desire is to get higher I?m inspired by the most high, Rastafari!!!

Chorus:Beautiful world, beautiful peoplePraise Rastafari and study no evilBeautiful world, beautiful black peoplePraise Rastafari give yuh fruits for the four seasons

Verse 1:That?s why yuh betta keep sharing, and yuh betta keep givinAnd yuh betta keep carin, that is how yuh keep believinAnd yuh betta be strong, so then yuh keep goin onHail di conquerin lion seek up Holy Mt. Zion, mi tell yuh seh

Chorus:Beautiful world, beautiful peoplePraise Rastafari and study no evilBeautiful world, beautiful black peopleLove yuh one anooda I tell yuh a Jah will be so pleasin

Verse 2:So then yuh betta be wise, and open up yuh eyesAnd help di people to rise, be unified, never divide, whoa whoa whoa!!!And keep this fire burnin, and yuh betta keep learninBecause di earth keeps turninKill alone in while yuh brothers hurtin, whoa

Chorus:Beautiful world, beautiful peoplePraise Rastafari and study no evilBeautiful black girl, di beautiful childrenAll ova di world Babylon stop from killin

Bridge:My desire is to get higher I?m inspired by the most high, yeah yeah yeahMy desire is to get higher I?m inspired by the most highSizzla Kalonji seh!

Chorus:Beautiful world, beautiful people

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Glad to have yuh one anodda I tell yuh to study no evilBeautiful world, beautiful black people

Praise Rastafari and study no evil

Sizzla: Be Strong

Intro:Whoa oooh! Whoa whoa yerah!!!! Whoa ay!!! Whoa hey!!!Yeah, you got to get goin, no time for sitting downSome people not knowing life is a cycleYou gotta know how to get around, Woo! Ha!

Chorus:Yes you got to be strong, and be all the that you canThe world is out there conquer your fears, and don't you wait too longYes you got to be strong, and behave the best you canThe world is out there conquer your fears, and don't you wait too long

Verse 1:Hi! How you doing long time I haven't seen youHope your behaving yourself now like a good behaving citizenNothing come easy you got to work hard I'm telling youHope and pray for the best, cause I believe in youNot like the stereotype cleanliness intriguing youGive thanks and praises for my life, and for us being hereChildren can't go to school, the system killing usThere's good in us and wel allways want to be bringing outShow the world what we got the struggles continues yoCheck the conditions in which were living yoAin't no time to give up yo, got to work to be the winnerAnd children going to bed without having no dinner

Chorus:Yes you got to be strong, and be all the that you canThe world is out there conquer your fears, and don't you wait too longYes you got to be strong, and behave the best you canThe world is out there conquer your fears, and don't you wait too long

Verse 2:People are filled with expectations thats fine with meOpportunity comes but once so its time for meI dont think of fire because its sunshine for meSomething in the back of my HEAD!!!! Keeps reminding meKeep on listening hear, when I callTheres good, and thats so just be good and stand tallA lot of people love your wish for me to fallIm not scared, I pray to be who had created allEvils and the demons woo I dont stop with themHey they dont like me, hey whats up with them

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I just cant do without Jah love because it lacks the oxygenIm doing no fully, I dont even no par with them

Chorus:Yes you got to be strong, and behave the best you canThe world is out there conquer your fears, and dont you wait too longYes you got to be strong, and behave the best you canThe world is out there conquer your fears, and dont you wait too long

Repeat Verse 1

Repeat Chorus

Lady Saw: No Less of a Woman

Intro:Infertility is a word that a lot of people are ashamed to mentionA lot of people are so illiterate when it come to that wordThey act as if it's a crime if you can't have a childBut I don't think so, I don't have a child, I may one dayBut in the mean time I am going to share all my love.

Chorus:Not having a child don't make me less than a woman, You see I got so much love to give, to so much unwanted kids, You can say all you want about me trying to ruin my reputation, But I have so much love to give to so much unwanted kids, Listen to my song

Verse 1:I may not know the joy of giving birth,May not experience the pain and all the hurt, But I know how it feels to lose a child, And if pain is pain then I am hurting insideIf infertility makes me less than a girl, What would I say to many women in this worldWould you tell them have faith, Would you tell them be strong Or would you tell them that they're less than a woman?


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Verse 2:I would give anything to have a child of my ownBut in the meantime let me share my happy home With the less fortunate, take away some of the stress from a child Who has never known love and happinessMiscarriages remind me of baby carriagesBroken hearts bring failed marriages, The pain never go away, we try to keep them at bayOh I wish if my baby could have stayed


Verse 3:Some people have kids and wish them never did,Some kids grew up hating the life weh them live, Some have it easy, some have it hard, Some mothers abandon dem pickney like dawgBut wanti wanti dem can't get it And getti getti get and run weh lef eehMe nuh have none so you know me will take eeh Me have a lot of love so send me little pickney on


Outro:You see, what I am saying is this song is dedicated to all the females who have been trying to have children but never succeed. Some have miscarriage just like myself, but you know what, don't give up, have faith, one day you may just succeed. You know what I'm saying, and don't feel you are less than a woman because you don't have a child 'cause once you give you love to other children that come. You know what I'm saying.

Queen Ifrika: Daddy

INTRO:Stop it daddy Daddy stop it nuh

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A going to tell on you enuh

Chorus: 2XDaddy don't touch mi thereI'm gonna tell on you one day i swearCan't you see i'm scaredYou suppose to be ma father

Verse 1:Everyday a wonder why ma daddy had to be di one to take away my innocenceOh sometimes a wanna die feels like no one cares for me and it's evidentThat something must be wrong with meI'm not as happy as I seem to beThe long showers I take don't wash away the memoriesWhy do I have to face these tragedies

We go thru struggles in life I'm awareBut to have ma daddy touching me that's just not fairStop him from destroying ma futureBelieve me he's behaving like a creature

Chorus

Verse 2:To all you mothers out thereGive a listening earPay attention even if di man a pastorYuh affi mek sure before yuh trust him wid yuh daughtaPlus him will even try fi tek yuh son as brawtaWatch it mek mi duck him wid some dutty watahYuh cyaah hide nuh more now yuh affi meet yuh karmaIf yuh know seh it a gwaan and turn a blind eyeDen yuh judgment ago pile up bout a mile high

Det suicidal if yuh tink it ago save yuhBecause mi sure seh yuh naah guh get fi si di saviourMi just cyaah find a name fi yuh behaviourIs a lucky ting wi got a nosey neighbour

Chorus

Verse 3:When yuh feel like giving upJust shake it off and live it upDi most high will deliver youCyaah jump di rope if yuh nuh trySuh wipe da tears deh from yuh eyeGet di wings of confidence fi mek yuh flyTribulations a just fi mek yuh strongaLove yuh self and it will help yuh fi get ova

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Any flesh weh hurt a likkle yute will neva prospaA passing on di message from di masta

Verse 1

Choruse

Gentleman: Intoxication

Anytime me look ina your faceYou make my world a brighter placeAnd your majesty and graceA help me through the rat race

Chorus:Joy ina your eyes me nuh see no tearsLove is what you giving me throughout the yearsEvery time you need meI will be there my dear I swear

There is no faking no heartbreakingLike a volcano this ya true love is shakingIn tender caring we are partakingWoman me feel seh big things ina the makingIntoxication of a certain kindI will admit that you suit my mindPulpitation of another kindDon´t fast forward baby just rewind

ChorusJoy ina your eyes me nuh see no tearsLove is what you giving me throughout the yearsEvery time you need meI will be there my dear I swear

Love ina your eyes me nuh see no fearsJoy is what you giving me throughout the yearsEvery time you need meI will be there my dear I swear

No mistaking in every thing you doAnd I will always be a part of youJah jah made us and he will see us throughAlways and forever babygirl this love is trueI´ve been searching for the longest timeAlmost givin´ up never thought I would findSeen many roses die on the vineBut a hidden tressure in you I man find

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Love ina your eyes me nuh see no fearsJoy is what you giving me throughout the years[ Intoxication lyrics found on http://www.completealbumlyrics.com ]Every time you need meI will be there my dear

On the magic carpet we a rideVenus jupiter to the other sideFi we togetherness nuh need no guideThere is nothing to be shame nothing fi go hideA whole new world awaitsBrighter than the pearly gatesWhere love is as strong as fateAnd life is about to give and to take


Love ina your eyes me nuh see no fearsJoy is what you giving me throughout the yearsEvery time you need meI will be there my dear

There is no faking no heartbreakingLike a volcano this ya true love is shakingIn tender caring we are partakingWoman me feel seh big things ina the makingIntoxication of a certain kindI will admit that you suit my mindPulpitation of another kindDon´t fast forward baby just rewind


Love ina your eyes me nuh see no fearsJoy is what you giving me throughout the years

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Every time you need meI will be there my dear I swear

Gentleman, Trodin On

Burn ignorance

Simmer down, gather round and share the vision - Brothers and Sisters lift your voice and we will listen in the midd´s of last days, as we pray for new beginnings make a mends for the past and find new ways to make decisions , to the Muslims, Jews and Christians burn the borders and baptize all our sons and daughters on common shores of common waters, understand the metaphor,: see the race goes not to the swift but to he who adore

Yes we keep Trodin on …through all thus streets and valley’s Yes we keep Trodin on….unification turn Babylon down Trodin on ………. through all thus streets and valley’sYes we keep Trodin on…many more might we walks so you fist on strong

Blessed with roots and cultureHere me now again fi prise the true word are daNo follow the lass of science but the lass of nature An the youths we chant for dem are the future Burn down Rome and dem politics structureDem not know di question dem wan give we di answer Use and abuse me wonder wat dem a tek we faBurn we a burn no bother blaze with fire

Yes we keep Trodin on …through all thus streets and valley’s Yes we keep Trodin on….unification turn Babylon down Trodin on ………. through all thus streets and valley’sYes we keep Trodin on

Let us gather under the seeders in the sycamore trees Let us be a leave amongst leaves amongst the righteous man and thieves In times of crisis let us walk wit ease and shine bright leave the blind wide at the darkness what was lost must come to light

Nuff a dem feel dem vibes and dem drive di avoidedThe truth afi repeat so now a det try fi bun it Change ino ways and stop gwan bad minded Promuness stop seek and promised land you a go find it

Let us find a resting place no mater culture critter raceIna world dat fast pace communication often double faceBeyond dem cost of living may hays dem move on Let us form a bond det´s everlasting like the past to trod upon

And meditation oblif me keep me sheltered me from the hindicrity Your brightness and integrity shall preserve me jah guide and protect me who wants scare meHypocritical people are you we a go bun could a be di bear di higel ared did are gon

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Don’t give up the fight you have to move along many more nights we walks are you fist and strong

Yes we keep Trodin on …through all thus streets and valley’s

Raappana: Ainoo

kertosäe:Uskotaan et oot mun ainoo,Sormus ei tee aviomiestä ei vaimooSun kauneus aamusin,Mun sielun aamia,Teet joka päivä mulle olon ku kuninkaan.(2x)

Ei toista, oo naista tapaistasEnkä toiseen tyttöön sua vaihtasPelatkoon ne jotka pelaa jokai tavalla,On totta paljon mahtuu naisii maailmaan,Jos oisit kirja pitäisin jokaisest sivustasÄlä sytytä, mut vedä oikeesta vivusta,Mä tiesin et mä kaiken löydän ajallaan,Oot luonnon kaunis, siis sinut itses kaaHarmi et nii harva asia ikuista,Mut kyllä me juostaan iloihi suruista,Ja kaikist mahollisista tie suluista,Mä autan sua kun sun tiesi ei luista.

kertosäe

Prinsessa sä oot mun ainoo,Sormus ei tee aviomiestä ei vaimooSun kauneus aamusin,Mun sielun aamia,Teet joka päivä mulle olon kuninkaan.

Yhdeksän elämää, taas luoksein yöksi jääMun vuoksein, pyydä en enempääAinakaan tänää, no huomen taas lisääOon viel tääl ku aurinko mennyt, on tullut jo pimeääMä kysyin nimesi, mä pyydän anteeks jos se ekal kerral ohi meniMult puuttuu sun naisemis, mun mieliteki,Ennen ku kerkeää joku joku muu veliEt sanonu kuulemiin

Mä tiedän kaiken, mä kyl löydän ajallaanJa asiat hoituu, hoitamallani tavalla

kertosäe (2x)

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Kuninkaan

Vaik jotku vaihtaa torkkutoverii niinku ku paitaaJa on monta rautaa tules yhtäaikaaKu ensimmäinen mennyt, toinen nokialla kaipaaEnneki pistäs pitoon, sua turhaa mieltäs vaivaa

Matisyahu, Jerusalem

[Chorus]Jerusalem, if I forget you,fire not gonna come from me tongue.Jerusalem, if I forget you,let my right hand forget what it's supposed to do.

In the ancient days, we will return with no delayPicking up the bounty and the spoils on our wayWe've been traveling from state to stateAnd them don't understand what they say3,000 years with no place to beAnd they want me to give up my milk and honeyDon't you see, it's not about the land or the seaNot the country but the dwelling of his majesty

[chorus]

Rebuild the temple and the crown of gloryYears gone by, about sixtyBurn in the oven in this centuryAnd the gas tried to choke, but it couldn't choke meI will not lie down, I will not fall asleepThey come overseas, yes they're trying to be freeErase the demons out of our memoryChange your name and your identityAfraid of the truth and our dark historyWhy is everybody always chasing weCut off the roots of your family treeDon't you know that's not the way to be

[chorus]

Caught up in these ways, and the worlds gone crazeDon't you know it's just a phaseCase of the Simon saysIf I forget the truth then my words won't penetrateBabylon burning in the place, can't see through the hazeChop down all of them dirty ways,That's the price that you pay for selling lies to the youth

69


No way, not ok, oh no way, not ok, heyAint no one gonna break my strideAint no one gonna pull me downOh no, I got to keep on movingStay alive

[chorus]

70


71

reggae and identity in malmö sweden, matswetu takura & suonpää mervi

Documents

bond dets everlasting

mun sielun aamia

whoa whoa yerah

oot mun ainoo

electronic mass media

penetrate babylon burning

whoa whoa whoa

hays dem move