Chapter 6: 1901 to 1915 – Prelude to a Betrayal

Economy

The Ngarrindjeri people entered the twentieth century almost entirely in the countryside, effectively barred from ever living in major towns or Adelaide. Work opportunities in the countryside were consistently declining, even though more country was being opened up: expansion into the Mallee, possible with fertilisers and new strains of wheat, saw the population there grow from three settlers in 1904, to nearly four thousand by 1911. But the need for Aboriginal labour did not grow at all. A railway from Tailem Bend serving the region, and running as far as Renmark, was opened in 1913, but there appears to have been no Aboriginal people employed on it. (Williams, 1969: 39-45).

The Bureau of Agriculture had been formed in 1888, providing advice to farmers throughout the state on fallowing, fertilisers and trace elements, the most appropriate crops and varieties, better watering techniques and mechanisation, all of which helped farmers extend their activities while at the same time economising on labour (Hirst, 1973: 55-56). The countryside was not really the place for unemployed laborers, especially Aboriginal labourers: if anything, racism increased after Federation (Hughes, 1996: 24).

Adelaide merchants and industrialists extended their domination of activity throughout the state: the number of mills and implement factories owned by country people, and operated in country towns, dropped by more than half between 1870 and 1917 (Hirst, 1973: 31). As a result, employment opportunities in manufacturing and services kept rising in Adelaide, a magnet for unemployed white farm labourers with sufficient literacy and numeracy, strong of back and weak of mind.

1899 Select Committee on the Aborigines

In the late nineteenth century, (from 1863 until 1911) South Australia extended to include what is now the Northern Territory. At the time, pastoralists were running rampant throughout the Territory and no legislation, apart from the common law, constrained their activities. The usual understanding was that Aboriginal people were dying out, and soon would be gone altogether, so there would be no point in wasting time on specific legislation dealing with them.

However, international attention was being focussed on colonial outrages, in the former Spanish Empire, German South-West Africa and King Leopold’s Congo, for example. In the lead-up to Federation, it was thought that the anarchy of the frontier may cast an unfavourable light on the new Australia’s treatment of its Indigenous inhabitants. A Select Committee of the South Australian Legislative Council was set up in late 1899 and reported in November.

Its Report dealt almost exclusively with the Northern Territory and pastoralists’ interests, such as the need to gain a licence to employ Aboriginal people as station

workers and the difficulties imposed by remoteness. However, the Report did recommend that all responsibility for Aboriginal welfare should be transferred from missions to the government, specifically to the Protector of Aborigines.

The Report presaged the enactment of legislation specifically dealing with Aboriginal people, and hinted at the differentiation of Aboriginal people into those who could, and those who could not, be exempted from any restrictions imposed by legislation. But it was clear that problems were made more insoluble by trying to bring all Aboriginal people, north and south, under any single piece of legislation: what was relevant for the pastoralists in control of the Legislative Council, with their northern properties, did not necessarily bear any relation to the needs of southern Aboriginal people, those in ‘settled’ South Australia.

The pastoralists came in for some courageous criticism from the Reverend J.G. Reuther, from Kopperamanna Lutheran Mission, near Lake Eyre, where a mission and school had been built in the late 1860s, and where children had always been taught in their own language, Dieri:

I know that many of the white people do not pay much regard to the education of the blacks; they do not want to see a blackfellow educated, because were his mind trained at all it would not be so easy to cheat him. Not so long ago a blackfellow came to me with a piece of paper which had been given to him as a cheque for payment of dog scalps. It turned out to be a ticket for horse racing.

(Select Committee Evidence, Q. 1212).

One could view the suggested state government control of Aboriginal affairs as a means of ensuring that a federal government would have no right, or reason, to involve itself in what were state matters. Possibly the move towards Federation spelled the end of non-governmental involvement in Aboriginal affairs as well: thus, the development of state control of Aboriginal affairs defined for the first time the limits of a higher government, such as that of a federation, to interfere in ‘their’ affairs on the one hand, and the limits of mission societies to be involved in Aboriginal affairs, on the other.

However, the Report of the Select Committee also advocated for the first time tighter formal controls over Aboriginal people and more limited and specific exemptions from legislation, mainly for half-castes - especially those with a non-Aboriginal parent rather than two half-caste parents - and quadroons and octoroons. (Clarke, 1994: 264-265)

Point McLeay School

Up until about 1900, the standard of the Point Mcleay School appears to have been satisfactory: Mr Holman seems to have been able to bring children up to a Class V level. Inspectors seem to have been happy with his performance. The state Governor, Lord Tennyson, son of the poet, visited the station in 1900, and remarked: ‘The Point McLeay Mission and Mission School have proved so undoubted a success, that further efforts in the same direction are warranted in other parts of the province.’

However, Holman’s standards of work deteriorated rapidly and he was dismissed in early 1903. His place was taken by William Chapman, on £ 70 plus free rent plus rations, who appears to have begun effectively enough. He was required to spend a month ‘studying the present methods of conducting public schools’, so it is possible that he, like Hutley and Holman before him, had not qualified or practiced as a teacher.

Through the year, he had more than eighty children on the roll, up from fifty six the year before, but was able to keep the school open for an average of barely three and a half days each week. Of the eighty children, only four had reached the fourth class. Chapman reported to the AFA: ‘My duties commenced March 2nd, 1903, and although the children have become rather careless during their long recess, they entered upon their duties cheerfully and good progress has been made.

By the middle of the year, Chapman had shown himself to be ‘not so efficient an officer but … very willing and anxious to do right.’ In November, he began having fits and resigned at the end of the year. His place was taken by Patrick Francis, an experienced teacher: he had been teaching in the public system at least since 1885 (Ed. Gazette, 1.8.85: 1) and was President of the Provisional Teachers’ Association. As a lay reader with the Church of England, he combined in a novel way the attributes of missionary and teacher.

Francis took over in the middle of February, 1904, the first Education Department teacher at the School. The School became a departmental institution from this time, and was inspected regularly thereafter, but one important matter rankled: AFA was obliged to pay the head teacher’s salary and other costs - estimated to be about £ 250 per year (AFA Annual Report, 1904). As Garnett complained:

The school is now under the Education Department, but the entire expense of the same is defrayed by the Mission. In the village settlements, the settlers had not to pay their school teachers; and there was something wrong when the committee of an organisation, such as the Point McLeay Mission, had to pay for the teaching of the children. Why should seventy two Aboriginal children not be taught by the Government, just as seventy two white children would be ?

Inspector Smyth reported that ‘good progress has been made in the school under the new teacher, Mr. P. W. Francis.’ (AFA AR, 1904: 14). But Francis was appalled that conditions had been allowed to run down and after putting up with them for nearly a year, informed the AFA:

There is no shed to shelter the children from the blazing sun, bitter blasts or pelting rain; no lavatory connected with the school in which children might be taught the cleanly habit of washing their hands before touching their books. A shelter shed and lavatory, together with new desks for the proper accommodation of the children are necessary and the shed should be built so that it could be used as a classroom, for eighty children cannot be efficiently taught in one room. (Hughes, 1996: 28)

The AFA immediately set to and paid local men to build a shelter-shed next to the school, but the want of decent lavatories was to plague the School for decades to come.

In early 1904, H.E. Read was appointed as assistant to Redman. He reminisced many years later:

The memory of Mr Taplin was still green and I learned a lot from my conversation with the old men about his character and administration. When he first began to work among them the old men steadfastly opposed his advances, for they sensed in the new order that he had come to establish, a threat to their own supremacy among the tribes. Besides, the gospel he preached ran counter to many of their own traditions - the acceptance of which would entirely undermine their age-old tribal system.

‘I soon ascertained that the main features of his programme centred round three things, viz., religion, education and industry.’ (AFA, AR, 1947: 28-29)

[35] Natives invited to compete with white teams at Milang, Strathalbyn, Mount Barker and other towns in cricket and football.Mission also became known through visits of native concert parties to the City where performances were much appreciated.

In August 1904, the Governor visited the station and inspected the school. Later in 1904, the daughter of the Overseer, Hilda Redman, was appointed as an assistant for Francis, on £ 12 per year. Francis was also permitted to appoint his son Brian as a monitor.

Mr O’Shaughnessy, Headmaster (Milang School) to Inspector-General, 6.2.1905:

‘ … I have admitted two half-caste children, …, who have been transferred from Pt McLeay. Since doing so, I have been waited upon by two of the local residents asking me if I could refuse to admit them. I said, speaking off-hand, I thought not, and that as I interpreted it, my duty was to treat all alike, irrespective of colour. Afterwards, one of the two gentlemen mentioned above, told me that he had inquired and found on good authority, that I could exclude the children mentioned as they had their own school at Pt. McLeay.

‘On this, I thought it my duty to inform you and ask for directions. … I think right to state that the objection is mainly one of prejudice. However, as these children drink from the same vessels and wash in the same basins etc. as the whites it is easy to understand parents’ objection. … ‘

‘Inspector-General’s note, 8.2.1905:‘There is no power to exclude these children so long as they conform to the rules of the school, are reasonably clean, and conduct themselves properly.‘I presume they do not come from a wurley.’

GRG 18/2/350/1905

The new Labour-Liberal government of Tom Price (who was also the Minister of Education) took over the complete costs of running the school and 1st July 1905, it became a State School on the same footing as all others. By 1905, average attendance was the best in the State, around ninety six percent. To Francis and others, this demonstrated the effectiveness of compulsory attendance throughout the year. By his second year, Francis was able to conduct a Fifth Class. He reported to the AFA:

The children are both obedient and orderly: fighting and swearing are things of the past, and the moral tone of the school is excellent.

We have, for the first time in the history of education, a fifth class of four students, and their work will compare favourably with that of any other public school in the State.

So impressed was the late Minister of Education, Mr. Justice Homburg, with the drawing and writing of our Fourth Class, in particular, that he took specimen books to town with him.

Inspector Smyth who pays us the usual half-yearly visits, says in his report:-

‘The school is in good working order; the children are attentive and diligent; a very gratifying degree of proficiency is shown and excellent order is maintained.’

Mr Alexander Clarke, late Inspector, and now Head Master of a City school, visited us during the Christmas holidays -- comments were made:

‘I have had a good deal of experience of Native children’s school work, when examining in the Far North, and have seen good results in reading, writing, and reciting, but never before thought that the Aboriginal half-caste mind could be trained to such a pitch in Grammar, Composition, and Mathematics until I saw the work of the Point McLeay School.’

Through this gentleman’s influence with the Public Schools Decoration Society, we have been supplied with a roll of splendid pictures to adorn the walls of our schoolroom.

Percentages are not recorded under the new Education Regulations, the Department having discovered that the education of a nation’s children cannot be measured by a foot rule.

However, the very success of the school may have encouraged – as it always seemed to do – the notion that the ‘more successful’ (and paler) people could be either dispersed from Point McLeay, either put on the land or found work on distant properties, or re-located to other missions. Redman strongly advised the expulsion of

half-castes and quarter-castes to make room for others and to ease the pressure on employment at the station. In September, 1905, moves were initiated to forcibly transfer five families from Point McLeay to Point Pierce (as it was spelt until 1916). The families concerned were not told until early November, a few days before they were due to be put on the steamer to Milang (GRG 18/1/120L). Eventually, only two families were re-located to Point Pierce in late November.

A provisional teacher was appointed, in place of the official who formerly had charge under the mission authorities. The change has been attended by the happiest results so far as the success and efficiency of the school are concerned. – from Ed. Gazette, May 1905, XXI, No. 223, p. 78

In late October, 1905, the school building, which Ngarrindjeri had constructed only 10 years before, was destroyed by fire. Although partly insured, the AFA approached the government for financial assistance to re-build it:

Sir, I have the honor to state that in consequence of the destruction by fire of the building at Point McLeay hitherto used as a School House this Association is no longer able to provide suitable accommodation for the Teacher and the 60 or 70 Native Children attending the school.A new building is necessary and as the finances of the Association will not permit my Committee undertaking the work it is necessary for me to suggest that same be done by the Education Department. There will however be a small amount coming from the Insurance Company and my Committee is willing to subsidise the expense to that extent.The children can be temporarily accommodated in an old store-room but it will be advisable to commence the new building without delay as the temporary accommodation is altogether insufficient.We do not think an up-to-date building which would probably cost £ 300. – or £ 400. – at all necessary and would suggest that your Inspector confer with the Superintendent at Point McLeay with a view to having the work done by the Residents of the Mission Station at a cost of perhaps half the amount named above. There would also be the advantage of finding work for the Native laborers. I have the honor to be, etc.

(W.E. Dalton, Sec.: AFA, to Minister of Education, 2.11.1905, GRG 18/1/1905/181)

A problem immediately arose: the Education Department may have been funding the school, but it did not, and could not, own the property on which the school stood, and therefore did not own the school, and could not be expected to re-build something it could never own. Memos flew hither and yon for months, urging the Minister to take control of the school property, but this would have opened up the possibility that the school would have become public property, therefore the road through the mission to it would have become a public road: this would have allowed

hawkers and grog-suppliers a right of free entry, and therefore was out of the question. This problem of the conflicting powers and duties of the Protector, the Education Department and other bodies, was still causing headaches in the 1960s.

The Education Department agreed to pay for the costs of re-building the school, less the £ 40 insurance, provided local Aboriginal labour was used, thus cutting down on final costs considerably.

Expenditure for Schoolhouse (probably part of Comm. Audit minute)

Gray & Co. Vents 6. 5. –Paysheets Labor 18. 19. 9Cement Co Cement 10. 3Crooks & Brooker Galv. Iron 19. 15. 10Globe Timber Co Timber 33. 13. 7Graves & Co. Carriage 3. –Harris Scarfe & Co Lead Bolts &c 8. 0. 5McDougall & Gow Window Door Frame 17. 12. 6SA Railways Railage 13. –Miller Lime 2. 13. 9Paysheets Labor 3. 3. –Dunk freight 6. 18. 6Graves Carriage 6Harris Scarfe & Co Iron 1. 7SA Railways carriage 11. 4. 7Smyth & Co Trav Allowce 1. 3. 6Crooks and Brooker Iron 7. 6AFA Labor 16. 3. 2

£ 147. 9. 5

In early 1906, the school was rebuilt by Ngarrindjeri tradesmen and with government assistance (AFA MB, 30.1.06). The school continued to be rated ‘good’ or ‘very good’ by inspectors each year. (Jenkin, 1979: 197)

From 1905, attendance regulations changed for urban children in South Australia, making schooling compulsory for four out of five days per week. Education was now seen not just as a right but a necessity: reformers were focussing on the effectiveness of the transition from school to work, especially for working-class children. As secondary schools were being planned for the ‘brighter’, and especially middle-class children, moves were afoot to set up a network of lower-grade, practically-oriented technical schools, to provide working-class children with a year or two, perhaps even three, of employment-related training, factory skills for boys, domestic skills for girls. Following a Royal Commission into the Education Act in 1913, the school-leaving age was raised from thirteen to fourteen years. But the working-class still resisted any ‘practical’ modifications of the primary school curriculum for their children (Davey, GUSA, 396).

Annual General Meeting of the Aborigines’ Friends’ Association:

The Governor presided over a fair meeting attendance, Thursday evening. The State school report stated that ‘the advanced curriculum now required by the Education Department includes geometry as early as the third class, brush drawing, &c., and requires more of the teacher’s time and much material and entailing extra expenses and it is a question whether we are not doing too much for a people who unfortunately have so few opportunities for advancement.’

[The school master] strongly deprecated the lowering of the standard if this gave them the opportunity of turning their education to advantage and it was their duty to furnish them with these opportunities. He quite agreed with the Director of Education about raising the standard of education at the mission, so long as they did not stop there.

He was glad Mr. Robertson (Rev. J. Robertson) had referred to the great difficulty experienced in deciding what to do with the children as they passed out of the schools.

Advertiser, 7.12.06: 8

By 1907, irrigation schemes were taking out so much water from the river that the sea-water was constantly filling the lake: fishing had been brought almost to a standstill, and the one full-time fisherman had given up his trade; and it had become difficult to irrigate crops on the station. Redman advocated that a barrage be built across the Lake and Murray to keep out the sea water and allow regular supplies of fresh-water for drinking and irrigation.

In 1906, Garnett asked for a raise but was refused. By September that year, Garnett had taken up the position of superintendent at Point Pierce, and Redman had been appointed superintendent, with an assistant, Herbert Read. Francis also asked for a raise and was refused. At this time, the state’s economy was deteriorating again and racism was again on the rise. Redman battled to find employment for the men on the station: he secured the Meningie District Council road-making contract in 1905 and found work for the men grubbing mallee roots. From early 1907, Ngarrindjeri men were barred from working on the railways, due to the racist attitudes of railway workers.

By 1907, irrigation schemes were taking out so much water from the river that the sea-water was constantly filling the lake: fishing had been brought almost to a standstill, and the one full-time fisherman had given up his trade; the water was undrinkable, and it had become impossible to irrigate crops on the station (AFA: AR, 1907: 36). Redman advocated that a barrage be built across the Lake and Murray to keep out the sea water and allow regular supplies of fresh-water for drinking and irrigation.

Redman and the Aboriginal men calculated that any further subdivision of pastoral land would mean less employment: even though pastoralists needed Aboriginal workers as shearers for only a few weeks of the year, small farmers rarely required any outside labour at all. The Point McLeay men signed memorials protesting against the further breaking up of Narrung Estate, to no avail. As the President of the AFA reported,

The altered conditions that are following the closer settlement of the Narrung Estate, must of necessity cause the movements of the natives to be much restricted in the future than they have been in the past. Instead of rambling across country without hindrance they will be compelled to keep to the beaten track.

They will find fresh competitors in shooting and fishing, and their hunting excursions will soon be a thing of the past.

In this the Mission Station will be materially affected because of the difficulty that will be experienced by the natives in obtaining their food supplies, and already it has been found necessary to make allowances of meat to the old natives who are unable, especially during the winter months, to obtain fish or game.’ Th. W. Fleming, Pres. (AFA AR 1907: 11)

As well, the clearing of the remaining land available meant that firewood was now in very short supply, and had to be brought in from some distance. As well, the mission boat, the Teenminnie, sank and was irreparable, and the jetty became unfit for use. To add to their problems, the people of Point McLeay suffered a severe epidemic of influenza causing the death of three of the oldest children. To a large extent, epidemics were exacerbated by overcrowding in the cottages on the mission, some of which were now nearly fifty years old. In turn, overcrowding was increased by the closing of The Needles ration station and the gathering of people back on the mission.

In early 1907, the AFA asked the Government to take over the mission station from June 30. The Commissioner for Public Works, responsible for Aboriginal matters, prevaricated and offered the AFA an increased grant if they would keep control. They were well aware of the enormous difficulties posed by the lack of any employment, particularly for the young men, and viewed any hand-over as something less than a bargain. The AFA requested an increase in the subsidy (which had to be repaid) from £ 1000 to £ 1250. Negotiations continued and the imminence of a hand-over to the Protector fostered a chronic sense of insecurity. Towards the end of the year, Redman handed in his resignation, but was persuaded to withdraw it and to continue in his vital role as superintendent.

It appears that the government was persuaded to increase both the grant and the subsidy to the AFA, because within a year a great deal of building and renovation had been carried out: there were now thirty four cottages, thatch rooves had been replaced by galvanised iron, as had the rooves of various work-sheds. A sheep dip and draining yards had been built, and the school dormitory ventilation had been improved and its ceiling replaced by iron sheets. (AFA, AR, 1908: 10). For a few months the men were fully employed either on the mission or outside, shearing,

harvesting, fruit packing, salt scraping, fishing or shooting. At the Meningie Show, Point McLeay took out the 1st Prize Bull, 1st Prize Crossbred Horse, and 1st Prize for mats and baskets.

But again by the next year, there was very little work to be found in the surrounding region. Redman arranged contracts for men to go to Renmark fruit-picking, and maintained the shearing contracts with the Hill River station: Mr Angas employed as many as forty two Aboriginal men and six boys on the shearing. Redman encouraged artifact-making and expanded the station’s activities to include orchards, lucerne and weekly touring parties from Goolwa. Thanks to his efforts, almost all Ngarrindjeri men were working in 1908 (Hughes, 1996: 31-36).

Increased state powers over Aboriginal children

At this time in South Australia, the powers of the state to involve itself in family matters, particularly those of ‘neglectful’ families, were being extended rapidly, and not just in the field of education, which many people still saw as primarily a family affair: a State Children’s Council had been set up and given legislative authority to take children from parents, round up homeless and ‘orphan’ children and either keep children in institutions, or send them out to work as domestics, until they turned eighteen. By 1906-1907, the Council, under its Chairman, James Gray, was exerting some influence on the area of responsibility that the Protector of Aborigines regarded as his own, and a sort of competition began between the two bodies to demonstrate their probity and vigilance:

No effort that aids the cultivation of the white flower of pure girlhood can be too strenuous: no expedient that provides the elements of a truly manly character can be too costly. (SCC Annual Report, 1906-1907).

Gray was to make some particularly vicious comments at the 1913 Royal Commission on the Aborigines so we can be a bit sceptical about Dickey’s assessment of him: ‘Perhaps Gray was the most humane of the Council’s successive chief executives: but the life of a state child was bound in at every turn by regulation and supervision.’ (Dickie, 1986: 167-168). But Gray’s harsh attitude towards Aboriginal people was indicative of a long-term shift in attitudes generally between 1900 and 1915. Late in 1907, an ‘uncontrollable’ child was taken by the SCC from Point McLeay: the process of removals had started.

In 1908 the government appointed Sen. Const. W.G. South to the position of Protector. Under the State Children’s Act 1895, a child was considered ‘neglected’ if he or she ‘sleeps in the open air, and does not satisfy the Justices that he or she has a home or a settled place of abode’ and ‘destitute’ if he or she has ‘no sufficient means of subsistence .. and whose relations are … in indigent circumstances and unable to support such a child.’

These definitions could easily be applied to children whose parents were nomadic, involved in seasonal (and therefore necessarily shifting) work or impoverished through loss of land. South wrote in 1909,

‘ .. children should be committed to the care of the State Children’s Council where they will be educated and trained to useful trades and occupations, and prevented from acquiring the habits and customs of the aborigines, and I feel sure they will as a rule, grow up useful, self-supporting members of the community, instead of developing into worse than useless dependents.’ (quoted in Mattingley and Hampton, 1992: 157).

South demanded the power to remove Aboriginal children without a court hearing, since the courts sometimes refused to accept that the children were neglected or destitute: in South’s view all children of mixed descent should be automatically treated as neglected. Clauses giving him this level of control were included in the Aborigines Act, 1911.

South continued to use the State Children’s Act 1895 because it allowed him to send Indigenous children to children’s homes where the emphasis was on training them to be sent out to work from the age of fourteen until the child was eighteen. He was scathing in his criticisms of missions which he believed were creating dependence upon charity as well as ignoring the needs of the residents. (Bringing Them Home, 1997: 119-121)

Enter Dr Ramsay Smith

By 1907, Point McLeay had the largest Aboriginal school in Australia. Its continued success after 1904 had unpredictable results: the new Protector, W.G. South, believed along with many other people that half-castes were not really Aboriginal and should not be allowed to live on Aboriginal missions. Of course, they believed that half-castes were not really white either, and should not be allowed to live and work wherever they liked, so a large proportion of the population at Point McLeay became victims of this ambivalence: were they or weren’t they Aboriginal ? If they were, then they were entitled to government support, either through the AFA or directly, even as their numbers were growing. If they weren’t, then they should have the rights of other white Australians and the government was obliged to make provision for their needs as it did for other white Australians. Their misfortune was to fall between the two categories – not necessarily in their own opinion, of course, but in that of policy-makers - and to be sometimes denied the rights of either.

Change in educational provision in South Australia came rapidly in the early twentieth century, but only for some: the first secondary schools in the city from 1908 and in the country soon after, the first technical schools from about 1913, and the first agricultural high schools from about 1920. But these schools were built either in the city or in large country towns, Port Pirie or Murray Bridge, for example. While it was possible to set up one-teacher primary schools wherever there were more than a dozen or so children, a secondary system required much more highly-trained teachers, a larger student base and many more specialised resources, which therefore demanded a much larger catchment area than even a dozen primary schools had. For Aboriginal schools, access to secondary education was even more out of the question: they were invariably in areas remote from large towns, at least for children travelling daily to and from school, and the only other option of boarding children in towns, fairly common for white children by 1920, was never

implemented except much later for Aboriginal children who had been taken away from their families.

The other option for educational policy-makers was to ensure that no Aboriginal children successfully reached the end of primary schooling and required further education in a secondary school. But at Point McLeay School, under Patrick Francis, and at Point Pierce School under his sister Lavinia, the children were already reaching the Fifth Class by 1908: to push on and complete a Sixth Class would make them eligible for entry into a secondary school, forcing the hand of policy-makers. This had to be avoided: ways had to be found to hold Aboriginal children back.

For a host of reasons – overcrowding, reduction of rations, unemployment of bread-winners – Point McLeay was an easy prey to epidemics of influenza and tuberculosis, especially from about 1903 to 1907 when about one hundred deaths occurred, out of a population of barely three hundred. A range of remedies could have been proposed to alleviate the situation, but only one or two were implemented: these were to have drastic effects on the education of Ngarrindjeri children for the next fifty years.

Pupils in Francis’ Class, April 1908D.O.B. D.O.B.

Fred Kelly 1.5.89 Cassie Dodd 6.10.01Stanley Giles 23.7.93 Clara Campbell 22.12.00Wiltshire Sumner 10.10.94 Hendle Rankine 13.11.99Miller Mack 25.2.95 Martin Wilson 20.4.00Hubert Polteena 6.2.95 Alvina Wassa 19.2.00Alma Gollan 19.8.96 Numsie Giles 17.9.02Susan Rankine 14.11.94 Tottie Giles 8.10.00Ada Varcoe 12.7.92 (last day 31.3.08) Esther Bonny 7.9.97 (died 20.10.08)Kingsley Giles 2.10.96 Annie Long 2.12.00Cyril Rigney 4.8.96 Nellie Rankine 30.1.02Gerald Varcoe 5.9.95 Vera Rigney 27.4.99Everette Sumner 7.8.95 Annie Rigney 15.12.02Lush Wilson 29.3.96 Mildred & Myrtle Lambert (left 16.4.08)Wilfred Wassa 1.11.97 Laurence RumbelowMarjory Carter 7.10.97 Terence Wilson 20.2.01Mona Gollan 19.11.94 Proughton Carter 8.3.02Clement Karloan 29.5.94 Kenneth Sumner 16.7.02Ella Wilson 21.9.97 Allan Claude Rigney 10.4.02 (died 11.08)Rebecca Harris 10.2.97 Janet Butcher 17.9.01Reginald Seymour 11.4.97 Holborn Varcoe 5.11.94Hilda Ulimba 5.8.97 Elliott Dodd 7.6.94Norman Close 2.8.96 Gertrude Dodd 14.11.96 (died 4.5.08)Banks Long 9.2.95 Mary Bonny 6.9.00? 6.9.90?

Gladys Blackmore 1.12.98 Teenminnie Giles 29.9.98Walter Gollan 19.4.98 Fergus Karloan 7.6.98Kathleen Lovegrove 9.9.94 (died 7.1.09) Andrew Rankine 19.12.98James Rankine 6.7.96 Gertrude Lovegrove 6.3.98Rita Jackson 3.12.99 Constance Varcoe 3.12.99Maggie Mason 9.3.95 Charles Mason 6.1.97Oliver Hewitt 27.8.94 Rufus Rigney 28.10.99Garnett Wilson 26.9.9.7 Stanton White 24.1.97Ivy Rankine 17.6.99 Lillian, Ethel and Joyce BraunsthalCharles V. Wilson 23.1.00 Francis kidsEdmund Rigney 27.5.01 Herbert RumbelowFreely Carter 4.9.98 Dorothea Bonney 4.9.99

Dr Ramsay Smith, Chairman of the Central Board of Health, visited Point McLeay in early April 1908, along with the Protector, Mr South. Ramsay Smith already had a reputation, as City Coroner, as something of a grave-robber: there had been suggestions that he was keeping back body parts of deceased Aboriginal people, for research - many years later, it was revealed that he had sent the entire body of Tom Tom Walker, a Piltindjeri man to Edinburgh University for study (Bulletin, November 12, 1991: 32). However, in his position on the Central Board of Health, he had enormous power in the field of education to direct schools and shape curriculum, for the declared health benefits of children.

Ramsay Smith approved of the building and renovations which had been carried out but ‘concluded that the children were overtaxed by the pressure to bring them up to the Government regulations.’ At the time Mr Francis had seven classes, from lower juniors to fifth class, but Ramsay Smith recommended that these be cut back to four or five, daily hours cut back to no more than three and other measures be taken:

REPORT on DISEASE AT POINT MACLEAY

On the 3rd April, in company with Mr. W.G. South, Protector of Aborigines, I visited Point Macleay in order to inquire into the occurrence of disease among the natives at the Mission Station.

After investigation, I arrived at the following conclusions:

1. Recent epidemics of influenza and whooping cough have left the sufferers with impaired general health and a special liability to lung complaints – including consumption, which has developed in conditions favouring its incidence. Eleven persons have died from consumption during the two past years.

2. School life appears to be a strong disposing cause to ill-health. During the two past years eight children attending school have died from consumption and other causes, and three more have died soon after leaving. Two causes are at

work.(a) The ventilation of the school is defective. The lighting is very bad; the windows being too short. In one-third part of the room the light is not merely indifferently good, but actively bad on account of cross shadows.

This matter of school sanitation demands immediate attention.(b) The school time-table entails too long stretches without intervals. The requirements are too high – or too broad – for blacks and whites alike, and the results are obtained at the expense of the health of the children.

The time-table and curriculum require reconstruction.

3. The dormitories for children and young people are small and very badly ventilated. They require either reconstruction or an entire change in the system of ventilation.

4. The change of civilized methods of living has an effect on health. The older natives when they have become wet throw off their clothing and do not put it in again until dry. The younger do not do so, but sit in damp clothes, take chills, acquire consumption, and die.

(Signed) W. Ramsay Smith.15/4/1908. Chairman, C. B. H.

Ramsay Smith’s report to the authorities resulted in the lessening of the hours of attendance and the lowering of educational standards for the children:

Aboriginal children were to receive no more than three hours of schooling per day;

The school curriculum was to be adapted so that Class Five curriculum would be equivalent to a Class Three curriculum elsewhere, that is, children would be kept at school until they were fourteen or fifteen (or even older) but they would be limited to a Class Three education;

children’s slates would be abolished, since they could carry germs;

children would write only on paper, which would be collected and destroyed at the end of each day;

books were not to be used by children.

Letter from Director of Education to Mr P.W. Francis, Pt. McLeay School, 22nd

June, 1908.

Re Education of Native Children.

Sir,

In view of the report of Dr. Ramsay Smith on the effect of the ordinary school hours for native children, the Hon. The Minister of Education has directed that, in future, you will observe for native children the enclosed syllabus. Further, the hours for native children are to be as follows:9.30 to 12, and 2 to 3 (or 1.30 to 2.30); for white children, the ordinary course and ordinary hours must be observed, though I recognise that there will be immeasurable difficulty in carrying one portion of the school to a higher standard than the other.

I am, Sir, Your obedient servant, DIRECTOR OF EDUCATION.

Proposed Examination Standard for Aboriginal Children.

Reading. Maximum Class III “Children’s Hour”.Classes III, II and I to do the work of the Class below.

Spelling. As in Reading, - no spelling outside the books they use.Copybooks. Full standard.Transcription. Full standard.Mental Arithmetic. Class III maximum, - using only easy tables. One class below from III

downwards.Slate Arithmetic. Class III maximum, - one class below from III downwards.Composition. Class III maximum, - one class below from III downwards.Drawing. Full Standard, except Geometrical (only easiest problems to be given) and model drawing.Sewing. Full standard up to Class III.Geography. Only observational.History. All in stories.Poetry. Simple poems only.

Francis had to agree to these conditions, but still tried to ensure that the children gained as much as possible from the now-limited education available:

The Government fixed a maximum standard last year for Native children. This curriculum was not to go beyond the III class of ordinary schools, but as white children attending have to be taught as heretofore. I don’t keep back the Natives, if they can without undue strain, keep pace with their white class mates. Consequently, five Natives are now doing good work in the V form.

‘The change, i.e. lowering the standard, was put in force on the recommendation of Dr Ramsay-Smith. The different standards in different classes made the work difficult and distracting, but owing to the help of Miss D. Redman (Hon. Assistant) and Master B. Francis (Government Monitor) I have been able to obtain “Very Good” Reports, although five different inspectors have made ten separate visits in the last five years. The children have responded to the efforts put forth for their advancement.’

(AFA Annual Report, 1909: 10)

Henceforth, inspectors were to make allowances in their reports for the fact that the children were ‘only Aborigines’.

Annual Examination 1908—Point Mcleay Mission

The school consists almost exclusively of natives, there being only five white scholars.In accordance with recent instructions a modified form of examination was given in Spelling and Arithmetic to the native pupils, but, in all other respects, the full curriculum had been taught, and (at the teacher’s request) examined in. On the whole, the scholars acquitted themselves very creditably, very few weaknesses were noted, and a good knowledge of the various branches selected generally.

Reading, and Simultaneous Poetry were very good, more attention however, is needed to individual recital.Writing and Drawing had been carefully and systematically taught. Arithmetic and Spelling on modified lines are fairly well mastered.Geography, History and Poetry were dealt with on up-to-date principles, relief models, charts and pictorial-aids having been freely and successfully brought into requisition. Some attention had also been paid to Nature Study and Observation Work.Plain Needlework and the varied Manual branches were worthy of high commendation.

Altogether the School is in very good going order. The teacher being thorough, sympathetic and peculiarly adapted to the management and training of children brought up under native conditions and a primitive environment. He is deserving of much credit for the success achieved.

Smyth - Inspector.8.10.08

The restrictions recommended by Ramsay Smith were also implemented at Point Pierce, against the wishes of the parents and the teacher, Lavinia Francis. She wrote to the Director of Education in protest:

Past experience goes to prove that the school hours formerly observed, and the teaching up to the full standard as previously followed for each class has in no way militated against the physical or mental well being of the native children.… the natives feel… that an invidious distinction is being made through the full curriculum being extended to the white children, while the same opportunities are denied to those who in reality consider themselves entitled to all the advantages of an institution which exists solely for their benefit and uplifting. (17.11.1908)

The Director’s reply, 28.11.1908, was that ‘It was considered that children of the native race were unable to bear the confinement of school hours as white children can. … ‘ One of his Inspectors concurred, but proposed a ghastly sort of compromise:

… I am of opinion that the children of Aboriginals are not equal to white children in the capacity for continuous mental effort. … To force them to the ordinary standard would be prejudicial to the health and happiness of pupils (and teacher), and in view of the lives they are likely to lead it is unnecessary.

The objection of the parents to the present arrangements is largely sentimental. They probably have no idea of the price their children would have to pay for the higher standard. On the other hand, they have a strong case when they urge that their children have not equal opportunities with white children. A native child has practically no chance of entering a High School from the mission school.

… I respectfully suggest the following alternatives:

1. Restore the full curriculum, but retain the present hours. At Examination promote only those children fully qualified to proceed.

2. Retain the present hours and curriculum. Select specially promising pupils and promote them from Junior Division to Class III (really equivalent to Class I on other schools). Any pupil willing and able to go past Class III standard to be allowed to join an extension class, attend for full hours, and study for a Fifth Class certificate. This would put the pupil in the same position as a white child.

The natives are indulgent parents. Probably few (if any) children would take the course. The Superintendent of the Point Pierce Mission holds the opinion that what natives really want is full opportunities for their children.

S.F. Robinson, A/Ass/Inspector of Schools to Director of Ed., 8.7.1910.

The first alternative, to require children to cover the same work in half the time, was clearly outrageous, although Francis was attempting to implement it, reporting in 1910, that children were ‘holding their own.’ The second alternative would have put impossible demands on teachers and individual students, and was obviously not meant to be taken seriously: it would have required students to stay on at school much longer, certainly at least two years longer, than white children; it would have

split cohorts of children into small ‘standard’ and ‘extension’ classes alongside each other, and would have forced teachers to teach up to nine levels of education.

Meanwhile, tourist parties of whites visited Point McLeay each weekend, to view ‘the natives in their natural setting’:

The aboriginal station at Point McLeay is on the margins of the lake, and is quite a novelty to go ashore and see these civilised natives at work. They look very happy and contented, and many have become good workers in different trades, the boots made by them being very creditable, and the dresses made by the women for themselves and children are well cut and neatly sewn.

The teachers seem to take a great interest in their black pupils, and the Government is certainly doing all it can for “our black brudders” who are so swiftly but surely dying out, and I am sure enough kindness cannot be given to the remnant of the tribes.

The aborigines are very careful as woolwashers and –rollers; they also collect willow rushes and broom corn, which is sent to Adelaide to the Royal Institution for the Blind at North Adelaide, where the inmates make it into many useful articles of basket-work. At Christmas-time the natives are given an extra good dinner, and a Christmas tree laden with many gifts and sweets, and it is quite pathetic to see the enjoyment of the poor creatures, who are very grateful for any kindness they receive, and delight as much in pretty things as we ourselves do. (Vivienne, 1908: 169)

At this time, other schools in the area with fewer students than Point McLeay, such as Milang, were forging ahead with getting their students into secondary education: in 1907, one Milang School student passed his university entrance exams and between 1912 and 1917, twenty two children passed their Class Six exams into secondary school. After 1920, Milang children passing into secondary school, boarded in Strathalbyn during the week, but from 1927, regular daily transport was available. (Faull, 1981: 225)

In 1907, there were still about twenty wurlies erected along the Milang foreshore. Regular motor-boat excursions operated from Milang to Goolwa and Point McLeay and there were even motor boat races around the lake from 1908. The Narrung Post Office opened that year. A store had opened about 1900, on the site of the present Hall, which was built in 1911, the same year that a branch of the Agricultural Bureau was formed at Narrung: Mr. W.T. Lawrie was to become its Secretary for twenty five years, but in 1911 a petition signed by twenty four Narrung farmers was submitted to the Labour Premier, John Verran, to stop any more land being allocated to Point McLeay, a request that Verran supported. So much for the first Labour government in the world.

GRG 18/2/2/2083/910 Consumption at Point McLeay School

Initial Docket from G. Charlesworth, 3.10.10, forwarded to J. Williams, Dir. Ed.

Letter from Geo. Charlesworth, A/Inspector of Schools, to J.T. Smyth, Insp. Of Schools.Plympton, Oct 1st 1910* in 6 years 26 school-children have died of consumption [16 on the register record].the use of books discontinued; Reading taken from small cheap books, which could easily be changed at short intervals.In the place of books, children could work on blank sheets of paper, which could be burnt at the end of each day, and on slates without frames which should be washed daily.not only for the native children’s welfare, but in the interests of white children.

Inspector Smyth to Dir. Of Ed., 3.10.1910J. T. Smyth, Inspector of Schools, to The Director, Education Dept, Adelaide, Oct 3rd

1910.I am in complete sympathy with the views held by Mr. Charlesworth.

Note on front of docket, from Dir. Ed., to Hon. Min. Ed., 7/10/10:recommending that paper be supplied for use of the children at the Pt. McLeay School which can be destroyed at the end of each school session. Under the conditions existing at this school slates should not be used. J. Williams.

From Dir. of Educ. to Francis, 1/11/10:2083/1910The H.T. – In consequence of the conditions which obtain among the children in the Pt. McLeay school, the Hon. the M.E. has authorised the supply of material for use in the school. The following instructions are therefore for your guidance:(1) The use of slates must be entirely abolished at once.(2) All books now in use must be given to the children or burned, as well as any papers which have been for any time in the school.(3) All work will be done on paper in future and the paper should be burned at the close of each day. Blocks should not be served out, but only enough paper for the session then in progress. If copybooks are used they should be cut up and distributed a sheet at a time. Drawing Books and D. & T. Books should be treated in the same way.(4) Old Ch. Hrs. [Children’s Hours] will be supplied. After short usage these should be burnt.These instructions will necessitate an alteration in methods of examination. A duplicate of this letter is being forwarded to your district Inspector, who will devise methods which will enable him to estimate the worth of the work done in a different way from the ordinary examination. A.H.N. pro D.E.

Redman and Francis struggled on, each with their own insuperable – and related – problems. In 1909, Redman organised the election of a Point McLeay mission management committee, composed of both Ngarrindjeri and grinkari, to help with discipline and to prepare for ‘total Ngarrindjeri involvement in decision-making and control at Raukkan.’ (Hughes, 1996: 28-29)

Annual Examination 1909 – Point Mcleay

General Remarks

The school consists almost exclusively of natives (only four white scholars are attending). Owing to a modification of syllabus to native scholars, while the full course is carried out for white pupils, the work has to be conducted under somewhat distracting circumstances; and Mr. Francis is to be commended for the successful result which has been gained.

Reading varies from Good to V. Good. The tendency to speak too softly is being gradually overcome, also the knowledge of the subject-matter has been fairly mastered.

Poetry. Very Good – Individual recital, as well as the practice of telling the story to be encouraged.

Arithmetic. Very Satisfactory – Excellent marks were secured in several instances.

Spelling. Very Weak in I. Moderate in II -- otherwise Very Good -- A regular course of oral spelling strongly recommended for lower classes.

Composition. Weak in II and III -- Oral expression of ideas to precede the written exercises in the case of the culture subjects.

Writing. Good -- Attention needed, in some cases. To formation of letters and uniformity of stroke.

Drawing. Good to V. Good. Brushwork is, as a rule, carefully executed. Manual Work. Boys An excellent course of modelling has been adopted.

The “fancy work” of the girls, and “Kindergarten” of younger scholars is of a praiseworthy character.

Singing (T.S.F.) Spirited and tuneful. Expression Good.Drill. When marching, the younger children would do better if grouped

into a separate division.Geography and History. Carried out successfully with suitable correlation.

Relief-models, diagrams, charts, & other illustrative aids have been freely availed of.

Nature Study and Observation. Attended to regularly.

Mr. Francis works in a sympathetic and encouraging way. Earnestness and thoroughness are symbolized by the attitude he displays in the performance of his duties. The children are diligent and happy; and have acquired information, in many respects, beyond the prescribed minimum.

J.S. SmythInspector

Oct 6th 1909.

In 1910, the AFA’s President introduced the report from Mr Francis with a slight criticism of Ramsay Smith’s directives:

The Public School continues to be satisfactorily conducted by Mr P.W. Francis, Govt. School Teacher. From his report, it will be noted that, with a view to checking the transmission of consumption, the Director of Education has given instructions that all writing books and slates must be abolished, and that instead rough sheets of paper are to be used, and these must be destroyed at the end of each day. This, although not so satisfactory from the parents’ point of view, as they are unable to compare the progress of their children one month with another, yet the health aspect seems to your committee a very desirable alteration. -- Th. W. Fleming, Pres. (AFA AR, 1910: 12)

Mr Francis’s report reveals the enormous efforts he was still making to keep standards high:

The school still keeps up classification “C”.We hold our own with all white schools around the Lakes: and at the Annual Lake Albert Shows our records are worth noting.Last year we carried off fourteen prizes. This year (1910) sixteen, two of these being 1st and 2nd prizes in Fifth Class Geometry, against all comers (one boy a native).

Transfers to and from Point Mcleay of school-children indicate that families were moving either only between missions, or to and from local towns:

To and from Raukkan School1900s

To From To and FromPt Pierce 3Milang 1Manunka 2Coorong 2

‘Near Wellington’ 5Port Victor 1Pt Pierce 1Coorong 3

Pt Pierce 1Coorong 4Meningie 1

During his fifth year as Superintendent (1910), Redman decided to have the old lime quarry reclaimed, in the centre of the town – turned it into gardens and a park. (Hughes, 1996; 48)

Point McLeay Feb. 28th to March 1st/10Patrick W. Francis, Prov I

Roll 56. Present 52. Temperature 71 o. Time: Feb. 28th 4.15 P.M. to 5.45 P.M.

March 1 9 A.M. to 4 P.M. (less 1 hr)

Premises Good order, clean and comfortable, nicely decorated.N.B. No Out-Office [lavatory] accommodation of any kind connected with

the school, so that the scholars are obliged, sometimes, to commit a nuisance close around.

Time Table & Programmes Satisfactory.Lesson Notes. Carefully and systematically drawn up.Records All in order.Fall in & Breathing Exercises Fairly well conducted. Give a few drill movements also.Observation Work Regularly attended to – Introduce simple features of Physic. Geog.Copy & Dict. Books Very Fair to Good – Strive to get the best effort from each child.Poetry Simultaneous recital “Good” but rather loud – Encourage individual memory work, with due attention to clear enunciation and expression.Singing T.S.F. (two parts) Good – Subdue the voices.Drawing. Very Fair to V. Good. Brushwork somewhat too elementary in IV and V.

Separate drawing books recommended for somewhat too elementary in IV and V. Freehand, Geometrical & Brushwork respectively – “Free-Arm” exercises on small B.Bds. to be done in all classes.Geography. “Good”, the lessons are realistic & suitably illustrated. Physical “Weak” to be dealt with concurrently with General Geog in the manner shown.History Successfully carried out. Chart used & lessons well correlated.Language. “Very Fair” -- In the Composition do not let the quality of the writing deteriorate.Reading. “Fairly Good”. Cultivate a louder delivery & inspire more confidence. Arithmetic. Very Fair progress made in connection with the written work.

Mental “Moderate”. Give plenty of oral exercises to obtain quickness & accuracy.Nature Study. “Good”. Specimens & diagrams are exhibited with proper effect.

The work goes on with earnestness & vigour, modern ideals are availed of, & the scholars (notwithstanding their native environment) are cheerfully and industriously engaged; while a pleasing degree of progress is shown generally throughout.

Discipline and tone very creditable.

J.S. SmythInspector

The Aborigines Act, 1911

The first piece of specific legislation dealing with Aboriginal people was passed in 1911, after many attempts over twenty years. It drew heavily on the findings of the

1899 Select Committee on Aborigines, which in turn concentrated on issues relating to the Northern Territory. But the Northern Territory was no longer a South Australian responsibility, having become a Federal territory earlier that year. So the Act was used to impose a policy of segregation and control, to ‘enable supervision and tutoring’ (Summers, 1986a.)

The Act did little more than sanction current policy and practice, which already allowed Aboriginal people little control over their own lives: it strengthened the powers of the Protector, now designated a Chief Protector, and enabled the expansion of his staff. It set down the powers of the Protector concerning his guardianship of all Aboriginal people under the age of twenty one, the taking of ‘neglected’ children and the confining of Aboriginal people on – and their expulsion from – mission stations, the resumption of which by the government it allowed. It set down quite specific hours of work, winter and summer, and a quite officious and strict code of behaviour. However, it did not define who was ‘Aboriginal’ very clearly, except to limit their already restricted rights: towns could now be explicitly declared prohibited areas.

The Act was in force, despite changes in the wording of policy and the introduction of fine-tuning mechanisms such as the Advisory Council of Aborigines and the Aborigines Protection Board, for more than fifty years, until the Walsh and Dunstan Labour governments. However it is interpreted, the Act was one of control, exclusion, ‘protection’, segregation – and increasing inequality. A range of objections were immediately raised to the Act by mission authorities and Aboriginal people, which in turn provoked a Royal Commission in 1913.

South Australia’s Economy around 1911

After 1904, South Australia experienced a rapid growth in its economy, particularly in small and mixed farms, and in industry. At the time, there was no labour award governing the conditions for farm labourers, and no limit to the hours that they could be expected to work, nor were farmers required even to provide any form of accommodation for them. Even the state Labour Party opposed an award . (Hirst, 1973: 194-207). Consequently, there was an acute shortage of farm labour, offset partly by the move to mechanisation. In 1911, assisted immigration from Britain was resumed (by Labour governments at both Federal and state levels), after nearly thirty years, specifically to bring out farm labourers, rather than improve conditions for local farm labourers. In 1913, a scheme to bring out British boys as farmers’ apprentices was introduced to further these aims.

As well, the Farm Bureau promoted mechanisation of agricultural production: ‘ … with the new combine harvester the whole crop could be reaped without any outside labour being employed. On the land taken out of wheat production, [farmers] ran sheep, which they could manage themselves except for the brief shearing season.’ (Hirst, 1973: 2) Between 1876 and 1911, the numbers of labourers employed in farm and pastoral industries rose by two thirds, but there were far more farms, the area under wheat more than doubled, and fruit blocks, dairying, and many other alternative, and intensive uses of the land were introduced. Even mining provided far fewer jobs in 1911, even though production was higher than ever. The slack was

being taken up by industrial employment in the city and towns, from which Aboriginal people were barred.

With prosperity for white South Australians, came greater government revenue, with which it could start building locks on the Murray and controlling its flow, and railways into the Mallee, the Riverland and from Eyre Peninsula to Port Lincoln. And, of course, it could introduce a system of free, if differentiated, secondary education for white children.

Point McLeay School. March 10th 1911Patrick W. Francis, Pr. T.

Roll 34. Present 30. Temperature 64 o . Time 8.45 to 3 (less 3/4 hr)

Premises. Well looked after, tidily arranged.Building. The School tank (1000 galls) leaks & no water is retained – spouting is slightly defective. A “urinal” for Boys is urgently needed. “Out-Office” accommodation

should also be provided – The W.C.’s at Cottages are too distant.Time Table: A slight alteration suggested – Generally suitable.Programme & Lesson Notes. Carefully drawn up & properly followed.Fall-in & Breathing Exercises. Satisfactory.Observation.Satisfactory. Graphs, & roles daily entered up.Nature Study. Successfully conducted – Lessons subsequently reproduced by scholars.Writing and Drawing. Very Good throughout – A high standard is striven for.Poetry Fairly well memorized – More confidence needed in individual recital.Comprehension “Very Fair”.Reading Good. Practise the scholars to give the gist of the passage in their own words.Singing T.S.F. (two parts) Very Good.

Tested the classes in the “modified” curriculum in Arith. Geog. Hist, & Language; & found that, in most instances, a very fair degree of progress had been made, since the last annual examination Sept. 19th.

Arithmetic. Written Work “Good”. Mental Moderate. Rules & Tables to be constantly practised (apart from Written Arith.); & applied practically by handling the coins, weights, models and concrete objects.Geography & History The teaching is of a realistic type – Diagrams, charts, & relief models being freely availed of.Language. The scholars are diffident, & are too much inclined to mumble. Encourage “answering in complete sentences”; & conduct the lessons (as far as practicable) on the question and answer principle.

Composition is Very Fair. Grammar Mod to Fair.

Mr. Francis deserves credit for the successful manner in which he carries on the work, notwithstanding the racial conditions which have to be overcome. He is

thorough, and encouraging; displays creditable tact in his management of the school, & maintains excellent tone & order.

J.S. SmythInspector.

To be fastened inside the Inspector’s Register.

Point McLeay School August 16 th 1911

I commenced the examination of Point McLeay School in the absence of the Head Teacher who had permission to attend a Court case several miles from the school.

His son rendered me with some little help until about 11.30 a.m. when the teacher arrived. After this the work went on as usual.I found everything ready for the examination. The building is large & well ventilated & kept beautifully clean and tidy.

Much of the teaching done in this school is on the Concrete principle. The teacher has a large supply of charts, diagrams, and maps which he uses freely for illustration purposes thereby greatly helping the Native children to understand their lessons. The children themselves are a cheerful lot and fairly intelligent; indeed many of them gave proof of mental ability beyond my expectations. They can do mechanical work, such as Writing, Drawing, Manual, very well indeed.

They also read accurately & fluently, with a little native intonation, but fail to understand the meaning of the text. Their knowledge of Arithmetic is still a source of trouble to the teacher. But with patience and perseverance much better results may be expected in the near future.On the whole the result of the Annual Examination is very satisfactory.S.G. SullivanActing Inspector.

At the beginning of 1912, Redman resigned as superintendent: his position was taken by David Roper, a merchant from Laura. A new overseer and farm manager was also appointed, Mr Williams, a farmer from Kangarilla. The station budget was in deficit to the tune of £ 600 ($200,000 in today’s terms) and there was considerable unrest, mainly arising from the imminent take-over of the station by the government. This was not alleviated by the superintendent’s decision to charge residents a shilling per week per animal for the pasturing of their privately owned stock, around ten or fifteen dollars a head in today’s money: this onerous burden was imposed quite explicitly ‘with a view to reducing private ownership’. As well, every family was to be limited to one dog, which had to be chained or kept under control.

In May, a report to the AFA on conditions at Point McLeay was submitted: from the government’s point of view, it probably had the effect of postponing any thought of taking the mission over. The Rev. J. Sexton reported that:

the jetty was dangerous;

there was a need for more financial investment in the dairy;

the sheep were of very poor quality;

there was (wait for it!) high unemployment;

there was no proper sanitation or water supply;

it had been decided to charge sixpence per gallon for milk, except to the sick. Milk had hitherto been issued free;

Afghan and ‘Hindoo’ hawkers were to be barred from the mission;

permits were to be issued for travel to and from town.

In May, Roper requested that all correspondence with local Aboriginal people, even from the Protector, be directed through him (PMLB, 11.5.12). Morale and discipline were rapidly falling apart at Point McLeay: a respected elder was suspended for six months for drunkenness, another was disciplined for arguing with officers and spreading dissent, and another was charged with assaulting Roper. To assist him in restoring some sort of order, a board of officers and local farmers was set up (obviously, Redman’s elected board had gone by the wayside long before this time) and George Hacket, a long-time farmer in the area, was appointed chairman, but he stood the pressure for barely a month before resigning. Friction between the officers, Roper versus Williams, and Williams versus Francis, culminated in Williams’ sacking early in 1913. He was replaced by Steer, the overseer at Point Pierce.

Point McLeay School Date: 7 & 8 May, 1912Teacher: Patrick W. FrancisAnnual Inspection.

Roll Boys 21 Girls 24 Total 45Present Boys 19 Girls 23 Total 42

Premises. Well kept .Regulations. Well observed. Time Table and programmes complete and up to date.Records. Well kept.Discipline and Order. Good. The children are generally obedient. And while working put forth commendable effort.Fall in. Too slow. The physical exercises are well done but the marching is irregular.

Positions at Work. These need more attention. See Feb. “Gazette”. Teaching. Processes and Results.Join? Writing. Very fair to Good.Copy and Transcription Books. Not kept but children as per instructions write on sheets. The writing is very fair but could be improved if the children were instructed in the elements of the work and attention drawn to regularity of inclination, height, stroke and spacing, so that they could see in what their own writing is defective and correct it accordingly.Poetry. Well explained and fairly well recited.Singing. Very Good. Sol fa very satisfactory. The children sing in two parts their voices harmonize well. Be careful to check the slight tendency to harshness when the children are familiar with the tune.Drawing. Copies from the flat are done very well. Use more copies from the object. Correlate with nature study and show (1) how the stems spring from branches and leaves from stems (2) how the veins radiate from the middle and (3) the different systems of serration.History. Always have map of world in front of class and give the children some idea of the distance between various places and from us.Language. Children generally talk well. Their accent is very good. The written composition is done very well. Reading. The use of the aspirate is sometimes uncertain. More practice must be given in giving the gist of the passage read. In the Juniors discontinue as soon as the children know the words the reading word by word and let the children read as if they were talking. On no account allow the use of the and a apart from the succeeding word.Arithmetic. Give more practice in back rules of mental work. Use concrete objects more and teach mensuration with scissors and paper as shown to day. In this way correlate arithmetic, geometrical drawing and manual work. The written work is usually very neat.Nature Study. I should like to see more of the children’s original observations; and the lessons for the present should be on the objects easily procurable, from which the children could observe and infer and then write and draw about. Mr Francis is I think doing too much of this work himself. I am generally well pleased with the school. A difficult problem is being worked out very well by the Teacher.William S. T. Cherry?Inspector of SchoolsTime 9.30 - 12.30. 2 – 4

(Please fasten securely in the Inspector’s Register)

Point McLeay: Annual Exam. Sep. 26 & 27 -- 1912.P.W. Francis H.T.The school, with the exception of six white children, was examined on the reduced curriculum for aboriginal children.Reading is very good, allowance being made for the peculiar pronunciation acquired in the homes.Spelling . The tests from reading books were well done.Hand work. Writing, Drawing, Manual Work and Sewing were very pleasing. Some of the Sewing specimens were wonderfully neat. The only weakness in the drawing is in the power to estimate proportion. The Juniors are particularly weak

in this.The manual skill of the aboriginal children has special significance for the teacher, indicating the most suitable medium of impression. The children are receptive by way of the fingers.Arithmetic is the great difficulty with these children. Teaching through the hand could here be extended with advantage.Geography is taught by observation and out-of-door methods generally.Singing (in 2 parts) is Excellent. Solfa could be much improved.General remarks: Mr Francis has a good knowledge of the local conditions and a strong influence both in and out of school. Discipline is almost non-existent in native homes; children mostly follow their own inclinations. Some aboriginal children who were noticeably bright in Examination are brought up by the matron at the dormitories. The white children all did very well. Considering the local conditions, very good work is being done.

S.P. RobinsonAsst. Inspr.

Francis battled on with his attempts to give the Ngarrindjeri children an education with some sort of quality and rigour, in spite of his instruction to the contrary. The numbers of children declined at the school, but the numbers at least to the fourth class were holding up.

Number of children in classes, Point McLeay, 1905-1912

Grade:Year: J.D. Yr 1 Yr 2 Yr 3 Yr 4 Yr 5

Class 5Certs.:

1905 24 19 3 6 1 4 31909 12 13 6 8 11 -1910 9 7 8 4 6 4 21911 3 7 7 11 - 11912 12 6 8 2 9 -

The Royal Commission on the Aborigines, 1913

A major bone of contention with the new Act was the failure, as many saw it, to differentiate clearly enough between ‘blacks’ or ‘full-bloods’, and ‘half-castes’ and ‘quadroons’. The latter were not seen as deserving of rations and other support: their place was away from the missions on their own properties. They were still Aboriginal enough to be barred from the city and towns, but European enough to support themselves. Of course, this was a near-impossible situation to be in. In the Legislative Council, squatters’ castle, members (often the children of former members) spent some of their twelve years’ sinecure on public money lamenting the laziness of ‘part’-Aboriginal men: W. Angus was indignant that ‘the half-castes and

quadroons should be trained to look after themselves by the labour of their own hands.’ (SAPD, 1912: 862).

Another constant theme, that of Social Darwinism, was expressed by Mr Moseley, with a common mixture of ambivalence, confusion and ignorance:

When nature brought in the white fellow, the black fellow had to go. It was an immutable law, and was the survival of the fittest. [I have] had a lot of experience, but ha[ve] never been able to get a native reclaimed thoroughly. ... To ... attempt to civilize them ... was a mistake ... The civilized black fellow was a black fellow spoiled. (Ibid.: 1099)... to remove children from reserves, and train them to spheres of future usefulness, and once away from the reserves not to allow them to return - except ... in the case of those who have parents. (Ibid.: 1302-3)

Angus, who eventually served on the Royal Commission, constantly returned to his theme of segregating not only black from white, but half-castes from full-bloods:

We should first separate the half-caste community from the full-bloods, and then deal with the children of the half-caste in that community, train the boys in blacksmithing, carpentry, masonry, shearing, etc., and the girls in housekeeping... (SAPD, 1913: 991)

The Royal Commission sat for some months in 1913, and again in 1916, but issued an interim report in late 1913. Apart from Angus, among its members were John Lewis, a member of the AFA and father of Essington Lewis, and the former Premier, John Verran. Their experiences do not seem to have educated them positively. Concerning Point McLeay, one of the prime subjects of the investigation, the Report stated, somewhat in the face of the evidence, and not without contradicting itself:

The station … even with Government assistance, is not a success financially. According to the evidence this is largely due to the fact that the area of land attached to the station, some of which is undoubtedly of an inferior character, is not sufficient to maintain the number of people living on the place. No systematic effort appears to have been made to make the best use of the means at the disposal of the Association, and the consequence is that the Mission is languishing, the aborigines and half-castes are being reared for the most part in idleness, and instead of the natives being trained to useful work, they have, to a great extent, become dependent on charity. Some of the natives occasionally take work from adjoining landowners, but after a few weeks they return to the station, preferring either to receive less remuneration for the station work or to live in idleness. These facts have also been made public in the reports of the Chief Protector of Aborigines.

After having visited Point McLeay and taken evidence from those in charge, from the natives themselves, and from the adjoining landowners, we are strongly convinced that under more direct Government control much better results could easily be secured. Some of the natives stated that they are discontented because they cannot get more work to do at the station.

The Commission heard from nearly a dozen of the older men at Point McLeay, all of whom stressed the need for training, including industrial training, for the young men: most of the Aboriginal witnesses were even prepared to support the taking of their children, after the age of twelve or fourteen, for the purpose of training them in useful skills. None of them were content for their children to remain idle. As Ball concludes,

… the ongoing support of the older Aborigines [for schooling] is indicative of their understanding that in the face of an ever-expanding white society a white education was absolutely necessary. (1992: 38)

Some witnesses were concerned to be placed out on the land, but their lack of capital and other resources allowed the Commissioners to devalue these aspirations.

However, it was conceded that, contrary to the conventional wisdom, the Aboriginal population was not dying out. However, this was turned around by the observation that the full-blood population was indeed declining rapidly while the half-caste and quadroon populations were rising at least as rapidly. A suggestion to remove all half-castes and quadroons from Point McLeay to start up another station further up the river was set aside when it was realised that, given the low number of full-bloods actually at Point McLeay, the station was effectively a segregated half-caste community already, which is what the Commissioners desired, and another station was unnecessary.

The end of the AFA Era

People at Point Mcleay awaited the take-over by a government board, expected at any time after 1913. In October, the members of a management board were announced, none of whom were members of the AFA. Even Redman, who had joined the AFA Committee and was now the first Superintendent of Minda Home, was not invited to join the board. Meanwhile, the Education Department renovated the school and Francis vainly attempted to provide a decent education for the children in spite of policy. However, this was to be his last year at Point McLeay.

In contradistinction to the situation for Aboriginal people in pastoral country, it had for a long time been obvious that it was not possible in the settled areas to live traditionally off the land. A contemporary education, and contemporary skills, not an option but a necessity. (Ball, 1992: 39)

Some Raukkan families settled on blocks along the Coorong and near Wellington. But the government could resume leases if land was not used properly: for example, it took Joseph Koolmatrie’s block back, ostensibly for this reason. (Ibid.: 40-2)

List of Aborigines to be at Milang on August 10th, 1914, to meet the members of the British Science Party.

Name Age FB/HC Born atDavid Unaipon 38 FB PMAlbert Karloan 50 FB MeningieJoe Koolmatrie 65 FB Lake AlbertEllen Koolmatrie (Sumner) 67 FB PMLouisa Karpany 80 FB WellingtonSarah Karpany 25 HC WellingtonWilliam Kropinyeri 78 FB MeningieGeorge Harris 69 FB Lake AlbertPolly Long (Bex) 34 FB MobilongWilliam Newlyn 70 FB CoorongNarange Pearce 60 FB NSW: River Murray.Tokie Butcher 35 FB Alice SpringsLeonard Campbell 44 FB PM.Maggie Campbell (Buckskin) 30 FB Streaky BayDan Wilson 53 HC Lake AlbertPhillip Rigney 60 HC Albany, WAJacob Harris 45 FB Lake AlbertLaura Harris (Spender) 36 HC CoorongJohn Wilson 65 HC CoorongJohn Laelinyeri 67 FB Lake AlbertPhillip Sumner 50 HC MilangGladys Blackmore 15 FB PMReginald Seymour 18 HC PMElsie Sumner (Tripp) 28 HC Victor HarborCharles Wilson 14 HC PMMyrtle Lampard 13 HC PMMatthew Sumner 30 HC PMEdie Wilson 10 Quad. PMEdmund Rigney 12 Child of HC parents PMVera Rigney 15 Child of HC parents PM

(Probably about 140 natives will come over to Milang. South, CPA. 27/7/1914).

(Source: GRG 52/ Series 1/ 1 – 113. No. 43: 1914. Aborigines’ Department)

(Detailed Inspection). June 20th 1913

Point McLeay School P.W. Francis H.T.Roll 41. Present 38. Temperature 58 o . Time 9 to 5 (less 1 hr)

This Mission School (with the exception of three “white” children) consists of native or half-caste scholars.The white children were in Classes I, III & IV, & consequently examined on the full programme, as prescribed in Education Gazette.The rest were examined on an “amended” programme drawn up in 1909. The work done generally was of a very successful character, the only weakness revealed being in connection with Written Arithmetic of Classes I, II & III.Reading, Poetry, & Singing were rendered with fluency & satisfactory expression.Spelling had been very well taught, & ranged from Very Fair to Xllent.Writing and Drawing were executed with neatness and care.Language, including Grammar & Composition, was of a pleasing nature.Collective Branches had been treated in a very interesting manner; the charts, diagrams, & pictorial aids were liberally supplied & of a most realistic type, which served to impress the subjects dealt with, on the minds of the scholars.Physical Exercises, Drill, & Organized Games were executed with good precision of movement.The scholars were attentive, industrious, and well behaved.Mr Francis should be complimented on the good tone, & the general proficiency exhibited by the children under his care.

J.S. SmythInspector

After the Easter break, 1914, Mr Francis, who had been in charge of the school for 10 years, was transferred to McDonnell Bay.

Letter from Francis to Board of Health, 23.1.1914:Point McLeay23rd January 1914The Board of Health, AdelaideSince Ramsay Smith’s recommendations were implemented, the death rate has dropped to less than one a year.The Government, by resolution of Parliament, and at the request of the Royal Commission, intends taking over this station in the near future. I may be leaving here; a new regime and a new set of officers may be installed. I hope, therefore, gentlemen, that you will keep an eye on developments to come, and that you will see to it that Dr. Ramsay Smith’s beneficial innovations remain intact.

Crown Lands Act 1915Sec. 5(c): Governor can lease ‘to any Aboriginal native, or the descendant of any Aboriginal native, any Crown Lands not exceeding 160 acres in area, for any term of years, upon such terms and conditions as he thinks fit.’Sec. 124: The Commissioner (of Crown Lands) ‘may cause any … lands reserved for the use and occupation of Aboriginals of Point McLeay and Point Pearce, to be surveyed and offered as homestead blocks on perpetual lease or agreement.’