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LETTERS

Problem-Oriented Research

In his editorial (12 Mar.), Long hasomitted an important issue-the rela-tionship of applied research to the ap-plication of research. The applicationof research is not a simple process, butrather an interdisciplinary activity ofgreat complexity. It takes place at theinterface between knowledge and ac-tion. At that interface there are differ-ences of language. psychology, andvalues.The experience of industry, and of

such mission-oriented agencies asNational Aeronautics and Space Ad-ministration and the Department of De-fense, has shown that successful ap-plication of applied research is verydifficult if there is not a close andcontinuous interaction between thosewho are doing the research and thosewho are expected to use the results ofresearch. The possible consequences ofsuch interactions and their effect onthe freedom and independence of theuniversity and its programs should becarefully considered by those whowould like to see more applied researchfor the public good done in universities.

HAROLD GERSHINOWITZRockefeller University,New York 10021

Male Bias and Women's Fate

In a letter (12 Feb.) Demorest Dav-enport defends the widespread discrimi-nation against women in science on thegrounds that women are (for a varietyof reasons kindly supplied by M. B. Jen-sen in a following letter) too irresoluteto be trusted to succeed in the oppor-tunities that might be offered to them.The paucity of good openings for fe-male scientists, and the substandardcharacter of those that are available, isproof that the male scientists who runthe establishment are largely in agree-ment with Davenport's views.

Yet the argument is one that couldbe made in better conscience by a physi-cist or a geologist than by a biologist.The physical scientists keep their femalegraduate students down to a tiny mi-nority, and thus avoid the paradox oftraining those whom they would notemploy. Biologists, however, have notbeen so fastidious. Beguiled by lavishfederal funds for graduate student

514

training, the men who run our graduatebiology departments have played ashameless numbers game, eagerly entic-ing women students to swell depart-mental rolls and bring in the money.The inconvenient fact that winning aPh.D. would be unlikely to entitle agirl to more than second-class citizen-ship in the scientific world has, ofcourse, gone unmentioned. The accept-ance of this situation is to many menmerely a matter of being realistic,though some are honest enough to ad-mit that "cynical" would be a betterword. The best word for it wouLld bestronger.

During the 1960's, the percentage ofPh.D.'s in biology awarded to womenranged from 16 percent in the 11 mostprestigious institutions to more than 30percent in numerous others. I shouldlike to ask Davenport who was a de-partment chairman during that decade:How many members of my unreliablesex has his department admitted in re-cent years? How many have beenawarded doctorates? Why?

FLtORENCE MOOGDepartment of Biology, Wdsh ingtonUniversity, St. Loluis, Missoluri 63130

In their attempts to justify lower sal-aries for women scientists, both Daven-port and Jensen assume that there are,'no data" on the relative scientific pro-ductivity of men and women and thatsuch comparisons are only "theoretical-ly possible." As readers of Scienice, theyshould not have to rely on what they"have heard" or would be "willing tobet" on what they "think the resultswould be," since a recent article on thissLibject noted the highler productivity ofwomen in science (1). Or do they feelthat an obligation to consider all avail-able evidence only applies in the lab-oratory, and may conveniently be dis-carded when one is dealing with trivialmatters like human aspirations?

WILt IAM LOCKERETZDepartmnent of Physics, HarvardUnziversity, Camn bridge, Massacli isetts

Reference

1. M. S. White, Scienice 170, 413 (1970).

By resorting to hearsay in the absenceof data, Jensen has himself already re-futed at least one prejudice againstwomen which assigns gossip to the fe-male domain.

RUTH ROSINDepartmenit of Zoology,Hebrew University of Jerlusalemn,Jeruitsalem, Israel

SCIENCE, VOL. 172

Davenipor-t and Jensen have alludedto a situation which is present in manyfields . . if the expectation of less jobmobility in males is considered an inm-.portant asset, over and above the cur-rent pcrtformnance for which pay isostensibly given, ain easy solution ispossible. At present, what happens ifthe male, paid at a preferred rate be-caLuse of statistical expectation of longeremployment, leatves for another jobafter a couple of years'? Well, for onething, he gets to keep the extraimoney.

If there is going to be a differenltial inrate of pay, it should be based on (anenlfor-ceable expectation. That is, abonus rate should be paid to anyone,mnale or femaile, who is willing to signa long-termii contract binding him or herto remain with the employer for aperiod of years. barring involuntaryphysical disability (this wouldn't inclutdepregnancy), with a penalty claause pro-viding that the extra pay over andabove that of persons not signing suLcha contrtact, muLst be repaid to the em-ployer if he defaul ts.Some persons might be reluctant to

sign suLch a contract, feeling that theywere selling themsclves into slavery. Butet least it would mean that the personwho claims a right to preferential payon the basis of hypothetically greaterjob stability would have to either de-liver or forfeit the extra proceeds.The principle which Davenport and

Jensen appear to accept is reminiscentof the mnan who gave his three sons agood whipping every day after break-fast, on the grounds that they were sureto do something to deserve it beforethe day was over. If we are going topunish occuLpational infidelity, it wouldbe better to adopt the more generallyaccepted corrective principle of exact-ing the penalty after rather than be-fore the crime is committed.

Al.ICE M. BRUESDeparlinetn t of Anitthropology,Uniiversity of Colorado. Boulder 80302

Some hypothesis might he tested tothe satisfaction of all participants. As-sume the validity of the following state-ments: (i) women receive lower sal-aries than men, all things but genderbeing equal; (ii) such a situation wouldbe rational if, in fact, the "job mortal-ity" would be higher for women thanfor men (due to sex-specific factors).Both of these statements should receivegrudging agreement from all parties.Further, assume that past and presentbehavior is the best predictor available

7 MAY 1971

for future behavior (most behavioralscientists would accept this); specifical-lvy it should be possible to stipulate aperiod of employment (N years, say,where N = 4 or 5?) which would indi-cate that a specific woman had a "jobnmortality" factor at least as low asthat of a typical man in the sameposition.

It the above assumptions are accept-ed, then an employer should he willingto give parity to prospective or currentwomen employees (in terms of hiringpreterence or salary) if such employeeshad completed N years of continuedperformance as a professional. Do theemployers who write to Science havesalary parity for women who have beenemployed N years? Are they as likely tohire women with N years of employ-ment as men with equivalent experi-ence? If the answer is "yes," then theemployers are behaving rationally, andw>nomen must argue the tenability of thejob mortality" assumption. If the an-swer is "no," then the employers aremerely rationalizing irrational behiaviorin their letters to Science, and are hoistby their own petards (in the MiddleFrench meaning of the term). Empiri-cal tests can discriminate the good guysor gals from the bad.

DAVID E. CiEEMENTDepart-tmenit of Psychology,University of Soutth Florida.Tamiip(a 33620

Anmen

Several letters dealing with the prop-erties, preparation, and use of yogurthlve appeared in Scienice during thepast few months (1). I have recentlybeen informed of some less technicalstudies which the researcher has com-piled and plans to publish in a modestmanual entitled "60 Things You CanDo With Yogurt" (2). Then too, hisresearclh assistants have prepared ashort follow-up paper entitled "OneMore Thing You Can Do WithYogturt" (3).

FREDERICK H. GILES, JR.Department of Phlysics,University of South Carolina,Columbia 29208

References1. E. F'. Scga.l. Science 169, 425 (1970): M. Kro-

gcr-, ibi(d., p. 816: J. Goodman, ibid. 170, 123(1970); B. H. Bagdikian, ibid., p. 582; G. A.Garabedian, ibid. 171, 847 (1971).

2. Private commtonication.3. An even more priv ate coommnjeltiication.

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Science Reprints

Reprints of the follom ing selected articles from Scienceare for sale to our readers. They may be ordered fromAAAS Reprinits, 1515 Mlassachtusetts Ave., NWN, Washing-ton, D.C. 20005.

CopiesOrdered

.J. D. Carroll, "Participatory Technology" (19Feb. 1971), 8 pages

G. Hardin, "The Tragedy of the Commonis"(13 D)ec. 1968), 8 pages

B. L. Crowe, "The Tragedy of the CommonisRevisited" (28 Nov. 1969), 8 pages

J. Platt, "What WNre IMust Do" (28 Nov. 1969),8 pages

L. V. M\oncrief, "The Culttural Basis for OuirE'nvironimental Crisis:, (30 Oct. 1970), 8 pages

B. Berelsoni, "Beyonid Family Planning" (7 Feb.1969), 12 pages

C. Djerassi, "Birth Control after 1984" (4 Sept.1970), 12 pages

B. D. Davis, "Prospects for Genietic Interventionin Mlan" (18 D)ec. 1970), 8 pages

L. 1Jlarx, "Aimericais Imistittutioni and EcologicalIdeals" (27 Nov. 1970), 12 pages

P. A. Grahamii, "Woomen in Academne" (25 Sept.1970), 8 pages

L. B. Lave aiid E. P. Siskin, "Air Pollutioni andl-tiuman Health" (21 Aug. 1970), 12 pages

P. H. Abelson, "Death from Heroin" (12 Jtunle1970), 1 page, 50e per copy

E. Land, "Addiction as a Necessity and Oppor-tunity" (15 Jan. 1971), 4 pages

A. Crancer, Jr., et af., "Comparison of the Ef-fects of Marijuiansa and Alcohol on SimulatedDriving Performance" (16 IMay 1969), 4 pages

L. Lemberger et a/., "IM1arihuana: Studies on theDisposition and Metabolisim of D)elta-9-Tetrahy-drocaninabinol in MN1ani" (18 Dec. 1970), 4 pages

H. L. Lennard et a/., "Hazards Implicit in Pre-scribing Psychoactive Drugs" (31 July 1970), 4pages

R. E. Schitltes, "Hallutciinogenis of Plant Ori-ginls" (17 Jan. 1969), 8 pages

A. T. Weil, N. Zinberg, and J. MI. Nelson,"Clinical and Psychological Effects of 'Marihuianain MIan" (13 l)ec. 1968), 12 pages

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SC'IENC'E. VOL. 172

problems of interest to more than onediscipline, or to the scientific commu-nity as a whole, or to society at large.As he sees it, the AAAS meeting shouldserve the needs of a number of dif-ferent kinds of people-research sci-entists, students (about one-fifth ofthose attending the 1970 meeting reg-istered as students), teachers, admin-istrators, and interested laymen. Butthe process of change is far from com-plete, and it is meeting with resistance.As a result, the AAAS meeting as nowconstituted is a bewildering hodge-podge. At one extreme, affiliated so-cieties, such as the American Societyof Zoologists, schedule sessions thatconsist of dozens of short, contributedpapers on narrow technical topics.Grafted on top of this there are sym-posia, planned by the AAAS centraloffice, on such broad topics as "Re-ducing the Environmental Impact ofa Growing Population."

Autonomy of the Affiliates

A glaring weakness of the AAASmeetings at present is that there islittle or no editorial control. Programsproposed by the various AAAS disci-plinary sections are rarely turned downby the central office, and programs

sponsored by the autonomous affiliatedsocieties that meet with the AAAS are

considered virtually untouchable. Theresult is that there is often a great pro-liferation of programs on the same

topic (environmental issues were omni-present at the Chicago meeting), andsome of the sessions actually work atcross-purposes with the rest of themeeting (as when an affiliated societyoffers nothing but short technical pa-

pers). Fully 30 percent of those whoarranged symposia at the Chicagomeeting claimed that other programsoverlapped theirs in content.The editorial anarchy could prob-

ably be cured by a more hard-nosedattitude in the central office, and thereare signs that such an attitude is de-veloping. One plan under considera-tion is to refuse to subsidize the meet-ings of affiliated groups which don'tintegrate their programs into the over-all AAAS program. It cost the AAASan estimated $35,000 to accommodatethe affiliates at the 1970 meeting-anot inconsiderable contribution towardthe overall meeting deficit of morethan $200,000.The annual meeting suffers from

some of the same problems that haveafflicted Science as the AAAS becomesmore interested in broad issues and7 MAY 1971

less interested in detailed technical re-ports. Thus the meeting has been criti-cized for going overboard on socialproblems and for failing to attractenough reports on red hot scientificadvances. A survey indicated that al-most a fourth of the papers presentedat the Chicago meeting had been pre-viously reported publicly, usually in a

journal article or at another scientificmeeting. That seems like an extraor-dinary amount of rehashing of oldmaterial, but it is probably inevitablethat most scientists will continue topresent new findings to their specialtygroups rather than to the AAAS.

Perhaps the most worrisome criti-cism of AAAS meetings is that toomany of the sessions are dreadfullydull. The radicals who disrupted the1970 meeting complained that most ofthe speeches were "boring" and "irrel-evant," and even AAAS officials ac-

knowledge that the quality is spotty.Berl estimates that of some 120 sym-posia at the 1970 meeting, perhaps 20were "good" and another 50 were"fair." However, quality often dependson the direction from which you arelooking, and there were many students,teachers, and young scientists who saidthey found the 1970 meeting stimulat-ing, broadening, and full of extremelyrelevant analyses of social problems."Maybe a second-rate paper in biologyis just the right thing for a physicist,"one explained.

For the future, AAAS officials areapt to try to develop more centralizedcontrol of the program so as to cutdown the number of papers and ensurebetter coverage of topics. There is alsotalk of holding different kinds of meet-ings-perhaps on a regional basis oron specialized topics-in addition tothe annual meeting. And the effort toexpand the reach of the meetingthrough videotapes, audiotapes, tele-vision, and other means will undoubt-edly expand. Berl also hopes that theAAAS meetings can increasingly in-teract with the city in which they areheld. This was a stated goal of themeetings back when the AAAS wasfounded, but in recent years the inter-action has amounted to little more thana few tours and an exhibit or two putup in local institutions.The publication of Science and the

holding of an annual meeting have longbeen the major functions of the AAAS.But the association has also taken on,particularly in recent years, an arrayof other activities as well. The mostimportant, by a long shot, has been

the development of a new science cur-riculum for elementary schools, withthe help of some $2 million from theNational Science Foundation. Entitled"Science: A Process Approach," thenew curriculum is being produced andmarketed by the Xerox Corporation.Though only barely on the market,it's being used this year by some 70,-000 elementary school teachers to in-struct more than 2 million students.The AAAS also conducts a host of

smaller educational projects. It stagesthe popular Holiday Science Lecturesat which eminent scientists addresspromising high school students in citiesthroughout the country. It holds sem-inars for congressmen, diplomats, schooladministrators, teachers, and others. Itawards prizes for outstanding work inscience and science journalism. It ad-ministers the Gordon Research Confer-ences, at which the very hottest of hotresearch is discussed. And it publishesbibliographies, symposium volumes, re-ports on public issues, Guide to Sci-entific Instruments, and other doc-uments. All of these projects havetheir critics and their supporters, andall seem to prove useful to someonesomewhere. But whether, taken as awhole, they add up to a significantprogram, is open to question. Manyof these programs are undergoing re-view to determine whether they shouldbe dropped, altered, or enlarged as theAAAS maps out an ambitious programfor the 1970's. That program will bediscussed in next week's article.

-PHILIP M. BOFFEY

REAECENT DEATHSDitiman S. Bullock, 92; director

emeritus, El Vergel AgriculturalSchool, Angol, Chile; 5 April.

Jack Chernick, 59; head, reactorphysics division, Brookhaven NationalLaboratory; 8 April.George E. Crofoot, 92; professor

emeritus of mechanical engineering,University of Pennsylvania; 4 April.

Joseph K. Hill, 52; former president,Downstate Medical Center, State Uni-versity of New York, Brooklyn; 19April.

George F. Hunt, 51; professor ofwildlife management, University ofMichigan; 29 March.

Rollo L. Masselink, 66; former assist-ant professor of neurology, College ofPhysicians and Surgeons, ColumbiaUniversity; 12 April.

547

care administrators and industrial engi-neers, systems analysts, operations re-

searchers, and health care researcherswho are interested in the potential con-

tribution to ambulatory care of quanti-tative decision-making techniques.

"Engineering in Medicine-Auto-matic Cytology;" 26-30 July, New Eng-land College; Kendall Preston, Jr., Per-kin-Elmer Corp., chairman. Researchworkers from the United States, theUnited Kingdom, and Europe willgather to exchange and discuss recentresults of their efforts in the automa-tion of cytological determinations. In-cluded will be discussions of high-speedelectrooptical imaging and image proc-

essing systems, as well as allied workin fluid dynamics, cytochemistry, andcomputer science.

"Engineering in Medicine-Biotelem-etry"; 2-6 August, New England Col-lege; Charles W. Garrett, Committee on

Interplay of Engineering with Medicineand Biology, National Academy ofEngineering, chairman. Recent devel-opments in electronic devices and theirapplication to the medical practiceswill be explored. Case histories of vari-

ous systems, embracing successes, prob-lems, and causes of failure, will bepresented.

"Enzyme Engineering"; 9-13 August,New England College; Lemuel B. Win-gard, Jr., State University of New Yorkat Buffalo and University of Pittsburgh,chairman. This conference will exam-

ine the engineering knowledge neededfor the successful, practical, and eco-

nomic realization of new possibilitiesfor conducting highly selective, enzyme-

catalyzed reactions during industrialprocessing, laboratory analyses, andmedical therapy. An assessment of theprogress to date, an exchange of ideason the scope and possible routes forsolution of the major problems, and theexploration of specific areas of appli-cation are major goals of the confer-ence."Engineering Utility Tunnels in Urban

Areas"; 16-20 August, New EnglandCollege; Lloyd A. Dove, Institute forMunicipal Engineering, American Pub-lic Works Association, chairman. Threeutility tunnel applications will be con-

sidered: (i) a new town, (ii) an urbanrenewal project in a central businessdistrict, and (iii) a major street recon-struction Xn conjunction with the instal-lation of a new rapid transit subway.

"Research to Reduce Cost of High-Voltage Underground Transmission";23-27 August, New England College;Lester H. Fink, Philadelphia Electric

604

Company, and T. W. Mermel, Bureauof Reclamation, cochairmen. The stateof the art and the requirements forunderground transmission systems willbe discussed in light of environmentalconstraints on overhead transmissionsystems of the future.

"Mixing Operations"; 9-13 August,Proctor Academy, Andover, NewHampshire; James Y. Oldshue, MixingEquipment Co., Inc., chairman. Theconference will focus on liquid-liquidmixing, liquid-solid mixing, turbulencein mixing vessels, atmospheric andocean mixing, static mixers, pipelineand jet reactors, waste aerators andfermentation, and descriptions of mix-ing in industrial projects.

"Future Power Systems-Research,Reliability and Regulation"; 16-20August, Proctor Academy; Elias Schutz-man, Division of Engineering, NationalScience Foundation, chairman. Thisconference will examine in depth theresources of the university, industry,government, and the utilities and theway they may be best organized tomeet the demands of future power sys-tems.

"Corrosion Engineering;" 23-27 Au-gust, Proctor Academy; Walter K. Boyd,Columbus Laboratories, Battelle Me-morial Institute, chairman. Severalfacets of corrosion will be discussed:(i) the application of metals and alloysto provide a practical solution to plantcorrosion problems; (ii) such preventa-tive techniques as inhibition and ca-

thodic and anodic protection; and (iii)the practical use of accelerated labora-tory tests and other laboratory tech-niques for assessing corrosion behaviorof materials and factors responsible forcorrosion in a given system.

"Technology Assessment: Manage-ment, Manpower, and Methodologies";30 August-3 September, Proctor Acad-emy; Bodo Bartocha, National ScienceFoundation, and Joel Goldhar, Rens-selaer Polytechnic Institute of Connec-ticut, cochairmen. A follow-up of an

Engineering Foundation Conference on

technology asssesment held 2 yearsago, this meeting will focus on theoperational problems of performingassessments and preparing individualsfor the expected demand for trainedassessors.

Additional information and applica-tion forms are available from the au-

thor.SANDFORD S. COLE

Director, Engineering FoundationConferences, Room 308,345 East 47 Street, New York 10017

-|Jjj|jj POSITIONS WANTED 1111MlBiochemist, Ph.D. 1970. Year postdoc. SLxpapers, four abstracts. Research position de-sired. Experience electron microscopy; spectro-photometry; chromatography; electrophoresis;ultracentrifugation; radiography; enzyme kine-tics; carbohydrate metabolism; cell contact;algal, amebal, bacterial, tissue culturing. Avail-able: September 1971. Francisco Montalvo, 1711Valley Rd., Champaign, Illinois. 359-6603, 333-3358. X

Biologist, Ph.D. 1960. Teaching experience: cel-lular1 comparative, general physiology; anatomy-ghyslogy; histology; cellular-molecular biology;biceity Undergraduate teaching preferred.

Box 149, SCIENCE. 5/7, 28

Biologist, Ph.D., 35, 9 years of ifniversity experi-ence. Particular interest in innovative undergradu-ate teaching, core curriculum development. Gen-eral, genetic, cellular, statistical, evolutionary,invertebrate biology. German language facilitY.Any location. Box 178, SCIENCE.

Industrial Biochemist in United States. Researchexperience in microbial enzymes; production,Purification, application, wants job in Europe.Box 202, SCIENCE. 5/14

Mathematics-Biometrics. Versatile researcher inbiomathematics, statistics, and computers seeksposition in instruction, computer applications,or research. A.B. in mathematics and biology,M.S. in Ed Admin + 30 graduate hours ofmathematics and statistics.; Currently supervisorof computer installation with extensive workin mathematical models (cancer cell growth, leadcontamination of land, photoreativation, andradionuclides) and data management. PreferMidwest or South. 235 W. Adams, Villa Park-II1. 60181, (312) 2794185 after 6. X

Microbiologist, Ph.D.; 7 years' industrial, 2years' academic experience in eutrophication,pollution studies-product screening, test-methodsdevelopment. Current specialty: algal nutrientbioassays. Desires responsible position in en-vironmental research or teaching. Publications.R. M. Gerhold, University of Wisconsin, WaterResources Center, Madison 53706. X

Physical Bio-Organic Chemist, Ph.D., desires re-

search associate position in magnetic resonancelaboratory in research institute, medical schoolor industry. Publications, experience, and in-terests applications of nuclear magnetic reso-nance to biochemical, biological problems. Box185, SCIENCE. X

Physiologist-Biologist, Ph.D.; 31. Desires teach-ing research position-general physiology, in-sect physiology, or entomology. Three years'postdoctorate experience in endocrinology-mo-lecular biology. Research interests controlmechanisms during pheromone production-differentiation. Can handle graduate students.Write D. Nielsen, 539 West Doty, MadisonWisconsin 53703. -

SCIENCE, VOL. 172

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