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Reconstructionand Its Aftermath

1865–1896Why It Matters

We had survived our worst war, but the end of the Civil War left Americans to deal with a set of pressing issues. The status of some 3.5 million former enslaved people had yet to

be decided. Nor had the terms by which the former Confederate states would rejoin theunion been decided. How Americans would handle these issues would shape the future

of our country.

The Impact TodayDebate over the rightful power of the federal government and the states continues to

this day. Americans continue to wrestle with the problem of providing civil rights andequal opportunity to all citizens.

The American Republic to 1877 Video The chapter 17 video, “Life After the War,” tells the story of Reconstruction through the eyes of writers andartists of the period.

1870• Fifteenth Amendment

ratified

1868• Meiji era begins

in Japan

1871• Bismarck unifies

Germany

1874• First major exhibit of

impressionist art in Paris

1877• Reconstruction

ends

CHAPTER 17 Reconstruction and Its Aftermath

1860 1870 1880

A. Johnson1865–1869

Hayes1877–1881

Garfield1881

1867• First Reconstruction

Act passed

Lincoln1861–1865

Grant1869–1877

Arthur1881–1885

Cleveland1885–1889

B. Harrison1889–1893

499

1890• Poll taxes and literacy test

initiated in Mississippi

1896• Plessy v. Ferguson

rules segregationconstitutional

1882• Beginning of British

occupation of Egypt

1896• Ethiopia defeats

invading Italians

HISTORY

Chapter OverviewVisit and click on Chapter 17—Chapter Overviews to pre-view chapter information.

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Ruins of the North Eastern Depot, Charleston, South Carolina Southernersfaced the task of rebuilding cities, industries, and farms devastated by war.


1890 1900

Cleveland1893–1897

Step 1 Mark the midpoint of the side edge ofa sheet of paper.

Step 2 Turn the paper and fold the edges in to touch at the midpoint.

Step 3 Turn and label your foldable as shown.

Comparison Study Foldable Make this foldable to help you compare and contrastReconstruction in the Northern and Southern states.

Reading and Writing As you read the chapter,write facts that show how Reconstruction differedand was the same in the Northern states and Southern states. Write the facts in the appropriateplaces inside your foldable.

Draw a markat the midpoint.

NorthReconstruction

South

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July 1864Congress passesWade-Davis Bill

March 1865Freedmen’s Bureauis established

April 9, 1865Lee surrenders

April 14, 1865President Lincolnis assassinated

Main IdeaDifferences over how Reconstructionshould be carried out divided the government.

Key TermsReconstruction, amnesty, radical,freedmen

Reading StrategyTaking Notes As you read the sec-tion, re-create the diagram below anddescribe each of the Reconstructionplans.

Read to Learn• how the Reconstruction plans of

Lincoln and the Radical Republicansdiffered.

• what President Johnson’s Recon-struction plans were.

Section ThemeGroups and Institutions The Southworked to rebuild its economy and itsinstitutions.

ReconstructionPlans

About a month after President Lincoln began his second term of office, the Civil Warended and the soldiers returned to their homes. One Illinois veteran wrote upon reach-ing the family farm, “The morning after my arrival, September 29th, I [took off] my uni-form of first lieutenant, put on some of my father’s old clothes, and proceeded to wagewar on the standing corn. The feeling I had while engaged in this work was sort of[odd]. It almost seemed, sometimes, as if I had been away only a day or two, and hadjust taken up the farm work where I had left off.”

Reconstruction DebateThe Civil War saved the Union but shook the nation to its roots. As Ameri-

cans attempted to reunite their shattered nation, they faced many difficult ques-tions. For example, should the slaveholding Southerners be punished orforgiven? What rights should be granted to the freed African Americans? Howcould the war-torn nation be brought back together?

500 CHAPTER 17 Reconstruction and Its Aftermath

Plan Description

Ten Percent Plan

Wade-Davis Plan

Restoration

Preview of Events

Guide to Reading

✦1864 ✦1865 ✦1866

Lincoln’s secondInaugural Address

501CHAPTER 17 Reconstruction and Its Aftermath

The war had left the South with enormousproblems. Most of the major fighting had takenplace in the South. Towns and cities were inruin, plantations had been burned, and roads,bridges, and railroads destroyed.

More than 258,000 Confederate soldiers haddied in the war, and illness and wounds weak-ened thousands more. Many Southern familiesfaced the task of rebuilding their lives with fewresources and without the help of adult males.

People in all parts of the nation agreed that thedevastated Southern economy and societyneeded rebuilding. They disagreed bitterly, how-ever, over how to accomplish this. This period ofrebuilding is called Reconstruction. This termalso refers to the various plans for accomplishingthe rebuilding.

Lincoln’s PlanPresident Lincoln offered the first plan for

accepting the Southern states back into theUnion. In December 1863, during the Civil War,the president announced what came to beknown as the Ten Percent Plan. When 10 per-cent of the voters of a state took an oath of loy-alty to the Union, the state could form a newgovernment and adopt a new constitution—aconstitution banning slavery.

Lincoln wanted to encourage Southernerswho supported the Union to take charge of thestate governments. He believed that punishingthe South would serve no useful purpose andwould only delay healing the torn nation.

The president offered amnesty—a pardon—to all white Southerners, except Confederateleaders, who were willing to swear loyalty tothe Union. Lincoln also supported granting theright to vote to African Americans who wereeducated or had served in the Union army.However, he would not force the Southernstates to give rights held by white Americans toAfrican Americans.

In 1864 three states that the Union army occu-pied—Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee—established governments under Lincoln’s plan.These states then became caught in a strugglebetween the president and Congress when Con-gress refused to seat the states’ representatives.

A Rival PlanA group of Republicans in Congress consid-

ered Lincoln’s plan too mild. They argued thatCongress, not the president, should controlReconstruction policy. Because these Republicansfavored a tougher and more radical, or extreme,approach to Reconstruction, they were calledRadical Republicans. A leading Radical Republi-can, Thaddeus Stevens, declared that Southerninstitutions “must be broken up and relaid, or allour blood and treasure have been spent in vain.”

Controlled by the Radical Republicans, Con-gress voted to deny seats to representatives fromany state reconstructed under Lincoln’s plan.Then Congress began to create its own plan.

The Wade-Davis BillIn July 1864, Congress passed the Wade-Davis

Bill. The bill offered a plan much harsher thanLincoln’s. First, a majority of white males in astate had to swear loyalty to the Union. Second,a state constitutional convention could be held,

The Return to Fredericksburg After the Battleby David English Henderson A Virginia familyreturns to its home in war-shattered Fredericks-burg. Why do you think the painting showsno men of military age?

History Through Art

but only white males who swore they hadnever taken up arms against the Unioncould vote for delegates to this convention.Former Confederates were also denied theright to hold public office. Finally, the con-vention had to adopt a new state constitu-tion that abolished slavery. Only then coulda state be readmitted to the Union.

Lincoln refused to sign the bill into law.He wanted to encourage the formation ofnew state governments so that order couldbe restored quickly. Lincoln realized thathe would have to compromise with theRadical Republicans.

The Freedmen’s BureauMore progress was made on the other great

issue of Reconstruction—helping African Amer-icans freed from slavery. In March 1865, duringthe final weeks of the war, Congress and thepresident established a new government agencyto help former enslaved persons, or freedmen.Called the Freedmen’s Bureau, this agency wasactually part of the war department.

In the years following the war, the Freed-men’s Bureau played an important role in help-ing African Americans make the transition tofreedom. The agency distributed food andclothing, and also provided medical servicesthat lowered the death rate among freed menand women.

The Freedmen’s Bureau achieved one of itsgreatest successes in the area of education. Thebureau established schools, staffed mostly byteachers from the North. It also gave aid to newAfrican American institutions of higher learning,such as Atlanta University, Howard University,and Fisk University.

The bureau helped freed people acquire landthat had been abandoned by owners or seizedby Union armies. It offered African Americansfree transportation to the countryside wherelaborers were needed, and it helped them obtainfair wages. Although its main goal was to aidAfrican Americans, the bureau also helpedSoutherners who had supported the Union.

Examining Why did Lincoln offerhis plan for Reconstruction before the Civil War was over?

Lincoln Assassinated!A terrible event soon threw the debates over

Reconstruction into confusion. On the eveningof April 14, 1865, President and Mrs. Lincolnattended the play Our American Cousin at Ford’sTheater in Washington, D.C. It was just fivedays after the surrender of Lee’s army and fouryears to the day after the fall of Fort Sumter.

As the Lincolns watched the play from a pri-vate box in the balcony, John Wilkes Booth, anactor and Confederate sympathizer, entered thebox without anyone seeing him. Booth shot thepresident in the back of the head, then leaped tothe stage and escaped during the chaos that fol-lowed the shooting. Aides carried the woundedpresident to the nearby house of WilliamPetersen, a tailor. Lincoln died there a few hourslater, without ever regaining consciousness.

After escaping from Ford’s Theater, Boothfled on horseback to Virginia. Union troopstracked him down and on April 26 cornered himin a barn near Port Royal, Virginia. When Boothrefused to surrender, he was shot to death.

Booth was part of a small group that plottedto kill high officials of the United States govern-ment. A military court convicted eight people oftaking part in the plot. Four were hanged andthe others imprisoned for life.


Actor John Wilkes Boothused this pistol to shoot Lin-coln at Ford’s Theater. The“wanted” poster promises alarge reward for help in cap-turing Booth. How wasBooth finally captured?

History

News of Lincoln’s assassination shocked thenation. African Americans mourned the death ofthe man who had helped them win their free-dom. Northern whites grieved for the leaderwho had saved the Union.

A New PresidentWhen Lincoln died, Vice President Andrew

Johnson became president. Formerly a Demo-cratic senator from Tennessee, Johnson had beenthe only Southern senator to support the Unionduring the Civil War.

Soon after taking office, President Johnsonrevealed his plan for Reconstruction. He resentedthe slaveholders who had dominated the Southand wished to punish them. As a result Radicalsthought Johnson would create a harsh plan theycould accept. Johnson, however, believed in giv-ing the states control over many decisions, and hehad no desire to help African Americans.

“Restoration”Johnson announced his plan, which he pre-

ferred to call “Restoration,” in May of 1865.Under his plan, most Southerners would begranted amnesty once they swore an oath of loy-alty to the Union. High-ranking Confederate offi-cials and wealthy landowners, however, could be

Check for Understanding1. Key Terms Use each of these terms

in a sentence that will help explain itsmeaning: Reconstruction, amnesty,radical, freedmen.

2. Reviewing Facts What did the Thir-teenth Amendment provide?

Reviewing Themes3. Groups and Institutions Why do

you think both Lincoln and the Radi-cal Republicans excluded formerConfederate officers from theirReconstruction plans?

Critical Thinking4. Drawing Conclusions Do you think

President Johnson’s early ties to theSouth influenced his treatment ofAfrican Americans in his Reconstruc-tion plans? Explain your answer.

5. Comparing Re-create the diagrambelow and compare Lincoln’s TenPercent Plan to the Radical Republi-cans’ Wade-Davis Bill.

Analyzing Visuals6. Picturing History Study the painting

on page 501. What words would you use to describe the mood of the people?

CHAPTER 17 Reconstruction and Its Aftermath 503

Math Use the Statistical Abstractof the United States or another ref-erence book to find information onthe percentages of African Ameri-can students enrolled in schools in1860, 1870, and 1880. Use thisinformation to create a bar graph.

Reconstruction Plans

Ten Percent Plan Wade-Davis Bill

pardoned only by applying personally to thepresident. This provision was Johnson’s attack onthe wealthy leaders who he believed had trickedthe people of the South into seceding.

Johnson also appointed governors to South-ern states and required them to hold electionsfor state constitutional conventions. Only whiteswho had sworn their loyalty and been pardonedwould be allowed to vote. Johnson opposedgranting all freed African Americans equalrights or letting them vote. He believed thateach Southern state should decide what to doabout freed people, saying, “White men alonemust manage the South.”

Before a state could reenter the Union, its con-stitutional convention had to denounce seces-sion and abolish slavery. States also had to ratifythe Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution,which Congress had passed in January 1865.This amendment abolished slavery in all partsof the United States. By the end of 1865, all theformer Confederate states except Texas hadformed new governments and were ready torejoin the Union. President Johnson declaredthat “Restoration” was almost complete.

Comparing How did PresidentJohnson’s plan for Reconstruction differ from that of theRadical Republicans?

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1865First blackcodes passed

March 1867Radical Reconstructionbegins

November 1868Ulysses S. Grantelected president

February 1870Fifteenth Amendmentextends voting rights

Main IdeaRadical Republicans were able to puttheir version of Reconstruction intoaction.

Key Termsblack codes, override, impeach

Reading StrategyOrganizing Information As you readthe section, re-create the diagrambelow and provide information aboutimpeachment.

Read to Learn• what some Southerners did to

deprive freed people of their rights,and how Congress responded.

• what the main features of RadicalReconstruction were.

Section ThemeCivic Rights and ResponsibilitiesSouthern states created new govern-ments and elected new representatives.

Radicals in Control

For three days in May 1866, white mobs in Memphis, Tennessee, burned AfricanAmerican churches, schools, and homes. Close to fifty people, nearly all of themAfrican American, were killed in the rioting. Many Northerners saw the rampage asan attempt by whites to terrorize African Americans and keep them from exercisingtheir new freedoms. This incident and similar riots in other Southern cities helpedconvince Radical Republicans that President Johnson’s Reconstruction plans werenot strong enough.

African Americans’ RightsDuring the fall of 1865, the Southern states created new governments that

met the rules President Johnson laid down, and Southern voters elected newrepresentatives to Congress. More than one dozen of these representatives hadbeen high-ranking officials in the Confederacy—including the Confederacy’svice president, Alexander H. Stephens. When the newly elected Southern


Impeachment

What is it?

Who was impeached?

Outcome of the trial?

Ku Klux Klan flag

Preview of Events

Guide to Reading

✦1865 ✦1867 ✦1869 ✦1871


representatives arrived in Washington, D.C.,Congress refused to seat them. Many Republi-cans refused to readmit the Southern states onsuch easy terms and rejected Johnson’s claimthat Reconstruction was complete.

To many in the North, it seemed that Johnson’splan for Reconstruction was robbing the Union ofits hard-won victory. In addition Northernersrealized that the treatment of African Americansin Southern states was not improving.

Black CodesIn 1865 and early 1866, the new Southern state

legislatures passed a series of laws called blackcodes. Key parts of these laws aimed to controlfreed men and women and to enable plantationowners to exploit African American workers.

Modeled on laws that had regulated freeAfrican Americans before the Civil War, theblack codes of each Southern state trampled therights of African Americans. Some laws allowedlocal officials to arrest and fine unemployedAfrican Americans and make them work forwhite employers to pay off their fines. Otherlaws banned African Americans from owning orrenting farms. One law allowed whites to takeorphaned African American children as unpaidapprentices. To freed men and women andmany Northerners, the black codes reestab-lished slavery in disguise.

Challenging the Black CodesIn early 1866 Congress extended the life of the

Freedmen’s Bureau and granted it new powers.The Freedmen’s Bureau now had authority toset up special courts to prosecute individualscharged with violating the rights of AfricanAmericans. These courts provided AfricanAmericans with a form of justice where theycould serve on juries.

Congress also passed the Civil Rights Act of1866. This act granted full citizenship to AfricanAmericans and gave the federal government thepower to intervene in state affairs to protecttheir rights. The law overturned the black codes.It also contradicted the 1857 Dred Scott decisionof the Supreme Court, which had ruled thatAfrican Americans were not citizens.

President Johnson vetoed both the Freedmen’sBureau bill and the Civil Rights Act, arguing thatthe federal government was overstepping itsproper authority. He also said that the laws wereunconstitutional because they were passed by aCongress that did not include representativesfrom all the states. By raising the issue of repre-sentation, Johnson indirectly threatened to vetoany law passed by this Congress.

Republicans in Congress had enough votes tooverride, or defeat, both vetoes, and the billsbecame law. As the split between Congress andthe president grew, the possibility of their work-ing together faded. The Radical Republicansabandoned the idea of compromise and drafted anew Reconstruction plan—one led by Congress.

CitizenshipThe Fourteenth Amendment

Congress wanted to ensure that AfricanAmericans would not lose the rights that theCivil Rights Act granted. Fearing it might be

His First Vote by Thomas Waterman WoodWood’s oil painting emphasized the importance of the ballot to African American voters. How didAfrican American males gain the right to vote?

History Through Art


challenged and overturned in court, Congressin June 1866 passed a new amendment to theConstitution.

The Fourteenth Amendment granted full cit-izenship to all individuals born in the UnitedStates. Because most African Americans in theUnited States had been born there, they becamefull citizens. The amendment also stated that nostate could take away a citizen’s life, liberty, andproperty “without due process of law,” and thatevery citizen was entitled to “equal protection ofthe laws.” States that prevented any adult malecitizen from voting could lose part of their rep-resentation in Congress. ; (See pages 247–248 for the

entire text of the Fourteenth Amendment.)

The amendment barred prominent former Con-federates from holding national or state officeunless pardoned by a vote of two-thirds of Con-gress. The Fourteenth Amendment was interpretedas not including members of the Native Americantribes. Not until 1924 did Congress make all NativeAmericans citizens of the United States.

Congress declared that Southern states had toratify the amendment to be readmitted to theUnion. Of the 11 Southern states, only Tennesseeratified the Fourteenth Amendment. The refusalof the other states to ratify the amendmentdelayed its adoption until 1868.

Republican VictoryThe Fourteenth Amendment became a major

issue in the congressional elections of 1866. John-son urged Northern and Southern state legisla-tures to reject it. He also campaigned vigorouslyagainst Republican candidates. Many Northern-ers were disturbed by the nastiness of Johnson’scampaign. They also worried about violentclashes between whites and African Americans,such as the riots that erupted in Memphis, Ten-nessee, and New Orleans, Louisiana.

The Republicans won a decisive victory,increasing their majorities in both houses ofCongress. The Republicans also gained controlof the governments in every Northern state. Theelection gave Congress the signal to take Recon-struction into its own hands.

Describing What does the Four-teenth Amendment provide?

Radical ReconstructionThe Republicans in Congress quickly took

charge of Reconstruction. Most Radicals agreedwith Congressman James Garfield of Ohio that

“we must compel obedience to the Union, anddemand protection for its humblest citizen.”

President Johnson could do little to stop thembecause Congress could easily override hisvetoes. Thus began a period known as RadicalReconstruction.

Reconstruction Act of 1867On March 2, 1867, Congress passed the First

Reconstruction Act. The act called for the cre-ation of new governments in the 10 Southernstates that had not ratified the FourteenthAmendment. Tennessee, which had ratified theamendment, kept its government, and the statewas quickly readmitted to the Union.

The act divided the 10 Southern states intofive military districts and placed each under theauthority of a military commander until newgovernments were formed. The act also guaran-teed African American males the right to vote instate elections, and it prevented former Confed-erate leaders from holding political office.

To gain readmission to the Union, the stateshad to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment andsubmit their new state constitutions to Congressfor approval. A Second Reconstruction Act,passed a few weeks later, required the militarycommanders to begin registering voters and toprepare for new state constitutional conventions.

Readmission of StatesMany white Southerners refused to take part

in the elections for constitutional conventionsand state governments. Thousands of newlyregistered African American voters did use theirright to vote. In the elections, Republicansgained control of Southern state governments.By 1868, seven Southern states—Alabama,Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, NorthCarolina, and South Carolina—had establishednew governments and met the conditions forreadmission to the Union. By 1870, Mississippi,Virginia, and Texas were restored to the Union.

506

Tennessee rejoinedthe Union in 1866.

2nd District

4th District

1st District

3rd District

5th District

N

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250 kilometers0Lambert Equal-Area projection

250 miles0

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22

33

44

55

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Edward Ord

John Pope

Philip Sheridan

AtlanticOcean

Gulf of MexicoMEXICO

TENN.

MISS. ALA.

ARK.

TEXAS LA.

GA.

N.C.

S.C.

FLA.

VA.


Challenge to JohnsonStrongly opposed to Radical Reconstruction,

President Johnson had the power as com-mander in chief of the army to direct the actionsof the military governors. For this reason Con-gress passed several laws to limit the presi-dent’s power.

One of these laws, the Tenure of Office Act ofMarch 1867, was a deliberate challenge. It prohib-ited the president from removing governmentofficials, including members of his own cabinet,without the Senate’s approval. The act violatedthe tradition that presidents controlled their cabi-nets, and it threatened presidential power.

Impeaching the PresidentThe conflict between Johnson and the Radi-

cals grew more intense. In August 1867—whenCongress was not in session—Johnson sus-pended Secretary of War Edwin Stanton with-out the Senate’s approval. When the Senate met

again and refused to approve the suspension,Johnson removed Stanton from office—a delib-erate violation of the Tenure of Office Act. John-son angered the Republicans further byappointing some generals the Radicals opposedas commanders of Southern military districts.

Outraged by Johnson’s actions, the House ofRepresentatives voted to impeach—formallycharge with wrongdoing—the president. TheHouse accused Johnson of misconduct and sentthe case to the Senate for trial.

The trial began in March 1868 and lastedalmost three months. Johnson’s defendersclaimed that the president was exercising hisright to challenge laws he considered unconsti-tutional. The impeachment, they argued, waspolitically motivated and thus contrary to the

Military Reconstruction Districts, 1867

Military district boundary

Union general in command

After taking control of Reconstruction, Congress divided theSouth into five districts under the command of military officers.1. Region Which two states made up the largest district?2. Analyzing Information Why did no Union troops

occupy Tennessee?

MotionIn

Checking for Understanding1. Key Terms Write a short paragraph

in which you use these key terms:black codes, override, impeach.

2. Reviewing Facts Discuss two waysSoutherners violated Lincoln’s planfor Reconstruction.

Reviewing Themes3. Civic Rights and Responsibilities

How did Congress challenge theblack codes set up by Southernstates?

Critical Thinking4. Drawing Conclusions If you had

been a member of the Senate, wouldyou have voted for or against con-victing President Johnson? Why?

5. Summarizing Information Re-createthe diagram below and answer thequestions about these amendments.

Analyzing Visuals6. Geography Skills Examine the map

that appears on page 507; thenanswer these questions. What are thegeographic divisions of the Southshown on the map? Which militarydistrict was composed of only onestate? Which states made up theThird District?

spirit of the Constitution. Samuel J. Tilden, aDemocrat from New York, claimed that Con-gress was trying to remove the president fromoffice without accusing him of a crime “or any-thing more than a mere difference of opinion.”

Johnson’s accusers argued that Congressshould retain the supreme power to make thelaws. Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusettsdeclared that Johnson had turned

“the veto power conferred by the Constitu-tion as a remedy for ill-considered legislation . . .into a weapon of offense against Congress.”

In May the senators cast two votes. In bothinstances the result was 35 to 19 votes to convictthe president—one vote short of the two-thirdsmajority required by the Constitution for con-viction. Several moderate Republicans voted fora verdict of not guilty because they did notbelieve a president should be removed fromoffice for political differences. As a result, John-son stayed in office until the end of his term inMarch 1869.

Election of 1868By the presidential election of 1868, most

Southern states had rejoined the Union. ManyAmericans hoped that conflicts over Reconstruc-tion and sectional divisions were behind them.

Abandoning Johnson, the Republicans choseGeneral Ulysses S. Grant, the Civil War hero, astheir presidential candidate. The Democratsnominated Horatio Seymour, a former governorof New York.

Grant won the election, gaining 214 of 294electoral votes. He also received most of thevotes of African Americans in the South. The1868 election was a vote on Reconstruction, andthe voters supported the Republican approachto the issue.

The Fifteenth AmendmentAfter the election Republicans developed

their last major piece of Reconstruction legisla-tion. In February 1869, Congress passed the Fif-teenth Amendment. It prohibited the state andfederal governments from denying the right tovote to any male citizen because of “race, color,or previous condition of servitude.”

African American men won the right to votewhen the Fifteenth Amendment was ratifiedand became law in February 1870. Republicansthought that the power of the ballot wouldenable African Americans to protect themselves.That belief, it turned out, was too optimistic.; (See page 248 for the entire text of the Fifteenth Amendment.)

Explaining What was the outcomeof the impeachment trial of President Johnson?


Expository Writing Write a one-page essay in which you argue foror argue against the Radical Repub-licans’ plan for Reconstruction.

Date ratified Impact on life

Fourteenth Amendment

Fifteenth Amendment



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509

1865Freedmen’s Bank is established

1866Ku Klux Klanis formed

1869African Americans serve inHouse of Representatives

1870First African American iselected to the Senate

Main IdeaAfter the Civil War the South had torebuild not only its farms and roads,but its social and political structuresas well.

Key Termsscalawag, carpetbagger, corruption,integrate, sharecropping

Reading StrategyOrganizing Information As you readthe section, re-create the diagrambelow and describe improvements inthe South in the field of education.

Read to Learn• what groups participated in Recon-

struction in the South.• how Southern life changed during

Reconstruction.

Section ThemeContinuity and Change The Republi-can Party dominated Southern politicsduring Reconstruction.

The South DuringReconstruction


“The dust of our fathers mingles with yours in the same graveyards. . . . This is yourcountry, but it is ours too.” So spoke an emancipated African American after the CivilWar. Most formerly enslaved people did not seek revenge or power over whites, onlyrespect and equality. The petition of an African American convention in 1865 stated:“We simply ask that we shall be recognized as men; . . . that the same laws which gov-ern white men shall govern black men; . . . that, in short, we be dealt with as othersare—in equity and justice.”

New Groups Take ChargeDuring Reconstruction the Republican Party came to dominate Southern pol-

itics. Support for the Republican Party came mainly from three groups. Onegroup was African Americans who were overwhelmingly Republican. Supportalso came from white Southerners who supported Republican policies, andwhite settlers from the North. These groups dominated the state constitutionalconventions and state governments.

Mississippi SenatorHiram Revels

Improvements in education

Preview of Events

Guide to Reading

✦1865 ✦1867 ✦1869 ✦1871

African Americans in GovernmentAfrican Americans played an important role

in Reconstruction politics both as voters and aselected officials. In states where African Ameri-can voters were the majority, they contributedheavily to Republican victories.

African Americans did not control the gov-ernment of any state, although they briefly held a majority in the lower house of the South Car-olina legislature. In other Southern states theyheld important positions, but never in propor-tion to their numbers.

At the national level, 16 African Americansserved in the House of Representatives and 2 inthe Senate between 1869 and 1880. Hiram Revels, one of the African American senators,was an ordained minister. During the Civil Warhe had recruited African Americans for theUnion army, started a school for freed AfricanAmericans in St. Louis, Missouri, and served aschaplain of an African American regiment inMississippi. Revels remained in Mississippiafter the war and was elected to the Senate in1870. He served a year in the Senate, where hedeclared he received “fair treatment.”

Blanche K. Bruce, the other African Americansenator, also came from Mississippi. A formerrunaway slave, Bruce had taught in a school forAfrican Americans in Missouri when the warbegan. In 1869 he went to Mississippi, enteredpolitics, and became a superintendent of schools.He was elected to the Senate in 1874, servingthere for six years.

Scalawags and CarpetbaggersSome Southern whites supported Republican

policy throughout Reconstruction. Many werenonslaveholding farmers or business leaders whohad opposed secession in the first place. Former

Confederates despisedthem for siding with theRepublicans and calledthem scalawags, a termmeaning “scoundrel” or“worthless rascal.”

Many Northern whiteswho moved to the Southafter the war also sup-ported the Republicans

and served as Republican leaders during Recon-struction. Critics called these Northernerscarpetbaggers because they arrived with alltheir belongings in cheap suitcases made ofcarpet fabric. Although some of the carpetbag-gers were greedy and took advantage of the sit-uation in the South, most did not. Manycarpetbaggers were former Union army soldiersor members of the Freedmen’s Bureau wholiked the South and wanted to settle there. Oth-ers were reformers from the North—includinglawyers, doctors, and teachers—who wanted tohelp reshape Southern society.

Many Southerners ridiculed the Recon-struction governments and accused them ofcorruption—dishonest or illegal actions—and financial mismanagement. While someofficials made money illegally, the practicewas hardly widespread. Indeed, there wasprobably less corruption in the South than inthe North.

Resistance to ReconstructionMost white Southerners opposed efforts to

expand African Americans’ rights. Carl Schurz,a Republican from Missouri who toured theSouth right after the war, reported:

“Wherever I go—the street, the shop, thehouse, the hotel, or the steamboat—I hear thepeople talk in such a way as to indicate thatthey are yet unable to conceive of the Negro aspossessing any rights at all.”

Plantation owners tried to maintain controlover freed people in any way they could. Manytold African Americans they could not leavethe plantations. Most white land ownersrefused to rent land to freedmen.

Other white Southerners also made life diffi-cult for African Americans. Store ownersrefused them credit, and employers refused togive them work. Some whites also used fear andforce to keep freedmen in line.

The Ku Klux KlanViolence against African Americans and

their white supporters became commonplaceduring Reconstruction. Much of this violence

HISTORY

Student Web ActivityVisit and click on Chapter 17—Student Web Activitiesfor an activity on the firstAfrican American membersof Congress.

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was committed by secret societies organized toprevent freed men and women from exercisingtheir rights and to help whites regain power.

The most terrifying of these societies, the KuKlux Klan, was formed in 1866. Wearing whitesheets and hoods, members of the Klanlaunched “midnight rides” against AfricanAmericans, burning their homes, churches, andschools. The Klan killed as well. In JacksonCounty, Florida, the Klan murdered more than150 people over a three-year period. Klan vio-lence often increased before elections, as thegroup tried to scare African Americans to keepthem from voting. The Klan also attacked whitesupporters of Reconstruction.

The tactics of the Klan and other violentgroups had the support of many Southerners,especially planters and Democrats. These South-erners, who had the most to gain from thereestablishment of white supremacy, saw vio-lence as a defense against Republican rule.

Taking Action Against ViolenceSoutherners opposed to terrorism appealed to

the federal government to do something. In 1870and 1871, Congress passed several laws to try to

stop the growing violence of the Klan. Theselaws had limited success. Most white Southern-ers refused to testify against those who attackedAfrican Americans and their white supporters.Still, enough arrests were made to restore orderfor the 1872 presidential election.

Explaining Why did laws to controlthe Ku Klux Klan have little effect?

Some ImprovementsDespite the violence, Reconstruction brought

important changes throughout the South. Thiswas especially true in education.

Education improved for both African Ameri-cans and whites. African Americans saw educa-tion as an important step to a better life. In manyregions they created their own schools, contribut-ing both labor and money to build the schools.

The Freedmen’s Bureau and private charitiesplayed a major role in spreading education.Northern women and free African Americanscame South to teach in these schools. By 1870about 4,000 schools had been established, with200,000 students. More than half the teachers inthese schools were African American.

Frederick Douglassescaped slavery in 1838and quickly emerged as aleader of the movementfor liberty for AfricanAmericans. During theCivil War, he urged Presi-dent Lincoln to free theenslaved people, and hehelped organize AfricanAmerican troops to fightfor freedom.

After Lincoln wasassassinated, Douglassopposed President John-son’s Reconstruction program. Instead he supported the RadicalRepublican plan. Askilled and powerfulspeaker, Douglass trav-eled throughout thenation insisting on fullequality for African

Americans. He was par-ticularly outspoken insupport of the FifteenthAmendment, guarantee-ing African Americanmen the right to vote. ToDouglass, the vote meantthat African Americanswould not only be fullcitizens but would alsohave a weapon to protecttheir rights.

Checking for Understanding1. Key Terms Define each term using

a complete sentence: scalawag, car-petbagger, corruption, integrate,sharecropping.

2. Reviewing Facts How did someSoutherners try to maintain controlover freed people?

Reviewing Themes3. Continuity and Change How did

the state governments under Recon-struction reform education?

Critical Thinking4. Drawing Conclusions Why was vot-

ing and owning land so important tonewly freed African Americans?

5. Organizing Information Re-createthe diagram below and identify thethree groups that made up theSouthern Republican Party.

Analyzing Visuals6. Picturing History Study the picture

above. Write a paragraph thatexplains who the people are and why reading is important to them.

Public SchoolsIn the 1870s Reconstruction governments

began creating public school systems for bothraces, which had not existed in the South beforethe war. Within a few years, more than 50 per-cent of the white children and about 40 percentof African American children in the South wereenrolled in public schools. Northern missionarysocieties also established academies offering

advanced education for African Americans.Some academies developed into colleges anduniversities, such as Morehouse College andAtlanta University.

Generally, African American and white stu-dents attended different schools. Only Louisiana,South Carolina, and Florida required that schoolsbe integrated—include both whites and AfricanAmericans—but the laws were not enforced.

Farming the LandAlong with education, most freed people

wanted land. Some African Americans wereable to buy land with the assistance of the Freed-men’s Bank, established in 1865. Most, however,failed to get their own land.

The most common form of farmwork forfreed individuals was sharecropping. In thissystem a landowner rented a plot of land to asharecropper, or farmer, along with a crudeshack, some seeds and tools, and perhaps amule. In return sharecroppers shared a percent-age of their crop with the landowner.

After paying the landowners, sharecroppersoften had little left to sell. Sometimes there wasbarely enough to feed their families. For many,sharecropping was little better than slavery.

Explaining How did sharecroppersget land to farm?


Reading Bring newspapers toclass and search for stories thatshow groups of people strugglingfor their rights throughout theworld. After reading the articlesaloud in class, post the items onthe bulletin board with the head-ing “Let Freedom Ring.”

Southern Republican Party

Mother anddaughter reading



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513

Main IdeaDemocrats steadily regained controlof Southern governments as supportfor Radical Reconstruction policiesdecreased.

Key Termsreconciliation, commission, cashcrop, poll tax, literacy test, grand-father clause, segregation, lynching

Reading StrategyComparing As you read the section,re-create the diagram below and listthe advantages and disadvantages ofan agricultural economy.

Read to Learn• what changes occurred in the

South during the last years ofReconstruction.

• how African Americans weredenied their rights.

Section ThemeContinuity and Change The Demo-cratic Party began to regain control of Southern politics.

Change in the South


1877Hayes wins presidency;Reconstruction ends

1890Poll taxes and literacytests begin in Mississippi

1896Plessy v. Ferguson rulessegregation constitutional

Preview of Events

Guide to Reading

✦1870 ✦1885 ✦1900

Struggle for the Speaker’schair in a Southern

statehouse, 1875

In 1875 the carpetbag governor of Mississippi faced growing violence betweenwhites and African Americans in his state. He appealed to President Grant for troops torestore order. The president’s attorney general responded: “The whole public are tiredout with these . . . outbreaks in the South, and the great majority are now ready to con-demn any interference on the part of the government. . . . Preserve the peace by theforces in your own state. . . .” Sharp in tone, the attorney general’s letter reflected thegovernment’s desire to end Reconstruction.

Reconstruction DeclinesDuring the Grant administration, Northerners began losing interest in Recon-

struction. Many believed it was time for the South to solve its own problems. By1876 Southern Democrats were regaining political and economic control in theSouth. Some freed men and women went back to work for landholders becausethey had no other way to make a living.

Advantages Disadvantages

Agricultural Economy

Reconstruction declined for other reasons.The old Radical leaders began to disappear fromthe political scene. Thaddeus Stevens died in1868, and others retired or lost elections.

Another factor that weakened enthusiasm forReconstruction was racial prejudice in theNorth. This prejudice was exploited by oppo-nents of Reconstruction. They argued that onlySoutherners really knew how to deal withAfrican Americans and that the fate of the freedpeople should be left to the South.

Southerners protested what they called “bay-onet rule”—the use of federal troops to supportReconstruction governments. President Granthad sent federal troops to the South to stop vio-lence or to enforce the law only when absolutelynecessary. Generally, though, he tried to avoidany clashes with the South.

Republican RevoltIn the early 1870s, reports of corruption in

Grant’s administration and in Reconstructiongovernments spread throughout the nation.Some Republicans split with the party over theissue of corruption. Another group of Republi-cans broke with the party over Reconstruction,proposing peaceful reconciliation—coming

together again—with Southern whites. Callingthemselves Liberal Republicans, these twogroups nominated Horace Greeley, a newspapereditor from New York, to run against Grant inthe 1872 presidential election.

The Democrats also supported Greeley forpresident because he offered a chance to defeatthe Republicans. Despite the division in theRepublican ranks, however, Grant was reelected.

The Amnesty ActDuring the 1872 election campaign, Liberal

Republicans called for expanded amnesty forwhite Southerners. In May 1872, Congresspassed the Amnesty Act, which pardoned mostformer Confederates. Nearly all white Southern-ers could vote and hold office again. Theamnesty changed the political balance in theSouth by restoring full rights to people who sup-ported the Democratic Party.

Democrats Regain PowerIn Southern states such as Virginia and North

Carolina, where a majority of voters were white,Democrats soon regained control of state govern-ments. In states where African Americans held amajority or where white and African Americanpopulations were nearly equal, the Ku Klux Klanand other violent groups helped the Democratstake power by terrorizing Republican voters.

In an election in Mississippi in 1875, Demo-crats won by a 30,000 majority, although theRepublicans had held a 30,000 majority in theprevious election. The Democrats used threatsto pressure white Republicans to become Demo-crats. As one Republican put it:

“No white man can live in the South in thefuture and act with any other than the Demo-cratic Party unless he is willing and prepared tolive a life of social isolation.”


Problems in the Grant administration hurt theRepublican Party. Who does the woman at thefar right represent? Why is she turning away?

Analyzing Political Cartoons


The Democrats also used violence to per-suade African Americans not to vote. By 1876Republicans held a majority in Congress in onlythree Southern states—Florida, South Carolina,and Louisiana.

During these years the Republicans had otherproblems they could not blame on the Demo-crats. In 1873 a series of political scandals came tolight. Investigations uncovered top governmentofficials making unfair business deals, schemingto withhold public tax money, and acceptingbribes. One scandal involved the vice president,and another the secretary of war. These scandalsfurther damaged the Grant administration andthe Republicans. At the same time, the nation suf-fered an economic depression. Blame for the hardtimes fell on the Republicans.

By the time of the congressional elections in1874, charges of corruption and economic mis-management had badly weakened the RepublicanParty. Democrats gained seats in the Senate andwon control of the House. For the first time sincethe Civil War, the Democratic Party controlled

One of Oregon's threeelectoral votes was in doubt.

People living in territories couldnot vote in national elections.

Northern troops stilloccupied three states.

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a part of the federal government. This situationfurther weakened Congress’s commitment toReconstruction and protecting the rights of newlyfreed African Americans.

Identifying Who was reelectedpresident in 1872?

The End of ReconstructionPresident Grant considered running for a third

term in 1876. Most Republican leaders preferreda new candidate—one who could win back theLiberal Republicans and unite the party.

Disputed Election of 1876

CandidateElectoral

VotePopular

VotePolitical

Party

185 Republican

184 Democrat

4,036,572Hayes

Tilden 4,284,020

Disputed electoral vote

Because of some conflicting results, a committee of 15 membersfrom Congress and the Supreme Court decided the final count inthe 1876 election.1. Location Which Southern states sent in election returns

that were disputed?2. Analyzing Information By how many electoral votes

did Hayes finally win?

MotionIn

review the election results. But the independentresigned, and a Republican took his place. Afterexamining the reports of state review boards, thecommission voted 8 to 7 to award all 20 disputedvotes, and the election, to Hayes. The vote fol-lowed party lines.

Democrats in Congress threatened to fight theverdict. Republican and Southern Democraticleaders met secretly to work out an agreementthat would allow the Democrats to accept Hayesas president. On March 2, 1877—almost fourmonths after the election—Congress confirmedthe verdict of the commission and declaredHayes the winner. He was inaugurated presi-dent two days later.

Compromise of 1877The deal congressional leaders made to settle

the election dispute, the Compromise of 1877,included various favors to the South. The newgovernment would give more aid to the region

Ticket to Johnson’s impeachment trial

The Election of 1876The Republicans nominated Rutherford B.

Hayes, governor of Ohio, for president. A cham-pion of political reform, Hayes had a reputationfor honesty, and he held moderate views onReconstruction. The Democrats nominated NewYork governor Samuel Tilden. Tilden hadgained national fame for fighting political cor-ruption in New York City.

After the election, Tilden appeared to be thewinner, receiving almost 250,000 more votesthan Hayes. However, disputed returns from Flo-rida, Louisiana, South Carolina, and Oregon—representing 20 electoral votes—kept the outcomein doubt. Tilden had 184 electoral votes, only oneshort of what he needed to win. Yet if Hayesreceived all 20 of the disputed votes, he wouldhave the 185 electoral votes required for victory.

In January Congress created a special commission, or group, of seven Republicans,seven Democrats, and one independent to

Lincoln’s main goal had been to pre-serve the Union. In his second InauguralAddress, he indicated that he woulddeal compassionately with the Southafter the war ended:

“With malice toward none; withcharity for all, with firmness in theright as God gives us to see the right,let us strive on to finish the work weare in, to bind up the nation’swounds, to care for him who shallhave borne the battle and for hiswidow and his orphan. . . .”—Abraham Lincoln, Second InauguralAddress, March 1865

President Lincoln did not live to carryout his plan. On April 14, 1865, just fivedays after Lee’s surrender, he wasassassinated.

Andrew Johnson, who succeeded tothe presidency, attempted to carry outLincoln’s Reconstruction policies. Hewas hampered in this effort because asan unelected president he had littlepopular following. In addition, as a for-mer Democrat, he could not commandthe support of the Republi-can majority in Congress. As a Tennessean and for-mer slaveholder, he offendedthe Radicals. If these handi-caps were not enough, hiscritics viewed Johnson as self-righteous, hot-tempered, stub-born, and crude.

In March 1868 the House adopted11 articles of impeachment againstJohnson. Although Johnson was acquit-ted and served out his term, any influence he might have had on Reconstruction was lost.

Lincoln Had Survived?

Ticket to Johnson’s impeachment trial


and withdraw all remaining troops from South-ern states. The Democrats, in turn, promised tomaintain African Americans’ rights.

In his Inaugural Address, Hayes declaredthat what the South needed most was therestoration of “wise, honest, and peaceful localself-government.” During a goodwill trip to theSouth, Hayes announced his intention of lettingSoutherners handle racial issues. In Atlanta hetold an African American audience:

“. . . your rights and interests would be saferif this great mass of intelligent white men wereleft alone by the general government.”

Hayes’s message was clear. The federal gov-ernment would no longer attempt to reshapeSouthern society or help Southern AfricanAmericans. Reconstruction was over.

Summarizing What effect did theCompromise of 1877 have on Reconstruction?

Change in the South“I am treated not as an American citizen, butas a brute. . . . [A]nd for what? Not that I amunable to or unwilling to pay my way; not that Iam obnoxious in my personal appearance ordisrespectful in my conduct; but simply becauseI happen to be of a darker complexion.”

John Lynch, a member of Congress who hadonce been enslaved, spoke these words. At theend of Reconstruction, many African Americansfaced lives of poverty, indignity, and despair.

A New Ruling PartyMany Southern whites hated Republicans

because of their role in the Civil War and inReconstruction. When Reconstruction ended,political power in the South shifted from theRepublicans to the Democrats.

In some regions, the ruling Democrats werethe large landowners and other groups thathad held power before the Civil War. In mostareas, however, a new ruling class took charge.Among their ranks were merchants, bankers,industrialists, and other business leaders whosupported economic development andopposed Northern interference. These Demo-crats called themselves “Redeemers” becausethey had “redeemed,” or saved, the South fromRepublican rule.

The Redeemers adopted conservative poli-cies such as lower taxes, less public spending,and reduced government services. They drasti-cally cut, or even eliminated, many social serv-ices started during Reconstruction, includingpublic education. Their one-party rule and con-servative policies dominated Southern politicswell into the 1900s.

Rise of the “New South”By the 1880s forward-looking Southerners

were convinced that their region must develop astrong industrial economy. They argued that theSouth had lost the Civil War because its industryand manufacturing did not match the North’s.Henry Grady, editor of the Atlanta Constitution,headed a group that urged Southerners to “out-

1. How did Lincoln and Johnson differ in qualities of lead-ership? In personality? Do you think these qualitiesmade a difference in the way political leaders respondedto the two presidents?

2. Would Reconstruction have taken a different course ifLincoln had not been assassinated? Explain.

Lincoln’s funeral carriage

Yankee the Yankees” and build a “New South.”This New South would have industries based oncoal, iron, tobacco, cotton, lumber, and theregion’s other abundant resources. Southernerswould create this new economy by embracing aspirit of hard work and regional pride. In 1886Grady told a Boston audience that industrialdevelopment would allow the New South tomatch the North in a peaceful competition.

Southern IndustriesIndustry in the South made dramatic gains

after Reconstruction. Some of the strongestadvances were in the textile industry. Before theCivil War, Southern planters had shipped cottonto textile mills in the North or in Europe. In the1880s textile mills sprang up throughout theSouth. Many Northern mills would later close ascompanies built new plants in the South.

Other important industries were lumberingand tobacco processing. The tobacco industrywas developed largely through the efforts ofJames Duke of North Carolina. Duke’s Ameri-can Tobacco Company eventually controlledalmost all tobacco manufacturing in the nation.

The iron and steel industry also grew rap-idly. In the mid-1800s William Kelly, an Ameri-can ironworker, and Henry Bessemer, a Britishengineer, had developed methods—called theBessemer process—to inexpensively producesteel from iron. Steel answered industry’s needfor a sturdy, workable metal. By 1890 Southernmills produced nearly 20 percent of thenation’s iron and steel. Much of the industrywas in Alabama near deposits of iron ore.

Factors in GrowthA cheap and reliable workforce helped South-

ern industry grow. Most factory workers put inlong hours for low wages. Sometimes wholefamilies, including children, worked in factories.African Americans got few opportunities inindustry except in the lowest-paying jobs.

A railroad-building boom also aided indus-trial development. By 1870 the Southern railroadsystem, which had been destroyed during thewar, was largely rebuilt. The miles of track morethan doubled between 1880 and 1890.

Still, the South did not develop an industrialeconomy as strong as the North’s. The Northwas still industrializing more rapidly. The Southremained primarily agricultural.

EconomicsRural Economy

Supporters of the New South hoped tochange Southern agriculture as well as industry.They pictured small, profitable farms raising avariety of crops rather than large plantationsdevoted to growing cotton.

A different economy emerged, however.Some plantations were broken up, but manylarge landowners kept control of their property.When estates were divided, much of the landwent to sharecropping and tenant farming, nei-ther of which was profitable.

Debt caused problems as well. Poor farmershad to buy on credit to get the food and suppliesthey needed. The merchants who sold on creditcharged high prices for their goods, increasingthe farmers’ debt. The quickest way for farmersto repay that debt, they thought, was to growcash crops—crops that could be sold for money.As in the past, the biggest cash crop was cotton.An oversupply of cotton forced prices down,however. The farmers then had to grow evenmore cotton to try to recover their losses.

Sharecropping and reliance on a single cashcrop hampered the development of a more mod-ern agricultural economy. Instead, the ruralSouth sank deeper into poverty and debt.

Describing What happened toprices when more cotton was produced than could be sold?

$


Hayes was the only president to win the electoralvote, but lose the popular vote. Actually, three othertimes in American history—in the elections of JohnQuincy Adams in 1824, Benjamin Harrison in 1888, andGeorge W. Bush in 2000—the candidate who lost thepopular vote won the election.

Presidential Elections


A Divided SocietyAs Reconstruction ended, African Ameri-

cans’ dreams for justice faded. In the last 20years of the 1800s, racism became firmlyentrenched, and individuals took steps to keepAfrican Americans separated from whites andto deny them basic rights.

Voting RestrictionsThe Fifteenth Amendment prohibited any

state from denying an individual the right tovote because of race. Southern leaders, however,found ways to get around the amendment andprevent African Americans from voting.

Many Southern states required a poll tax, afee that people had to pay before voting.Because many African Americans could notafford the tax, they could not vote. The tax alsoprevented many poor whites from voting.Another approach was to make prospective vot-ers take a literacy test in which they had to readand explain difficult parts of state constitutionsor the federal Constitution. Because mostAfrican Americans had little education, literacytests prevented many from voting.

Literacy tests could also keep some whitesfrom voting. For this reason some states passedgrandfather clauses. These laws allowed indi-viduals who did not pass the literacy test to voteif their fathers or grandfathers had voted beforeReconstruction. Because African Americanscould not vote until 1867, they were excluded.Georgia enacted a poll tax and other limits asearly as 1870. Such laws, however, did notbecome widespread until after 1889. AfricanAmericans continued to vote in some statesuntil the end of the 1800s. Then, voting laws andthe constant threat of violence caused AfricanAmerican voting to drastically decline.

Jim Crow LawsAnother set of laws hurt African Americans.

By the 1890s segregation, or the separation ofthe races, was a prominent feature of life inthe South.

The Southern states formed a segregated soci-ety by passing so-called Jim Crow laws. Takingtheir name from a character in a song, Jim Crow

laws required African Americans and whites tobe separated in almost every public place wherethey might come in contact with each other.

In 1896 the Supreme Court upheld Jim Crowlaws and segregation in Plessy v. Ferguson. Thecase involved a Louisiana law requiring separatesections on trains for African Americans. TheCourt ruled that segregation was legal as long asAfrican Americans had access to public facilitiesor accommodations equal to those of whites. ;(See page 626 of the Appendix for a summary of Plessy v. Ferguson.)

The problem, however, was that the facilitieswere separate but in no way equal. Southernstates spent much more money on schools andother facilities for whites than on those for AfricanAmericans. This “separate but equal” doctrineprovided a legal foundation for segregation in theSouth that lasted for more than 50 years.

Agricultural Production inthe South, 1850-1890

Mill

ions

of b

ales

0

2

4

6

8

Cotton

Mill

ions

of p

ound

s

0

50

100

150

200

250

Tobacco

Mill

ions

of p

ound

s0

20

60

40

80

100

120Rice

Mill

ions

of b

ushe

ls

0

100

200

300

400

500Corn

1850

1860

1870

1880

1890

1850

1860

1870

1880

1890

1850

1860

1870

1880

1890

1850

1860

1870

1880

1890

Source: Historical Statistics of the South.

Southern farm production decreased during the war years of the 1860s.

Comparing By what year did cotton pro-duction levels again equal levels of 1860?

MotionIn

Checking for Understanding1. Key Terms Define the following

terms: reconciliation, commission,cash crop, poll tax, literacy test,grandfather clause, segregation,lynching.

2. Reviewing Facts How did the Bessemer process affect Southernindustry?

Reviewing Themes3. Continuity and Change In what

industries did the South make greatgains after Reconstruction?

Critical Thinking4. Determining Cause and Effect

Explain how the Amnesty Act helpedthe Democratic Party regain itsstrength.

5. Organizing Information Re-createthe diagram below and describe howthe poll tax and literacy testsrestricted voting rights.

Analyzing Visuals6. Study the election map on page 515.

Which candidate received the greaternumber of popular votes? Who wonthe election?

Violence Against African AmericansAlong with restrictions on voting rights and

laws passed to segregate society, white violenceagainst African Americans increased. Thisviolence took many terrible forms, includinglynching, in which an angry mob killed a per-son by hanging. African Americans werelynched because they were suspected of com-mitting crimes—or because they did not behaveas whites thought they should.

Reconstruction’s ImpactReconstruction was both a

success and a failure. It helpedthe South recover from the warand begin rebuilding its econ-omy. Yet economic recovery wasfar from complete. AlthoughSouthern agriculture took a newform, the South was still a ruraleconomy, and that economy wasstill very poor.

Under Reconstruction AfricanAmericans gained greater equal-ity and began creating their owninstitutions. They joined with

whites in new governments, fairer and moredemocratic than the South had ever seen. Thisimprovement for African Americans did not lastlong, however. In the words of African Americanwriter and civil rights leader W.E.B. Du Bois,

“The slave went free; stood a brief moment inthe sun; then moved back again toward slavery.”

The biggest disappointment of Reconstruc-tion was that it did not make good on the prom-ise of true freedom for freed African Americans.The South soon created a segregated society.

Describing What is segregation?


Government Research to find outhow many African Americans holdseats in Congress today. Make alist of their names and states ofresidence. Be sure to includemembers of both the House ofRepresentatives and the Senate.

Poll tax

Literacy tests

African Americans were often barred from voting.What do the people in the cartoon represent?

Analyzing Political Cartoons



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CHAPTER XX Chapter Title 521

Identifying the Main IdeaWhy Learn This Skill?

Historical details, such as names, dates, and events,are easier to remember when they are connected toa main idea. Understanding the main idea allows youto grasp the whole picture or story.

Learning the SkillFollow these steps to identify a main idea:• Before you read the material, find out the setting

of the article or document: the time, the place,and who the writer is.

• Read the material and ask, “What is the purposeof this information?”

• Identify supporting details.• Identify the main idea or central issue.

Practicing the SkillIn the passage below, W.E.B. Du Bois, an AfricanAmerican scholar, describes the attitudes of peoplein Charleston, South Carolina, just after the CivilWar. Read the passage and answer the questionsthat follow.

“The economic loss which came throughwar was great, but not nearly as influential asthe psychological change, the change in habitand thought….

The hatred of the Yankees was increased.The defeated Southern leaders were popularheroes. Numbers of Southerners planned toleave the country and go to South America orMexico….

The labor situation, the prospect of freeNegroes, caused great apprehension. It wasaccepted as absolutely true by most plantersthat the Negro could not work without awhite master.”

1 Du Bois begins by naming two kinds of lossesfrom the war. What are they? Which does he saywas greater?

2 What is the main idea of the passage?

3 What details support the main idea?

4 Does the painting support or negate Du Bois’smain idea?

Critical ThinkingCritical Thinking

A plantation owner meets her former slaves following emancipation.

Applying the SkillIdentifying the Main Idea Bring a news articleabout a current event to class. Identify the mainidea and supporting details in the article.

Glencoe’s Skillbuilder InteractiveWorkbook CD-ROM, Level 1, providesinstruction and practice in key social studies skills.

522

Reviewing Key TermsExplain why each of these terms is used in a chapter aboutReconstruction.1. amnesty 4. freedmen2. black codes 5. impeach3. poll tax 6. segregation

Reviewing Key Facts7. What services did the Freedmen’s Bureau provide?8. Who succeeded Lincoln as president?9. How was the Fourteenth Amendment supposed to

help African Americans?10. What verdict did the Senate reach in the trial of

President Johnson?11. What right does the Fifteenth Amendment protect?12. What role did African Americans play in early Recon-

struction politics in the South?13. What tactic did the Ku Klux Klan use to influence elec-

tions in the South?14. Why was a special commission needed to decide the

presidential election of 1876?15. What Supreme Court decision upheld the legality of

segregation so long as “separate but equal” facilitieswere provided?

Critical Thinking16. Analyzing Themes: Civic Rights and Responsibili-

ties How did the black codes deny rights?17. Analyzing Primary Sources Explain the following

quote as it applies to Reconstruction: “The slave wentfree; stood a brief moment in the sun; then movedback again toward slavery.”

18. Analyzing Themes: Economic Factors Why didgrowing cotton after the Civil War send many South-ern farmers into debt?

19. Organizing Information Re-create the diagrambelow and explain two important concessions thatwere made in the Compromise of 1877.

Reconstruction and Its Aftermath

ReconstructionPlans• Ten Percent Plan

• Wade-Davis Bill

• “Restoration”

Radicals inControl• Civil Rights Act of 1866

• The Fourteenth Amendment

• President Johnson is impeached

• The Fifteenth Amendment

End of Reconstruction• Interest in Reconstruction

declines

• Amnesty Act

• Election of 1876

• Compromise of 1877

Change in the South• Southern industry grows

• Economy remains agricultural

• Many white and African American farmers turn to sharecropping

• Jim Crow laws promote segregation

Compromise of 1877

Alternative Assessment27. Portfolio Writing Activity Review the chapter to make

a list of specific ways that Southern states tried to denyequal rights to African Americans after the war. Thendecide which amendment(s)—Thirteenth, Fourteenth, or Fifteenth—should have prevented each action. Put thisinformation in an essay using standard grammar andspelling.

Self-Check QuizVisit and click on Chapter 17—Self-Check Quizzes to prepare for the chapter test.

tarvol1.glencoe.com

HISTORY

CHAPTER 17 Reconstruction and Its Aftermath 523

Directions: Read the passage below. It is an excerptfrom the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution.

Then answer the question that follows.

The right of citizens of the United States to voteshall not be denied or abridged by the UnitedStates or any State on account of race, color, orprevious condition of servitude.

The Congress shall have power to enforce thisarticle by appropriate legislation.

The main idea of the Fifteenth Amendment is that

A enslaved people convicted of crimes had theright to a fair trial.

B slavery was made illegal in every state of theUnion.

C the government was not allowed to deny a person’s right to vote on the basis of race.

D Congress had the right to set voting restrictionsin whatever state it chose.

Test-Taking Tip

This question asks for the main idea of the passage—in this case, of the Fifteenth Amendment. Read through all the answer choices before choosing the best one. Make sure you look for information in

the passage to support your answer.

Practicing SkillsThe excerpt below was written by Charlotte Forten, one ofmany African American teachers who went South to teachfreed individuals during the period of Reconstruction. Readthe excerpt, which describes her first days of teaching school.Then answer the questions that follow.

“. . . I never before saw children so eager tolearn, although I had had several years’ experi-ence in New England schools. Coming to school isa constant delight and recreation to them. Theycome here as other children go to play. The olderones, during the summer, work in the fields fromearly morning until eleven or twelve o’clock, andthen come to school, after their hard toil in the hotsun, as bright and as anxious to learn as ever.”

20. What is the main idea of this passage?21. What details support the main idea of this passage?

Citizenship Cooperative Activity22. Registering to Vote Laws about voter registration vary

from place to place. Working with a partner, contactyour local election board to find out what the require-ments for voter registration are in your community.Then design a brochure that encourages citizens to register to vote.

Economics Activity 23. What happened to the price of cotton when an oversup-

ply of cotton was on the market? How do you think priceswould change if the demand for cotton were greater thanthe supply? Explain.

Geography and History ActivityTurn to the map on page 515 to answer the following questions.24. Location Electoral votes are based on population. What

were the six most populous states in 1876?25. Region Which political party gained the most votes in

the western states?26. Place How many electoral votes were in dispute?

Standardized Test Practice


reconstruction and its aftermath - warren … 17 reconstruction and its aftermath 501 the war had...

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