Reason, Passion, & Social Cognition Week 13, Part 1

Announcements for April 18

1. Papers due at start of class on Thursday.

2. Class will meet in 223D Porter Hall. Come prepared to describe your paper to the class in a 3-minute summary (snacks provided!).

3. Paper preparation: Be sure to follow “5 tips” from last Thursday’s lecture.

Positive & Negative Positive & Negative Emotion:Emotion:

Examining Content & Examining Content & Process EffectsProcess Effects

Johnson & Tversky (1983)Lerner & Keltner (in press)Bodenhausen et al. (1994)

Reason, Passion, & Social Cognition Week 13, Part 1

Presentation by Discussants

Melissa, Rachel, & Reen

Reason, Passion, & Social Cognition Week 13, Part 1

Content Effects

Valence Theories: Main Hypothesis:

Positive emotions trigger optimistic judgments/choices & negative emotoins trigger pessimistic/judgments choices.

Possible explanations for effect: Affect-as-information (direct transfer) Affect priming (indirect influence on cognitive

processes)Example: Johnson & Tversky

Reason, Passion, & Social Cognition Week 13, Part 1

Content Effects

Appraisal-Tendency Theory: Main Hypothesis:

Emotions trigger a proclivity to perceive new information in ways that are consistent with the original appraisal dimensions of an emotion (Lerner & Keltner, in press). Valence is only one dimension, not necessarily the most important one.

Possible explanation for effect: Appraisal tendency

Proponents: Lerner & Keltner

Reason, Passion, & Social Cognition Week 13, Part 1

Cognitive-Appraisal Theory

• Specific emotions are defined by their variation along six cognitive appraisal dimensions (Smith & Ellsworth, 1985):

•Certainty (low, high)•Control (individual, situational)•Responsibility (self, other)•Attention (low, high)•Pleasantness (pos., neg.)•Effort (low, high)

• Each emotion has core appraisal themes

Reason, Passion, & Social Cognition Week 13, Part 1

Cognitive-Appraisal Tendencies

• Research strategy: Compare emotions that are highly differentiated in their appraisal themes on judgments/choices that relate to that appraisal theme.

Reason, Passion, & Social Cognition Week 13, Part 1

Applying Appraisal Tendency Approach to Judgments of Risk

1: Identify appraisal dimensions that are conceptually related to risk: Control & certainty map on to Slovic’s

(1987)“dread risk” and “unknown risk” 2: Select emotions that fall at opposite ends

of these dimensions Fear and anger

Reason, Passion, & Social Cognition Week 13, Part 1

Appraisal Tendency

Fear

Anger

Mood-Congruent

Risk Taking Study: Hypotheses

Reason, Passion, & Social Cognition Week 13, Part 1

• N = 75

• Ostensibly separate studies “Study A” Same emotion measures as in

Study 1 Reliability stable: Anger = .81, Fear = .91

“Study B” Manipulated gain/loss frame Tversky and Kahneman’s (1981) “Asian Disease

Problem”

Risk Taking Study: Method

Imagine that the U.S. is preparing for the outbreak of an unusual Asian disease, which is expected to kill 600 people. Two alternative programs to combat the disease have been proposed.

Program B1/3 probability that 600 people will be

saved & 2/3 probability that no people will be saved

Program A

200 people will be saved

Which of the two programs would you favor, and by how much?

Very Much

Prefer A

Much Prefer

A

Slightly Prefer A

Slightly Prefer B

Much Prefer

B

Very Much

Prefer B

1 2 3 4 5 6

M = 3.0

Gain frame

Risk-Averse: Take the certain gain

Imagine that the U.S. is preparing for the outbreak of an unusual Asian disease, which is expected to kill 600 people. Two alternative programs to combat the disease have been proposed.

Which of the two programs would you favor, and by how much?

Very Much

Prefer A

Much Prefer

A

Slightly Prefer A

Slightly Prefer B

Much Prefer

B

Very Much

Prefer B

1 2 3 4 5 6

M = 3.9

Loss frame

Risk-Seeking: Avoidthe certain loss

Program B1/3 probability that no one will die

& 2/3 probability that 600 people will die

Program A

400 people will die

Emotion-tendencies (z-score)

Ris

k-se

ekin

g (

z-sc

ore

)

0

Loss Domain

-0.5

-0.25

0

0.25

0.5

-1 1

AngerFear

b = .36*

b = .23 *

Emotion-tendencies (z-score)

Ris

k-se

ekin

g (

z-sc

ore

)

b = .10

b = -.14

0

Gain Domain

-0.5

- 0.25

0

0.25

0.5

-1 1

AngerFear

Reason, Passion, & Social Cognition Week 13, Part 1

• Two goals: Increase stringency 1: Test appraisal tendency hypothesis in a

domain where mood-congruent models and conventional wisdom predict valence effects

2: Test hypothesis in the context of a positive emotion -- happiness -- that shares the same core appraisal themes of certainty and individual control as anger

Study Goals

Reason, Passion, & Social Cognition Week 13, Part 1

Hypotheses for Optimism

Appraisal Tendency

Fear

Happiness

Anger

Mood

Congruent

Reason, Passion, & Social Cognition Week 13, Part 1

• N = 601

• Ostensibly separate studies “Study A” Emotion measures

Fear: same as before, alpha = .89 Anger: only Spielberger (1996), alpha = .84 Happiness: Underwood & Froming (1980),

alpha = .81 “Study B” Optimism measure

Weinstein’s (1980) unrealistic optimism questionnaire

Optimism Study: Method

Emotion-tendencies (z-score)0

Op

tim

ism

(z-

sco

re)

-0.5

-0.25

0

0.25

0.5

-1 1

Support for Both Hypotheses: Appraisal Tendency & Mood-Congruent

b = . 38*

b = .15*

HappinessFear

Emotion-tendencies (z-score)0

Op

tim

ism

(z-

sc

ore

)

-0.5

-0.25

0

0.25

0.5

-1 1

AngerFearHappiness

Support For Appraisal Tendency Hypothesis

b = . 38*

b = .15*

b = .13*

Reason, Passion, & Social Cognition Week 13, Part 1

Process Effects

Main Hypothesis (Bodenhausen et al./Forgas): Pos. emotions, such as happiness, trigger heuristic thought

Example: Happy people more likely to rely on stereotypes (Bodenhausen et al.)

Reason, Passion, & Social Cognition Week 13, Part 1

Process Effects, cont.

Possible explanations for effects:1. Preoccupation with pleasing events

constraines capacity for systematic thought2. Disruptive arousal or excitement constrains

systematic thought3. “Effort conservation”: happy people not

motivated to engage in cognitive effort, unless tasks have relavence to well-being. (Similar to “mood maintenance” idea)

Reason, Passion, & Social Cognition Week 13, Part 1

Process Effects, Cont.

Tests of Possible Explanations:Preoccupation with pleasing events????

No: Mood inductions with various degrees of cognitve content all produce same results:

Memories of happy events (Study 1) Facial feedback (Study 2) Pleasant music (Study 3)

Reason, Passion, & Social Cognition Week 13, Part 1

Process Effects, Cont.

Tests of Possible Explanations:Arousal constrains processing???

No: Excited happy people do not stereotype more than do calm, happy people (music study)

Reason, Passion, & Social Cognition Week 13, Part 1

Process Effects, Cont.

Tests of Possible Explanations:Effort conservation???

Possibly: Accountable subjects less likely to stereotype than non-accountable subjects.