rearch methodology
TRANSCRIPT
Introduction
Research Report
Hypothesis Testing
Information and Communication Technology
Conclusion
Reference
Contents
Research is genuine exploration of the unknown that leads to new
knowledge that often warrants publication. But whether or not the
results of a research project are publishable, the project should be
communicated in the form of a research report written.
Preparation of a comprehensive written research report is an
essential part of a valid research experience, and the researcher
should be aware of this requirement at the outset of the project.
Interim reports may also be required.
Sufficient time should be allowed for satisfactory completion of
reports, taking into account that initial drafts should be critiqued by
the faculty advisor and corrected by the research at each stage.
Title page
Title of reportResearcher’s name/ codeCourse/subject
Date due
Table of contents Shows the sections of the report
Acknowledgementsan expression of gratitude forassistance in creating an original work
Executive summaryor Abstract
Gives a summary of the whole reportOutlines -purpose, researchmethod,findings, main conclusions andRecommendations
Section Purpose
Section Purpose
Introduction
Outlines context, background andpurposeDefines terms and sets limits of the researchThe reader/audience can easily identify what,
how, why
MethodologyExplains how research was done and outlineshow the data was collected
Results/Findingsmay be combined
Presents findings of the researchFacts only - no interpretationUses graphic form (eg. tables & graphs)
Section Purpose
Discussion
Presents an interpretation and evaluation ofthe results.Analyses results - draws together differentaspects of the findings, findings of otherstudies and refers to literature
Conclusion Brief statement of what was found
Recommendations Suggest suitable changes/solutions
AppendixAttachments of additional information (eg.surveys, questionnaires, glossary etc)
References All references used
Logical analysis of the subject matter
Preparation of the final outline.
Preparation of the rough draft
Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft
Preparation of the final bibliography
Writing the final draft
Helps in defining the problem statement
Two main elements
- literary review : analysis of publications
- methodology
Quality control for supervisors
Two traps
- time
- narrowing down the review
Clarity of thought
Use of concepts
Careful use of terminology
Clarification of the problem
Method of presentation
Flow of language
Chapterisation of report
Inclusion of essential data
Use of foot notes
Size of report
Authenticity of report
Comprehensive report writing for academic community
Integral part of research study
Presentation of research result
Requires set of skills
Utmost care; assistance and guidance of experts if required
Hypothesis tests are procedures for making rational decisions aboutthe reality of effects.
A rational decision is characterized by the use of a procedure whichinsures the likelihood or probability that success is incorporated intothe decision-making process. The procedure must be stated in such afashion that another individual, using the same information, wouldmake the same decision.
When a change in one thing is associated with a change in another,we have an effect. The changes may be either quantitative orqualitative, with the hypothesis testing procedure selected basedupon the type of change observed.
Hypothesis testing or significance testing is a method for testing aclaim or hypothesis about a parameter in a population, using datameasured in a sample.
• CONSTRUCTION OF HYPOTHESIS
PHASE I
• COLLECTREQUIRED DATA
PHASE II• ANALYZE DATA
TO DRAW CONCLUSIONS
PHASE III
Testing of hypothesis
The first step is to formulate the alternative and null hypotheses.
The second step is to test the null hypothesis , by carrying out a
statistical test of significance to determine whether it can be
rejected, and consequently, whether there is a difference between
the groups under investigation.
In the third step, the sample statistics appropriate for the sample,
variables and hypothesis are calculated.
In the fourth step, a significance test is conducted, to see if the null
hypothesis can be rejected.
In the final step, the decision is made to reject or accept the null
hypothesis.
Simple, specific and conceptually clear: There is no place for
ambiguity as it makes the verification of hypothesis almost
impossible. Hypothesis is uni-dimensional i.e. it should test only one
relationship at a time. To develop a good hypothesis one must be
familiar with the subject area.
Capable of verification: methods and techniques must be available
for data collection and analysis. Hypothesis techniques can be
formulated during research and analysis.
Related to the existing body of knowledge: hypothesis should have
emerged from an existing body of knowledge and it adds to it. This is
an important function of research
Operationalisable: expressed in terms of that can be measured. If it
cannot be measured , it cannot be tested and hence no conclusions
can be drawn
Helps direction: a hypothesis gives a definite point to the investigation,and it guides the direction on the study.
Specify the source of data: a hypothesis specifies the sources of data,which shall be studied, and in what context they shall be studied.
Determine the data: it defines which factors are relevant and which arenot. The use of hypothesis thus prevents a blind search and indiscriminategathering of data which may later found to be irrelevant to the problemunder study.
Suggest the type of research Helps suitable technique Development of theory: It links theory and investigation. A hypothesis
can be deducted from a theory. When it is tested though studies and foundtrue, it forms a part of theory.
Possible to test theories: A social scientist develops a theory to explain aphenomenon, he doesn’t test the theory directly , but he tests thehypothesis derived from it. If the test confirms the hypothesis , the theoryis accepted.
Constructed theory: occasionally , the reverse takes place, i.e., theorymay be constructed from hypothesis.
It is with the help of hypothesis that it becomes easy to decide as to what
type of data is to be collected and what type of data is simple be ignored.
Hypothesis makes it cleat as to what is to be accepted, proved or
disproved and that what is the main focus of study.
It helps the investigator in knowing the direction in which he is to move.
Without hypothesis it will be just duping in the dark and not moving the
right direction.
A clear idea about hypothesis, means saving of time, money and energy
which otherwise will be wasted, thereby botheration of trial and error
will be saved.
It helps in concentrating only on relevant factors and dripping irrelevant
ones. Many irrelevant factors which otherwise get into the study can
easily be ignored.
A properly formulated hypothesis is always essential for drawing proper
and reasonable conclusion.
ICT is not only an extension of man’s ability to compute but
also help him in storing and retaining data for further research
Computers play an important role of logical decision on
various aspects of research.
ICT helps in big role in every sphere of research like research
in education, research in business, research in trade etc.
It can facilitate the implementation of different types of
research designs.
The internet, in its capacity as a source of information can be
useful in uncovering secondary data and also collecting
primary data needed in various researches.
Speed and accuracy: a computer is a high speed device, capable oftaking logical decisions, performing arithmetic and non arithmeticoperations for research.
Logical decisions for a research: it is capable of comparing data ofresearch project and the results are compared to take appropriateaction.
Perfect memory related to research: the computers are capable ofstoring large amount of data and recalling information stored in itsmemory.
Versatility: a modern computer is a versatile machine. It can be usedto solve the problems related to various research projects.
Diligence: computers are superior to human brains in respect ofmemory. It has high diligence and never feels tired or fatigue even ifit has to work for very long hours.
Automation: it means that once the research data and instructionsare fed to the computer, human interventions are not required.
A number of easy use packages which run on micro computers to
perform standard statistical analysis are available. Typical
capabilities of these packages are frequency distributions, cross-
tabulations, test for population means, regression analysis, non-
parametric analysis etc
Researcher has to look into the actual usage of various statistical
tools in different areas of research
A large number of advanced statistical tools are available to
arrive at valid conclusions from the data collected by the
researcher.
SPSS, SASS, SX, MYSTAT, S-PLUS, KYPLOT etc.
SPSS offers a big range of significance tests, methods of
correlation and regression and data reduction techniques.
Each module is like separate analysis tool.
The researcher has to load the data in the computer and
apply the suitable tool for a given situation.
Source of research provider
Helps in project management
Information supplier
Statistical packages
Computer maps
Sources of secondary data
Sources of govt data
Email interviews
Consistency check
Gerard Guthrie, “Basic research methods” Sage Publications,
2011.
Hans Raj, “Theory and practice in social research”, Surjeet
Publications, 1979.
Shashi K. Gupta & Praneet Rangi, “Research methodology”,
Kalyani Publishers, 2013.
Chava Frankfort- Nachmias- David Nachmias, “Research
methods in Social sciences”, Martin’s Press, 1996.
C. Murthy, “ Research Methodology”, Vrinda Publications,
2009.