realistic causality and archetypal fatalism: greek ... 05 27.pdfkeywords: jeffrey eugenides,...

Iulian Boldea (Editor) - Literature, Discourses and the Power of Multicultural Dialogue

Arhipelag XXI Press, Tîrgu Mureș, 2017. eISBN: 978-606-8624-12-9

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Section: Literature

REALISTIC CAUSALITY AND ARCHETYPAL FATALISM: GREEK MYTHOLOGY AND ITS

INFLUENCE ON EUGENIDES’ WRITINGS

Ana Blanca Ciocoi-Pop Lecturer, PhD, ”Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu

Abstract: Owing to the authorřs Greek heritage, mythology almost becomes the basis of

Eugenidesř fiction, a means of making sense of the various social and moral mechanisms which lie at the core of the everyday urban tragedies he is interested in. However, he does not merely

employ classical mythological notions and motives, but succeeds in creating a personal mythical

universe. As the basic function of mythology is to try to make sense of the world, in employing it, Eugenides tries to come to grips with the present developments in society and family life and to

reveal the possible causes of depression, dissatisfaction and hopelessness most of us gave to cope

with.

Keywords: Jeffrey Eugenides, mythology, fiction, urban, morality, tragedy

Owing to the authorřs Greek heritage, mythology almost becomes the basis of

Eugenidesř fiction, a means of making sense of the various social and moral mechanisms

which lie at the core of the everyday urban tragedies Eugenides is essentially interested in.

However, he does not merely employ classical mythological notions and motives, but

succeeds in creating a mythical universe of himself. As the basic function of mythology is

to try to make sense of the world, in employing it, Eugenides tries to come to grips with

the present developments in society and family life and to reveal the possible causes of

depression, dissatisfaction and hopelessness most of us have to cope with. Therefore, it is

not a mythology for mythologyřs sake, as the author himself admits in a Salon.com

interview:

Is including Greek myth in your novels a particular preoccupation of yours? "The Virgin

Suicides" had some of the feeling of mythos to it.

It's not something I was conscious of at all with "The Virgin Suicides." I'm more aware of

it with this book because it deals with classical themes. I think this comes less from being

Greek-American than from studying Latin so much. The first books that I really read

closely were "The Aeneid" and "The Metamorphoses." An epic story, and stories where

people can go into the underworld and strange things like that happened, were the first

stories that seized my imagination when I was young, and I'm starting to think of what a

great influence those writers were on me when I look at my novels now. But I'm not

conscious of trying to do that. Actually, I think that because my name is Greek, I got a lot

more people saying "Eugenides has a Greek chorus" than other people would have gotten

using the same narrative voice.

As Ernst Cassirer puts it in Language and Myth, myth is a "miracle of the spirit". It can be

viewed as a mode of communication, developing simultaneously alongside ordinary

language in our prehistoric ancestors, one of its distinctive features being that it does not

necessarily refer back to an objective reality. It may refer to an internal, abstract,

conceptual or emotional (invisible) reality. Therefore, although ancient myths cannot be

reshaped, new ones can be created at any moment in time. The mythical realm of



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Eugenides is an urban one where everyday tragedies mingle with universal human

concerns. Furthermore, we can speak about a certain sociological function of myth: to

support and validate a particular social order. Myth will always make it clear what ethical

code is appropriate. The problem is, as already stated, that these codes are fixed for all

time; they are not subject to change. If times change, as they have in the past several

millenniums, our myths may run the risk of becoming seriously outdated. Changing times

require new myths, and since our times are changing very rapidly, the myth-making

function cannot keep up. As a result, we are practically myth-less. Creating new

mythological realms, as Eugenides does, is therefore a highly rewarding endeavor.

Nevertheless, with Eugenides, one of the essential functions of myth, resolving

contradictions of human existence (according to Claude Levi-Strauss), is annihilated, as

the authorřs aim is not to offer solutions, but to pose issues and force his readers into

thinking and deciding for themselves. His skepticism turns even mythology into a helpless

tool, or, to put it differently, mythology can no longer make sense of the world for us in

Jeffrey Eugenidesř novels. It is confined to the past, to a temporal dimension which does

not seem to have any connection to what we are presently experiencing.

Eugenides is not the only one to have been decisively influenced by mythology. It

is needless to say that myths have always had an impressive influence on human

consciousness culture and thought. Through their astonishing ability to synthesize

essential aspects of life and the world, they become equivalent to history and even

religion. Even if they cannot offer any solution to practical problems, they undoubtedly

are a source of spiritual comfort for their readership, as the possibility of identification

with mythological figures is always present at some level. Consequently, it is more than

obvious that myths have enjoyed a wide area of influence in what human culture and

thought are concerned. Furthermore, mythology has always provided a huge amount of

material for the writer, its symbolism giving way to various and surprising literary

interpretations. Mythological figures gradually became embodiments of ideas, ideals,

percepts, norms, dreams, nightmares, vices, etc. In this respect, the characters employed

in the Homeric epics (Zeus, Hera, Athena, Aphrodite, Apollo and Ares) gradually became

the common property of antique poetry. Moreover, Greek writers of tragedy made use of

traditional myths to create characters such as Agamemnon and Clytemnestra (in the

Oresteya of Eschylus), Antigone (in the play of the same name by Sophocles) and Electra

(in plays by Sophocles and Euripides). Gods have also been a constant source of

inspiration: as an ideal of masculine beauty, Apollo figures in works of art belonging to

all historical periods. Literature and music are equally indebted to mythological themes.

Antigone became famous in Sophocleřs play, which is based on the conflict between

obedience to state laws and to the higher laws imposed by the gods. She was later on

employed as a character by the French playwrights Jean Cocteau (1922) and Jean Anouilh

(1942), and by the German Bertolt Brecht. Another example could be Electra, subject of

plays by French playwright Jean-Paul Sartre (The Flies, 1943) and American playwright

Eugene OřNeill (Mourning Becomes Electra, 1931), and of a celebrated opera by German

composer Richard Strauss (1909).

What actually makes a tale a myth is its vital importance to the culture that produced it Ŕ

one could easily state that a cultural community could be characterized by means of its

mythology, of the universal, human and social aspects which are of most interest to that

particular group of people. Without pushing things too far, we could assert that the same

thing holds true for a writer: the myths he is interested in could offer insight into

fascinating aspects of his personality and keys to deciphering his work. Some of the best-

known types of myths are the ones concerned with world-order, trying to explain the



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origin of the world, universal catastrophes such as fire or food, and the afterlife. Nearly all

mythologies, although apparently unrelated to each other, share a common type of

cosmogony. Eugenidesř mythological dimension, however, is primarily centered on the

destruction and annihilation of a certain universe and on the impossibility to return to a

harmonious and balanced world-order. He is rather concerned with the origin of death and

suffering than with the one of life as we know it.

A large number of myths do not focus directly on human beings, but rather on gods.

These usually form divine family or pantheon. Greek mythology furthermore presents a

story of struggle between generations: the earliest gods were Gaea and Uranus, and their

offspring, the Titans. The eldest Titan, Cronos, overthrew his father and was in his turn

overthrown by his son, Zeus, who finally took control of the entire universe. This is a

point where Eugenides moves close to his Greek heritage, as both The Virgin Suicides

and Middlesex deal with the destruction of an old and the rise of a new (but not

necessarily benefic) world-order, the process usually involving suffering and struggle.

Another common type of myth is the one concerning the life and deeds of heroes. Some

of these mythological figures, such as the Greek Achilles, have one mortal and one divine

parent, while others are fully human but at the same time blessed with godlike strength or

beauty. (Actually, heroes were the ones ancient story-tellers and their audience were

probably eager to identify with because despite of their being mortals, they managed to

challenge and sometimes even to defeat the arrogant and vindictive gods). Many of these

myths deal with significant episodes in the herořs life (the circumstances of his birth, a

journey or quest, and the return home). Often, the birth and childhood of a mythological

hero is exceptional or even miraculous: for example, the Hebrew prophet Moses, the

Greek hero Oedipus, and the Roman heroes Romulus and Remus were all exposed to the

elements at birth and left to die, but miraculously survived. A close look at Eugenidesř

major novels shows that both the Lisbon sisters and Cal can be viewed as heroes in the

mythological sense of the term: the girls are blessed with exceptional beauty and a certain

magnetism which haunts the chorus of schoolboys for their entire existence, Calřs

spiritual journey can be equaled to an odyssey etc. As we will see later on, the Lisbon

girlsř seclusion can also be compared to the one of the Gods on Mount Olympus, which

even accounts for an interpretative parallel between them and the ancient deities.

We have previously mentioned that with Eugenides myth loses its validity and capacity of

making sense of a chaotic universe. There were, nevertheless, others apart Eugenides who

throughout history questioned mythologyřs validity. Among the first were the Greek

thinkers of the 6th century B.C. In the following centuries the rationalism introduced by

them and the monotheism of Judaism, Christianity and Islam gradually replaced myth-

making throughout much of the world. Therefore, Eugenidesř partial skepticism towards

mythology can also be explained by means of this larger skeptical trend.

As any other aspect of human culture, myth also underwent several more or less obvious

changes. While in the beginning myths were rather identified with their narrative

substance modernity tends to see them as the embodiment of a particular idea or symbol.

Being not so much interested in the narrative itself, but rather in its symbolic structure,

most analysts of myths in the 18th and 19th centuries showed a tendency to reduce these

ancient stories to some essential core, to an all-encompassing idea or principle. In their

opinion, that essential core remained once the ornamental elements of the narratives had

been removed. Beginning with the 20th century, however, investigators began to pay

closer attention to the content of the narratives themselves. Sigmund Freud, for instance,

believed that myths (like dreams) synthesize the material of experience by representing it

in symbols. Therefore every element must be closely analyzed and decoded, for it could



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lead to the understanding of the whole. His pupil Carl Jung gave a different turn to this

psychological approach by viewing myths as a general human tendency to draw on a

collective body of archetypes. Still another approach belongs to French anthropologist

Claude Levi-Strauss, who argued that the main function of myths is to resolve basic

contradictions of human existence, such as life and death, nature and culture, identity and

otherness. As we have already seen, for Eugenides, mythřs main function is to point to a

past dimension of balance and tranquility which has gone lost never to be reconstructed,

and therefore overshadows both present and future, making happiness and fulfillment

impossible. His aim is to demonstrate that in a dehumanized postmodern context

supposedly ruled by the rigors of science nothing is able to explain everyday domestic

tragedies like the one in The Virgin Suicides or personal tragedies like the one pictured in

Middlesex. As G.S. Kirk stated:

Myths concern us not only for the part they play in all primitive, illiterate, tribal, or non-

urban cultures . . .; not only for the grip that versions of ancient Greek myths have gained

through the centuries on the literary culture of the Western nations; but also because of

man's endearing insistence on carrying quasi-mythical modes of thought, expression, and

communication into a supposedly scientific age.

He is neither interested in archetypes, nor in symbols, although both of them abound in

his writings, but in a subtle moral message derivable from the events he narrates and the

characters he pictures. Greek civilization is essentially based on storytelling, no matter if

the narration process makes use of the written or spoken word or of any other form of art.

Narrative is equivalent to culture here. Identity is conceived as a narrative process, meant

to build up a linear movement from ancient (mythical) to modern times. (Cal, the narrator

and protagonist of Middlesex, hints at this in the beginning of the novel, when he

ironically explains his call for the Muse as genetic inheritance.) Mythology provides, in

the case of the Greek people, not only the necessary link to the past, but also the

explanation and justification of both present and future. In ancient times, myths were at

the same time passed on orally (by the groups of men gathering to exchange tales in cafes

and conversation places), and by means of elaborate literary and artistic works. The

ancient Greek culture not only tolerated but also encouraged diversity to a wide extent,

the Greeks worshipping an impressive number of deities, each one being the embodiment

of an idealized, common or even terrifying aspect of human existence.

Unlike other belief systems, the Greek one was not based on the concept of a single truth

or code and did not lead to the elaboration of any sacred written texts (compare to the

previous section on Judaism). This might also be a proof for the inherent skepticism of

ancient Greece. Moreover, narrative accounts about the origins and actions of Greek

divinities were far from homogenous, depending on whether the tale was part of a

comedy, tragedy or epic poem. Mythology was the complex and rich medium by means

of which the Greek were able to symbolically express their outlook on the world, on life

and on themselves. Therefore, the fact that quite often Eugenides employs comical

descriptions alongside mythological allusions may come as no surprise considering that

the ancient Greeks themselves made fun of, feared and worshipped their gods at the same

time. In a Powells.com interview, Eugenides openly admits blending comic and tragic

elements:

Dave: For such a smart, serious novel ŕ and by "serious" I mean to be taken seriously ŕ



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it's fairly lighthearted. If you just threw a plot summary at someone, they wouldn't expect

it to be as much fun as it is.

Eugenides: In general, that's the way it is with my work. When people hear what The

Virgin Suicides is about, they think that it won't be funny at all, and then they read it and

they find out that it is. But Middlesex is more broadly comic.

I have a tragic-comic sensibility, I guess. I can't imagine writing something devoid of

humor, yet I don't like slapstick that doesn't admit tragedy. I blend them. It's just central to

the way I see things.

Mythology was a more than active part of everyday life in ancient Greece, this aspect

being mirrored not only by literature, but also by architecture: it is a matter of common

knowledge that any Greek city-state devoted itself to a particular god or group of gods in

whose honor it built temples. A statue of the god or gods was generally housed there. The

cityřs gods were often honored in festivals and offered various sacrifices usually a

domestic animal such as a goat (ritual sacrifice is symbolically alluded to in The Virgin

Suicides, however, in this case, it does not fulfill any worship function and is utterly

futile). Veronica Ions even points out that: ŖThe Myth, in a primitive society, that is in its

original living form, is not just a tale. It is a reality. These stories are of an original,

greater, more important reality through which the present life, fate, and mankind are

governed. This knowledge provides man with motives for rituals and moral acts."

Greek myths served several purposes as regards societal structure and collective

consciousness: firstly, they explained the world, secondly they acted as a means of

exploration and thirdly, they provided authority and legitimacy. According to Robert

Graves,

Mythology is the study of whatever religious or heroic legends are so foreign to a

student's experience that he cannot believe them to be true. . . . Myth has two main

functions. The first is to answer the sort of awkward questions that children ask, such as:

'Who made the world? How will it end? Who was the first man? Where do souls go

after death?'. . . . The second function of myth is to justify an existing social system and

account for traditional rites and customs.

Last but not least, they also provided entertainment. As already shown, Eugenidesř

mythology is no longer able to make sense of anything, and it certainly is not a source of

authority, as it is no longer able to bring order into the world by pointing out ancient

norms of conduct. Therefore, in Eugenidesř case we could probably talk about a function

of exploration with mythological structures; that is, in his case, myth works as a means of

getting at the core of most present-day conflicts. It is a means of moral and spiritual

exploration.

Furthermore, as Harry Schlochower notes,

Recent psychoanalytic discussions of myth have as one of their theses that myth

constitutes a form of adaptation bolstering social conformity by the individual to his

group. This thesis was set forth by Jacob Arlow in a penetrating and frequently cited

article on "Ego Psychology and the Study of Myth" (1961). The myth, Arlow writes, "can

be studied from the point of view … how it constitutes a form of adaptation to reality and

to the group in which the individual lives, and how it influences the crystallization of the

individual identity and the formation of the superego" (p. 375). Mythology as well as art

and religion are seen as "subsidiary, institutionalized instrumentalities which bolster the



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social adaptation ordinarily made possible by the nightly abrogation of instinctual

renunciation in dreams" (379).

Therefore, myth also seems to fulfill a socializing function, enabling people to become

part of their community by making its common ideals and creeds more accessible to the

individual. As a matter of fact, ancient Greek mythology also tried to explain world order

and structure, pointing to the causes which finally led to the current state of things. A

relevant example in this sense would be Hesiodřs Theogony, a fictional work narrating

the origins of the world by relating it to the concept of initial Chaos. Another one of

Hesiodřs poems, entitled Works and Days, explained the origin of human evil: according

to Hesiod, the first woman, Pandora, opened a box whose top she had been forbidden to

lift. Her disobedience (similar to the one of the biblical Eve) caused all the diseases and

miseries previously confined in the box to escape into the world. Apart from its fictional

nature, this myth also points to important issues of gender-relationships of the time.

Scholars assume that the poem was composed by a male author for a largely male

audience that was receptive to a tale placing women at the root of all evil.

Greek myths most often dealt with highly intricate matters, analyzing the complex

relationships which form the base of contradictions or the obscure factors that lead to

ambiguity. The same sort of moral and ethical dilemma is present with Jeffrey Eugenides:

in The Virgin Suicides it is the unexplainable suicide of the Lisbon sisters, while in

Middlesex it is Callieřs final decision to become Cal. Homerřs Iliad provides another

vivid example, exploring the consequences of the Greek leader Agamemnonřs decision to

deprive the warrior Achilles of his allotted prize, a female slave, while at the same time

raising the central issue of honor. Achilles feels hurt in his pride as a warrior, but at the

same time wonders how it would be appropriate to react: does he have the right to refuse

to fight, if that would lead to the destruction of the Greek army? Is his rejection of

Agamemnonřs offer of compensation justified? Similarly, in Eugenidesř case the reader

might find himself wondering: was there a morally justifiable or at least comprehensible

aspect about the girlsř suicide? Is Callieřs decision to stay true to herself right, or should

she have followed the doctorřs advice and consider the surgical procedure turning her into

a woman trapped in a manřs body?

Legitimacy was still another scope of myths. Any claim action or relationship

automatically acquired extra authority if it had a precedent in myth. Following the same

pattern, aristocratic Greek families liked to trace their ancestry back to the mythological

heroes or gods. This is pictured by the Greek poet Pindar (early 5th century B.C.): in his

songs, Pindar praised the victories of some participants in the Olympic Games by linking

them with the deeds of their mythical ancestors. Finally, myths were a primary source of

enjoyment and entertainment. We have to consider that in a world in which practically no

media (at least in the modern sense of the term) existed, the only way to spend spare time,

to provide information or to analyze life and the world was by means of narratives.

Mythology offered people a chance to learn about other destinies, conflicts or tragedies

than their own, and consequently to compare, to draw parallels, to sympathize, to

disapprove, to shape their actions and thoughts differently. The Homeric epics, for

example, contain vivid descriptions of audiences held spellbound by the songs of bards.

Public performances of tragic drama were also hugely popular, regularly drawing some

15,000 spectators.

To conclude, we might state that the mythical realm created by Eugenides is no longer

capable of offering ancient or established norms of conduct. It is an individual mythology

much alike T.S. Eliots Wasteland. Karen Amstrong notes that:



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In 1922, T. S. Eliot depicted the spiritual disintegration of Western culture in The Waste

Land. In the legend of the Holy Grail, inhabitants of the wasteland live inauthentic lives,

blindly following social norms without the conviction that comes of deeper

understanding.

How could people put down creative roots in the Ŗstony rubbishŗ of modernity, when they

are familiar only with Ŗa heap of broken imagesŗ ŕ isolated and unassimilated shards of

the mythical wisdom of the past? As he confronted the sterility of his civilisation, Eliotřs

narrator concluded: ŖThese fragments I have shored against my ruins.ŗ Only if we piece

together these broken insights and recognise their common core can we reclaim the

wasteland in which we live.

In our rational society, we have lost touch with the mythical underpinning of our

culture…

Nevertheless this does not mean that Eugenidesř employment of myth is utterly futile.

Even if it fails in providing answers, it points to important social and moral issues which

have to eventually be resolved by means of new, individualized myths.

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