READING MANUAL ENGLISH II 2014B Universidad nacional Sede Palmira- Centro de Idiomas-Professor: ANA LILIA MURILLO

CognatesCognates are words that nave a similar origin, in two or more Languages, they look very similar although they may have suffered changes in form and meaning through the historical development of each one of the languages, Many scientific terms of Latin or Greek origin are cognates in several languages, although they are not always easy to recognize Examples: English French Spanish Deport Déporter Deportar

TRUE COGNATES: Many terms are cognates in English and Spanish are similar in form and meaning because of their origin in other languages, there are few changes in their phonetics but they are very similar in structure.

Examples: Popular- Actor-Local-Auto- Class- Humor Capital Material Original Control General History, Music, Religion.

FALSE COGNATES: Any words that are similar in terms of form in two languagesbut the real meaning is very different.

Examples: Actual---real / Officials-- funcionarios / Large--- grande / Several---varios / Ingenuity—ingenio/ Policicies-Politicas/ Fabric- tela / Realize- darse cuenta de / College-universidad / Library-biblioteca / Pie- torta/ Rope- soga/ Soap-jabòn/

Ver LISTAS DE FALSOS COGNADOS en la web: http://www.colorincolorado.org/pdfs/articles/cognates.pdfhttp://www.losangeles.unam.mx/falsecognates.html http://www.elearnspanishlanguage.com/vocabulary/falsosamigos.html http://www.spanish.bz/false-cognates-quiz.htm

Contextual ReferencesWHAT IS A CONTEXTUAL REFERENCE? It is a transitional marker used in order to avoid repetitions of words. They generally refer to a word previously used by the author but in some cases refer to a word or term that will be introduced later on.

Other references: 1-both…and / 2- the first, the second, the third, the latter……………/ 3-others, another, the other, some, all.

External references : words used by the author whose referent is the reader: one, we, you, us..Examples:

1. You have to know the rules of the classroom because paying attention to them is very important.2. Computers have replaced the work of people because they reduce time.3. Students should be both considerate and courteous in their classrooms.

A. Personal Pronouns

B. ObjectPronouns

C. PossesiveAdjectives

D. PossesivePronouns

E. RelativePronouns

F. DemonstrativePronouns

I ME—a mi MY MINE WHICH--el cual, la cual, los cuales, las cuales

THIS—este, esta--

YOU YOU—a ti YOUR YOURS WHO—quien-quienes. THESE—estos, estas--

HE HIM—a el HIS HIS WHOSE—cuyo, a, os, as

THAT—ese, aquello,(a)

SHE HER—a ella

HER HERS WHOM—a quien THOSE—esos, aquellos(as)--

IT IT—a esto ITS ITS THAT—que, el (la) cual.

WE US—a nosotros

OUR OURS WHAT—lo que--

THEY THEM—a ellos

THEIR THEIRS

4. The act is very important because it protects animals and plants.5. Some students find it difficult to do examinations because they don’t know how to begin.6. William Shakespeare is the grand literary figure of the Western World whowrote

one of the most important books of history.Referents Contextual References.

Exercise 1Read the following paragraph and decide what do the underline words refer to?Some students find it difficult to do examinations because they do not know how to begin. This is not a difficult problem to solve however; here is one way of doing it. Before you do anything, read the instructions carefully. Note whether they say “Answer all the questions “ or “ Answer some of them “ If you only have to answer three out of five questions read through the paper and choose those you think you can do. Then, check the time allowed and divide it by the number of questions you must answer. Make sure you do not spend too much time on anyone.If you do, you will not be able to finish the examination.

Additional info: http://www.docstoc.com/docs/33693019/Contextual-Reference - presentación en power point.

Example: Some   students read slowly and know it; others read sl owly and don’t know it. The former can be helped more easily than the latter. ‘The former’ refers to ‘students who read slowly and know it’ ‘the latter’ refers to ‘students who read slowly and don’t know’. Exercise # 2: Read the passage and identify  what each underlined  word refers to:  A computer, like any  other machine, is used because it does certain jobs better  and more efficiently than  humans. It can receive more information and process it  faster than any human.   The speed at which a computer works  means it can  replace weeks or even  months of pencil-and-paper work. Therefore, computers  are used when the  time saved offsets their cost, which is one of the many reasonsthey are used so much in business industry, and  research. Exercise # 3: To leave out the nouns which have already been mentioned.  one  another   the other  others some  these   those   all There is no best answer to the question which online service is the best. Rating a particular online service over another is entirely subjective. Price is important to some people, while the number of files available for download is important to others. Exercise # 4:DELPHIE’S Hobby Shop is an online service which   has two special-interest areas: one on classic vehicles and oneon new cars and technology.Exercise # 5: Optical fibers give very clear telephone conversations which are free from signal interference because light signals from one fibre do not interfere with those of others in the same cable.  

Grammatical Categories Verbs: Words that indicate action or state.

EXAMPLES: 1. Dracula bites his victims on the neck. -The verb "bites" describes the action Dracula takes.2. In October, Giselle will plant twenty tulip bulbs.-Here the compound verb "will plant" describes FUTURE action.http://www.esldesk.com/vocabulary/verbs.htm LISTA DE VERBOS.List of regular verbs:http://www.englishclub.com/vocabulary/regular-verbs-list.htmList of irregular verbs:http://www.englishclub.com/vocabulary/irregular-verbs-list.htmhttp://www.usingenglish.com/reference/irregular-verbs/

ADJECTIVE:An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun by describing, identifying, or quantifying words. An adjective usually precedes the noun or the pronoun which it modifies. Describing, identifying, or quantifying. An adjective respond these questions: How many are there?/What kind is it?/Which one is it? Red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, brown, black, and white are adjectives because they describe

the color of something. Tall, short, fat, thin, pretty, and ugly are adjectives that can be used to describe the physical

characteristic of a person. Zany, quirky, vivacious, exuberant, determined, diligent, and adaptable are adjectives because they

outline personality traits.http://www.esldesk.com/vocabulary/adjectives.htm

http://www.keepandshare.com/htm/lists/free_adjective_list.php listas de adjetivos NOUN: A Noun is a word used to name a person, animal, Place, thing, and abstract idea. A noun

usually takes one of two roles in a sentence, either that of the subject or an object of the sentence. There are many different types of nouns. These include proper nouns, which refer to a specific person, place, or thing, and are indicated in English by a capital first letter, such as Nancy or Los Angeles; concrete nouns, which are nouns that describe a tangible object or person, such as the dog; abstract nouns, which describe anything that cannot be perceived using the five senses, such as love; countable nouns, which are nouns that may be pluralized, such as chairs; non-countable nouns, which are nouns that have no plural, such as bedding; and collective nouns, which describe a group of another noun, such as a murder of crows.

ADVERBS: An adverb can modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb or a phrase. An adverb indicates manner, time, place, cause, or degree and answers questions such as "how," "when," "where," "how much".

While some adverbs can be identified by their characteristic "ly" suffix, most of them must be identified by untangling the grammatical relationships within the sentence or clause as a whole. Unlike an adjective, an adverb can be found in various places within the sentence. Types of AdverbsAdverbs of manner:Carefully, correctly, eagerly, easily, fast, loudly, patiently, quickly, quietly, and well.Adverbs of placeAnywhere,downstairs,here,home,in,nowhere,out,outside,somewhere,there,underground, upstairs,Adverbs of frequency Always, every, never, often, rarely, seldom, sometimes, and usually.Adverbs of time describe when something happens. Already, during, finally,just,last,later,next,now,recently,soon,then,tomorrow,when,while,and yesterday.http://www.momswhothink.com/reading/list-of-adverbs.htmlhttp://www.esldesk.com/vocabulary/adverbs.htm LISTA DE ADVERBIOS

Reading Strategies Review

1. SKIMMINGSkimming is a quick and superficial reading to get the general idea(s) of a passage. This is a rapid reading. What is it? ---------------- A quick reading strategy.What for? ------------------ To get a general idea of the text, a panoramic view. How?----------------------- Identifying key words, paying attention to typographical information like: Titles, subtitles, CAPITAL LETTERS, bold Letters, italics, underlined words, "quotes", (brackets), etc. As well as the information that drawings, pictures, graphs may provide.

Types of Questions : What is the theme? / What is the main idea of the text? / What is the topic? / What is the area of study? / What is the source? / What is the text about? / Provide a title for this text.

2. SCANNINGLike Skimming, Scanning is also a quick reading strategy. However in this case the search is more focused. To scan is to read quickly in order to locate specific information.

What is it? ---------------A quick reading strategy What for? ------To get a specific information from the text . How? ---------Paying -attention to:

***'Words: business, protein, manager, science, etc.***Dates: 2.005, 1990, etc. **Places: Cali, Bogotá, France, etc. **Numbers or figures: 2 millions, 10.000 ,etc***Names: Von Newman, Marx, Newton."'*Acronyms: F. D. A., W. T. O., U. N., etc.

Types of Questions: Provide information about these words and numbers. / Fill the table below looking for the specific information in the text. /Provide the name of ….. ? /Give two examples of... //How many ………? /What do these figures refer to?

3. INTENSIVE READINGIt is a careful reading strategy aimed to understand the whole meaning of the text. It means that the reader should read the text carefully, in detail to understand what the author says. In this purpose, the reader will use efficiently the strategies --- skimming and scanning---studied previously and should be able to summarize the author`s ideas. We need to read intensively if a text is very difficult. Type of Questions: What is the purpose of the text? / Write a summary of the text?/ What does the author

say about…….?/ What is the main idea of each paragraph?/ What does the author mean by “………….”?

4. CRITICAL READINGThis is the fourth Reading Strategy; it is the final step in the reading process. Critical Reading implies (Skimming, Scanning and Intensive Reading) to have a clear idea of the text. Critical Reading means to make judgments about what you read. It means to deduce the critical arguments of the author confront them with your beliefs and elaborate an opinion. Type of Questions: - Does my own experience support that of the author? /-Do I share the author’s

point of view? / -Am I convinced by the author’s arguments and evidence?

DERIVATION AND WORD FORMATIONWHAT IS A DERIVED WORD ? Is a word formed by the addition of different particles to the stem. Ex: Image / Imaginat- ive /Imagina -tion. A Derived Word is composed of two parts:

1. The Stem (Raíz de la palabra) + 2. The Affixes (Afijos) a) The Prefixes: Go before the stem: The role of the Prefixes is to change the meaning of the word. Development is different from underdevelopment.

b) The Suffixes: Go after the stem. The role of the Suffixes is to change the grammatical category. Verb, Adjective, Noun or Adverb Produc-er( Noun) Product-ive(Adjective) Product-ive-ly (Adverb) Produce (Verb).

-------------More -Examples------------------Work-er , Manage -ment , Administrat-ion , Organ-ism ,Environ -ment -al ,Pollut-ion , -Under develop -ment , Corporat -ion , Time –less, Financ -ial , Credit -ors, , Govern-ment, Soft -ness, Econom-ics, Material-ist , Lone-some, Thank-ful, Gener-ate, Change-able, separ –ate.

Suffijos para Palabras Derivadas Noun: (Sustantivo) Adjective(Adjetivo) Verbs(Verbos) Adverb(Adverbio)Word referred to people, places, ideas, concepts.

Suffixes to formnouns :-dom, -er, -or,-hood,-ness,-age,-ance,-ancy,-ation,-ition,-tion,- ion,-cy,-ess, -ism, -ity, -ment, -ry, -ty,-ics, -ist, -cian,-ship, -th.

The word that describes a noun or pronoun.

Suffixes to formAdjectives:

-able,-ible,-ac,-al,-an,-ian, -ate,-ese,-ful,-ic,-en,-ish,-ive, -less,-ly, -like, -ous, -ose, -y, -some.

The word that indicates action, fact or state.

Suffixes to formVerbs : -ate,-en, -esce, -fy, -ify, -ize.

A word that modifies a verb, an adjective or adverb. Most of the derived adverbs end in–ly. The adverbs respond to questions like: When, Where, How, What Extent.

Suffixes to formAdverbs : -ly, -wise.

NOTE: –ED and -ING Suffixes Are considered as Grammatical Suffixes. (Se usan para referirse al pasado o al presente continuo respectivamente) No las tomamos como Palabras Derivadas.

PREFIXES : Indican tamaño, localización, negación, tiempo, etc. Pueden aparecer con igual significado en cientos de palabras diferentes, muchos sufren variaciones ortográficas para adecuarse a la raíz. Hay muchos prefijos más relacionados con disciplinas del conocimiento especificas.

a. Negación: -in, -im, -non, -mis, -mal, -anti, -ir, -un, -dis, -de,b. Localización: -ex, -inter, -per, -re, -peri, -sub, -super, -trans, -retro, -extra, -circum.c. Número: -uni, -mono, -auto, -bi, -tri,-poly, -hex, -oct, -multi, -quad.d. Orden y tiempo: -pre, -post, -ante, -fore, prime.e. Tamaño: -semi, -mini, -maxi, -macro, -equi, -mega.f. Otros casos: -out, -over, -pro.

TEXT: The Colombian Conflict

The long-running civil war in Colombia has left tens of thousands dead and has been described by the UN as one of the world's worst humanitarian crises. The brutal conflict pits the state against two groups of left-wing rebels and some right-wing paramilitaries. Insurgents launched campaigns to overthrow the government in the 1960s. But since then, the armed groups have been drawn into kidnapping and the illegal drugs trade - producing nearly 80% of the world's cocaine.

Armed groupsThe Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (Farc) was officially formed in 1964, when it declared its intention to use armed struggle to seize power. The smaller rebel group the National Liberation Army (ELN) was founded in 1965, inspired by the Cuban revolution. The United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia (AUC) has its roots in the 1980s militias set up by drugs lords to combat rebel kidnappings and extortion. This right-wing umbrella group is backed by elements in the army.

Human cost: Civilians bear the brunt of the war. Three million have been displaced as armed groups bombard their villages, and subject them to massacres. Those forced from their homes often suffer from hunger and poor health and are denied basic social services. Indigenous groups say the war serves to hide the fact they have been driven off their land, which is endowed with natural resources like oil. Colombia is rich in resources, but it is beset by poverty and unemployment.

US role: The conflict has become intertwined with the illegal drugs trade, which finances both the Farc and the AUC. Hundreds of US soldiers are in Colombia to help the government in its war against drug-smuggling and the rebels. Since 2000, the US has funded a project called Plan Colombia. Forces receive training and equipment to root out smugglers and eliminate coca crops. Hundreds of Colombian citizens have been extradited to the US to face trial for trafficking, under a two-way deal.

B. Compound WordsThey can be defined as words that have two parts or as the union of two or more words to make a new word. The two parts may be written in a number of ways:

1. As one word.-closed form

Example: Policeman, boyfriend, workforce, nationwide, marketplace, database, goodwill, storyteller, webpage, workwoman.

2. As two words joined with a hyphen. ---hyphenated form

Example: Dining-table, Self-Service, Follow-Up, Know-How, Life-Size, Work-Flow, two- way street, Deep-Blue.

3. As two separate words.—opened formExample: Fish tank,Health Care, Voice Mail, Waiting Room, Word Processing, Vice President, Global Warming, Greenhouse Effect. ---------More Examples: breakdown, drive-in, drop-out, feedback, hangover, outlet, makeup, breakfast, windbreaker, nearby, whoever, bedroom, upstairs, jumpsuit, girlfriend, filmmaking, rundown, somehow, downstairs, bathroom.

C. Word FamiliesWord families are the different derivations of a stem.The different members of a word family never change their stems, what changes are the affixes. For example:Industry---------------------- NOUNIndustrial---------------------ADJECTIndustrialize.----------------VERBIndustrialization------------NOUNIndustrialized--------------ADJECTIVE

Environment------------------NOUN Environmental----------------ADJ

Environmentally---------------ADVERB

Reforest-------------VERBReforestation---------NOUNReforestated------ADJECTIVE

Contaminate-------------VERBContamination-----------NOUN

Contaminated-------ADJECTIVEPollute-----------------VERBPollution--------------NOUNPolluted------------ADJECTIVEUnpolluted---------ADJECTIVE

Add-------------------------VERB

Added---------------------ADJETIVEAddition-------------------NOUN

Additional----------------ADJECTIVEAdditionally--------------ADVERB

Employ----VERB /Employer---NOUN /Employee---NOUN/Employment----- NOUNUnemployed---ADJECTIVE. Source: http://www.wilbers.com/part24.htm

TEXT: TECHNOLOGY: PROS AND CONS

When we speak of technology today, we normally mean industrial technology. This was born around 200 years ago with the coming of the steam engine, factories, and the mass production of goods. In our time a new technology has been added to it, we call it information technology.Industrial technology has given us some real benefits: 1. Increased production: in the 1800s one farmer produced enough food for about four people. But now, after the introduction of machinery and fertilizers, one farmer can produce enough food for about one hundred people.2. Less Labor. In the early 1800s workers labored for 12-16 hours a day, six days a week. Technology has given us more leisure time so that factory workers labor for just 8 hours a day 5 days a week. Today, we even have paid holidays 3. Easier labor. In the early 1900's, mining used the pick and shovel, now. Mining is still dangerous, but machines perform most of the hard labor.4. Higher standards of living. The industrial nations produce more goods and services than other countries and have better standards of living and life expectancy. There's no denying some of the positives technology has brought us. But the advance of technology has other undesirable effects. 1. Environmental pollution. Most industrial countries face major problems with air, water, soil and noise pollution. Motor vehicles, insecticides, factory smoke and industrial waste all contribute to the problem disfiguring the environment.2. Reduction of natural resources. Supplies of natural resources have come under threat with the rise of production. Power production increased so much during 1950 and 1960 that some countries began to experience fuel and power shortages during 1976.3. Unemployment. Automation has helped many industries expand and offer new jobs for workers. At the same time because of technology, machines have taken many jobs away.4. Unsatisfying jobs. Some of the work provided by industrial technology simply pays workers without giving them a sense of accomplishment. For example, most factory workers make only made parts of the finished product, not the whole. They cannot take the same pride in the finished product. Constantly working at the same task or on the same machine can become monotonous as well as demanding. 5.A sense of alienation: The word alienation means a sense of powerlessness and estrangement. Sometimes when we feel overwhelmed by the changes around us, this produces feelings of apathy and of being cut off from others around us. I believe that what some older people call apathy in the younger generations, is really just resignation: "Well, I can't make any difference. What can I do?" We don't have any problem with the system. We just can't figure out where we fit in it!".

Relative Clauses

We use relative clauses to give additional information about something without starting another sentence. By combining sentences with a relative clause, your text becomes more fluent and you can avoid repeating certain words.RelativePronouns

RELATIVE PRONOUN USE EXAMPLE

WHO Subject or object pronoun for people I talked to the girl/the girl won----I talked to the girl who won

Do you know about the woman who lives next door?WHICH Subject or object pronoun for animals and

things Do you see the cat which is lying on the roof? Ken sent the card/the card was nice

----The card which Kent sent was niceWHOSE Possession for people animals and things Susan is the woman/her husband is an actor

----Susan is a woman whose husband is an actor He man didn´t apologize/his dog bite me

---The man whose dog bite me didn´t apologize Do you know the boy whose mother is a nurse?

WHOM Object pronoun for people, especially in non-defining relative clauses (in defining relative clauses we colloquially prefer who)

The professor invited me/ I met him at the conference----I was invited by the professor whom I met at the

conference.

THAT Subject or object pronoun for people, animals and things in defining relative clauses (who or which are also possible)

I saw the man/the man was very rude------The man that I saw was very rude

I don’t like the tablethat stands in the kitchen

Relative Adverbs: A relative adverb can be used instead of a relative pronoun plus preposition. This often makes the sentence easier to understand.Ex: This is the shop in which I bought my bike.→ This is the shop where I bought my bike.

Examples of Relative Clauses Definitions

1. A library is a building where you can borrow books.2. A butterfly is an insect which has colorful wings. 3. A waiter is a man who serves drinks and food in a restaurant. 4. A night is the time of a day when it is dark outside.

Exercise: Write 4 Definitions for these words:

1. Student:__________________________________________________________________2. House:___________________________________________________________________3. Family:___________________________________________________________________4. Summer:_________________________________________________________________

Reading: San FranciscoThe area had long been inhabited by native Americans, the Ohlone (meaning “people of the west”) before the first Spanish immigrants came to settle in this part of the country. After the Mexican-American War, the small town became American territory, and when the California gold rush started in 1848, the population increased enormously. Nowadays San Francisco is famous especially for its cable car and the Golden Gate Bridge.

Golden Gate BridgeThe Golden Gate Bridge connects the city of San Francisco and San Francisco Peninsula. It spans the Golden Gate, a strait between the Pacific Ocean and the San Francisco Bay–that’s where the name Golden Gate Bridge comes from.Constructions on the bridge began in 1933 and were completed in 1937. The bridge rises 230 m above the water. With its total length of 1970 meters it was the longest suspension bridge in the world until 1964. The bridge is part of the United States Highway 101, has six lanes and a footpath on each side.

I .Exercise on Relative Clauses:(Relative clauses are formed with, who or that. We use »who« for people and »that« for animals, things or events.)

Read the text again and complete the sentences choosing options from a to e according to the text.

1. San Francisco was inhabited by the Ohlone . ______________________________________________________________________________

2. In the 19th century there were many people in San Francisco . ______________________________________________________________________________

3. There is a bridge . _______________________________________________________________

4. The bridge is used by people. ______________________________________________________________________________

5. There is a strait called Golden Gate. ______________________________________________________________________________

Possible Answers:a.Who drive on the United States Highway 101. b. Who are a native American tribe.c. That connects San Francisco and San Francisco Peninsula. d. Who wanted to find gold. That gave the famous bridge its name.

a person who stea

that gave the famou

who wanted fo find

that connects San F

who drive on the Un

that connects San F

-Ing Suffix

The –ing form can be used like a noun, like an adjective or like a verb. Smoking is forbidden. I have a long working day. I don't like dancing.When it is used like a noun it may or may not have an article before it. Marketing is a very inexact science. The marketing of the product will continue for a few months yet.It can also be part of a 'noun phrase'. Speaking to an audience is always stressful. Swimming after work is very relaxing.As an adjective, the –ing form can be used before a noun. I was met by a welcoming party at the airport. Let's go to the meeting room.The –ing form is used after prepositions. Before leaving, you need to speak to Sarah. After discussing it with her, I've changed my mind.

Text: What is Social Networking?

Social Networking. . . It's the way the 21st century communicates today. It is the grouping of individuals into specific groups, like small rural communities or a neighborhood. Although social networking is possible in person, especially in the workplace, universities, and high schools, it is most popular online. This is because unlike most high schools, colleges, or workplaces, the internet is filled with millions of individuals who are looking to meet other people, to share information and experiences about topics like golfing, gardening, aesthetics and cosmetic surgery, developing friendships or professional alliances, finding employment, business-to-business marketing, etc. The topics and interests are as varied and rich as the story of our world.

When it comes to online social networking, websites are commonly used. These websites are known as social sites. Social networking websites function like an online community of internet users. Depending on the website in question, many of these online community members share common interests in hobbies, religion, or politics. Once you are granted access to a social networking website you can begin to socialize. This socialization may include reading the profile pages of other members and possibly even contacting them.

Social Networking is a nice form of entertainment that can be a very effective business technique for entrepreneurs, writers, actors, musicians or artists. It is also great for meeting people with similar interests. Most of us have hobbies, or things which we are keenly interested in such as books, television, video games or movies. Social networks allow us to reach out to others that have the same interests.

For example, if you like movies, Flixster can help you decide if you might like a new movie just out at the theaters. If you like music, Last.FM can help you find new artists that are similar to your favorite bands.

The friends who you can make are just one of the many benefits to social networking online. Another one of those benefits includes diversity because the internet gives individuals from all around the world access to social networking sites. This means that although you are in the United States, you could develop an online friendship with someone in Denmark or India. Not only will you make new friends, but you just might learn a thing or two about new cultures or new languages and learning is always a good thing.

As I'm sure you're aware, there are dangers associated with social networking including data theft and viruses, which are on the rise. The most prevalent danger though often involves online predators or individuals who claim to be someone that they are not. Although danger does exist with networking online, it also exists with networking out in the real world,

too. Just like you're advised when meeting strangers at clubs and bars, school, or work -- you are also advised to proceed with caution online. You should be very careful by being aware of your cyber-surroundings and who you are talking to. You should be able to safely enjoy social networking online. Just use common sense and listen to your inner voice; it will tell you when something doesn't feel right about the online conversations taking place.

Once you are well informed and comfortable with your findings, you can begin your search from hundreds of networking communities to join. This can easily be done by performing a standard internet search. Your search in many sites such as MySpace, FriendWise, Yahoo! 360, Facebook, Twitter, Messenger and Classmates.

Text: What is Social Networking? Questions. On Reading strategies1. What is the purpose of the author? Circle the correct option.

To provide solutions to a problem. To give an opinion based on the analysis of the topic. To report about a current news. To define and describe a topic.

Summarize the information of the text in the following table. What is a social networking?

(In your words)Where is possible?

(contexts)Benefits Dangers

3. What is your opinion about social Networking?.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

II. On Reading Skills4. Write the grammatical category for the –ing words in bold. (See paragraph I). a. Social Networking. . . It's the way… _________________ b. It is the grouping of individuals into…. _________________c. …individuals who are looking to … _________________ d. ...like golfing, gardening, aesthetics and cosmetic surgery, developing friendships… _______________ _________________ _______________e. …alliances, finding employment, business-to-business marketing, etc

Logical ConnectorsConnecting expressions (commonly referred as transition words, connectives or simply connectors) are classified into groups according to the logical connection they introduce between different ideas within the text. The connectors indicate what kind of relationship exists between these ideas: contrast, addition, purpose, etc.Understanding these expressions will be very helpful to understand semantic relationships in the reading and locate specific answers for the comprehension questions.Some of them are very common in written English, some others, though important, are rarely common. Likewise, some connectors may have the same form but express different relation. In any case, the function of any connector depends on the context of the reading.

CONNECTORSCONTRASTHowever, but, neverthelessAlthough, while, even though, whereasYet, in contrast, though, on the other handInstead of, on the contrary, in spite of, despite of,TIME SEQUENCEFirst (ly) , in/at the beginning, eventuallyThen, next, later, afterwards, at lastAfter, at the end, the former, the latter, Since , from, finally, the following To begin with, the later, ultimately, subsequentlyPURPOSE NEGATION ALTERNATIVE For + (Verb. + in) neither...nor Orto not eitherin order to in no wayfor not at allCONTINUATION ADDITIONand so on and, besides, too, moreover, what is more,etc. In addition, and so forth, furthermore, further. alsoCONDITION CONCLUSIONunless in summary, to summarize, to conclude.if in other wordswhether in briefin the case that in resumeallowing that in point of factEXEMPLIFICATION EXPLANATION MEANS OR MANNER CAUSE & EFFECTFor example, to illustrate, that means that is, By Means of, Because Of ,In View Of Therefore, Hence, Due To, like , to exemplify, that is,in other words, Through, Consequently ,Because, for instance,e.g., i.e., By, (Before a noun) Since, For This Reason, such as By + (Verb) + ing,

SIMULTANEITY COMPARISON As a Result, As a Consequence,at the same time just as, while, as like, Indeed, Thus, So,in the meantime as ___ as ,

Activity 1: Read the following texts and analyze the connectors. Fill in the table below:Connectors Function Related ideas

Text A. TRAVELING BY A BOAT1. Traveling by a boat is rather old-fashioned. However, it has certain advantages. To begin with, boats are usually more comfortable than planes or cars. Instead of staying in your seat the whole journey, you can go for a walk on the deck, eat in a restaurant, or even go shopping. Having more space to move around makes a long journey much more pleasant. Furthermore, boats are often cheaper than other forms of travel. For example, a boat ticket usually costs less than a plane ticket. Finally, boats are a safer alternative to cars and planes. There are fewer accidents at sea than in the air or on the roads.

Text B. TV VIOLENCE2. Parents can protect children from too much TV violence in the following ways: First of all, they should be careful about the programs their children are watching. For example, they can watch some of the programs with them. Second, they can set limits on the amount of time their children spend in front of the television. Moreover, sometimes characters in movies get hurt or killed. Parents should point out that this does not always reflect reality. Furthermore, they should not let the children see violent shows, and change the channel or turn

off the TV set when something unpleasant comes on. Finally, it is better to explain what is wrong and what is right about the programs the children watch.

TEXT: Bullying at the UniversityViolence occurs in University when someone is subjected to degrading behaviour, ranging from verbal abuse or threats to physical violence. It includes threats, bullying, harassment, and coerced participation in initiation rites, and can constitute violence even if the perpetrator considers the action to be "only a joke".Bullying is not gender-specific. It is prevalent and costly. Victims suffer personal and emotional costs. If violence complaints are taken to court, the financial consequences can be severe, and the cost high to the reputation of the University and of the University. Bullying and harassment in halls of residence and University can result in poor performance, withdrawal from courses and from the University, injuries, requests for compensation and harm to the University's reputation.The most common types of violence at the University are verbal abuse, bullying, and conduct that is degrading, insulting or intimidating, and professional or social ostracism. Physical or mental injury can result, sometimes with tragic consequences.Violence in the educational environment is about power that is misused. Perpetrators of violence assert their authority over the victim in an unacceptable way, or they use the victim to relieve their frustrations. If the perpetrator believes that punishment for their behaviour is unlikely, the violence is likely to continue.Increases in the rates of sickness, reductions in level of performance, and sudden, unexplained withdrawals from courses may be signs of bullying, harassment or violence at University. Much of this behaviour goes unreported and those in authority need to be aware that a code of silence may prevail.Tutors and people in authority should make it clear that any breach of the University's policies against bullying and harassment, or any evidence of violence may result in disciplinary procedures. There must be no hesitation in using the University's Grievance Procedures when harassment, bullying or violence occurs.Five principles apply to incidents of violence:

1.  1. Take seriously every violent incident.2.  2. Investigate what happened.3.  3. Major or grave incidents must be reported to the police.4.  4. Incidents must be reported within the University.5.  5. Parties to incidents need to be debriefed in all but the most trivial cases.

In the consideration of any accusation of bullying or harassment, natural justice and due process must prevail. The accused person has the right to know what they were accused of, and by whom. They have the right to respond to allegations and accusations. They have the right to expect that any decisions pertaining to the case will be undertaken by an unbiased person.Authorities must be aware of the culture of silence, and the effects of personal feelings such as embarrassment, anger, frustration and fear.If you would like to discuss any aspect of harassment, please contact one of James Cook University (JCU) trained Discrimination Advisers. If you wish to arrange awareness training for your staff or if you would like copies of any of the JCU suite of Equal Opportunity publications please contact Manager, Equal Opportunity.

The ParagraphsThe information presented in the text is organized in Paragraphs. A paragraph is a “unit of thought” which contains a group of related sentences developing one central idea. Paragraphs facilitate the reading of long texts by combining sentences and developing one central idea at the time. Each paragraph shows the introduction of a new idea. A paragraph to be effective has two parts: **1. MAIN IDEA: expressed in a sentence. It is usually presented at the beginning of the paragraph but in some cases could be in a different place or be implicit. -- Idea principal—The Main Idea: The main idea of a passage or reading is the central thought or message. In contrast to the term topic, which refers to the subject under discussion, the term main idea refers to the point or thought being expressed. The difference between a topic and a main idea will become clearer to you if you imagine yourself overhearing a conversation in which your name is repeatedly mentioned. When you ask your friends what they were discussing, they say they were talking about you. At that point, you have the topic but not the main idea. Undoubtedly, you wouldn’t be satisfied until you know what your friends were saying about this particular you. That is, the main idea .Exactly what they were saying about your personality, appearance, or behavior you would probably worry until you knew, the same principle applies to reading. The topic is concrete. You also need to discover the main idea. **2. SUPPORTING IDEAS: Express more information, details and additional explanations that develop the main idea.----Ideas secundarias---Paragraphs have two important features: UNITY: Means that all the information contribute to develop the same idea, and COHERENCE: Means the logical connection of sentences that provides consistency to the whole text.Example: Paragraph #1All computers, whether large or small, have the same basic capabilities.1They have circuits for performing arithmetic operations.They all have a way of communicating with person(s) using them. They also have circuits for making decisions.

Analysis: MAIN IDEA: 1All Computers, whether large or small, have the same basic capabilities . TOPIC: (Computers) WHAT IS SAID ABOUT THE TOPIC: (large, small, basic capabilities)SUPPORTING IDEAS: --They have circuits for performing arithmetic operations.+ Info, details -- They all have a way of communicating with person(s) using them. -- They also have circuits for making decisions.Topic: Exercises on The main idea- The supporting ideas. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Rhetorical FunctionsThe term "rhetorical" derives from the Greek word "rhetor," which means "public speaker" or "spokesman," and has come to signify the art and skill of speaking and writing persuasively. Both writing and speaking, a rhetorical function is the way the writer explains his ideas and try to simplify things to help the readers or audience better understand the matter examined.

Rhetorical Functions: A. Definitions

Scientists use of Definitions when they try to explain reality. Definitions help them to discriminate and characterize all kinds of phenomena. (In other words their conceptualizations).

But what is a definition? We call a definition sentence a statement that contains the minimum necessary to cover the meaning of a concept and reveal the essential nature of the thing the concept means. There are two possible ways to present a DEFINITIONA. Complete or Formal Definition: Is a complete sentence in which three purposes are clearly stated: 1. Identify the concept by name ( Concept)2. Divide it in a group or order (Class)3. Expose its specific differentia (Characteristics ).The definition has this structure:

1. Concept = 2. Class + 3. Characteristics

B.Incomplete Definiton: Is a definition in which only one or two purposes concept-group or concept- characteristics) are stated in the definition sentence (which is also short) the other(s) should be found in the text, are implicit or we have to deduce them. Note. The order in which these elements appear may vary according to the text.MARKERS: Are verbal forms used in definitions: is, are, are known as, refer to, is defined, is called, is named…….

EXAMPLESA. Productionis the Process of making something of value. It means bringing together materials, machinery and workers to make goods .B. The Discipline that concerns the design, development, improvement, implementation of integrated systems of people , knowledge, equipment, energy and materialis known asIndustrial Engineering.C. Recreationamuses or stimulates, it refers to the use of leisure time for personal satisfaction and enjoyment and for physical and mental health.D. The computer: is a complex device

Activity: Identify the parts of definitions in the excerpts below: Sustainable development is development that takes the impact on the environment into account and tries to minimize

environmental damage. Partnerships: A partnership is a form of business in which two or more individuals associate to make a profit. Chief Executive Officer (CEO) - The CEO is the person ultimately responsible for the success or failure of the business. He or

she provides overall strategic direction for the firm, often with the assistance of a team of vice presidents. Internet addiction disorder (IAD), or more broadly Internet overuse, problematic computer use or pathological computer use is

excessive computer use that interferes with daily life. These terms avoid the distracting and divisive term addiction and are not limited to any single cause.

Euthanasia, practice of mercifully ending a person’s life in order to release the person from an incurable disease, intolerable suffering, or undignified death. The word euthanasia derives from the Greek for “good death” and originally referred to intentional mercy killing. When medical advances made prolonging the lives of dying or comatose patients possible, the term euthanasia was also applied to a lack of action to prevent death.

Rhetorical Functions: B. Descriptions

Descriptions are used in science texts for representing and giving an explanation of living things, objects and substances.The objective of descriptions is to detail –AN OBJECT, A PLACE, A CONCEPT, A PROCESS, A PERSON, A STRUCTURE,A LIVING ORGANISM, A SYSTEM, AN HISTORICAL EVENT like they are.

The structure of a description is the following:

Description: What is described? + characteristics

EXAMPLES:READ AND SAY WHAT ARE THE PARTS OF THESE DESCRIPTIONS.

1. CALI is located in the southwest of Colombia, in Valle del Cauca. This is an important agricultural region of the country. Cali is the third city of the nation, with approximately 2 and a half million of inhabitants of different backgrounds and ethnic compositions, famous for being the land of salsa and sports.

2. GPS has become a vital global utility, indispensable for modern navigation on land, sea and air around the world, as well as an important tool for map-making and land surveying.

3. MILK PROCESSING milk is first received at the milk plant where is weighed and sampled. Then, the milk flows to a clarifier whose purpose is to remove foreign material or sediment,next, the milk may be homogenized to prevent cream formation. After that, milk is pasteurized to destroy bacteria. Finally, the m ilk is cooled to 50çf and is ready to distribution.

ALERT: Here, The connectors in bold help us to identify the different stages of the process described by the author.

4. Gregory: Gregory is my beautiful gray Persian cat. He walks with pride and grace, performing a dance of disdain as he slowly lifts and lowers each paw with the delicacy of a ballet dancer. His pride, however, does not extend to his appearance, for he spends most of his time indoors watching television and growing fat. He enjoys TV commercials, especially those for Meow Mix and 9 Lives. His familiarity with cat food commercials has led him to reject generic brands of cat food in favor of only the most expensive brands. Gregory is as finicky about visitors as he is about what he eats, befriending some and repelling others. He may snuggle up against your ankle, begging to be petted, or he may imitate a skunk and stain your favorite trousers. Gregory does not do this to establish his territory, as many cat experts think, but to humiliate me because he is jealous of my friends. After my guests have fled, I look at the old fleabag snoozing and smiling to himself in front of the television set, and I have to forgive him for his obnoxious, but endearing, habits.

Text: Globalizing Cultures: The Question of Cultural Diversity McDonaldization

 Thanks to technology, social and economic productive capacity has increased tremendously. This means that Western societies and increasingly non-western ones as well, have access to an enormous variety of consumer goods. George Ritzer (2000) coined the concept of McDonaldization to capture the changes in modes of production based the fast-food industry and increasingly extended to other sectors of production as well. McDonaldization involves four processes. Characteristics of McDonaldizationEfficiency To find the cheapest, quickest and simplest way to produce goods, such as burgers, shirts.

Calculability To focus on quantity rather than quality by producing as many goods as possible in the shortest possible time. Fast-food restaurants deliver food within minutes. This is also accomplished through the use of technology.

Control To use technology and structure to control both employees (surveillance and timing of operations) and consumers (to shorten eating time inside a fast-food restaurant)

Preditability To ensure that products are standardized and similar irrespective of location. Customers can expect similar-tasting food no matter where they buy their burgers.

 Generally, Ritzer’sMcDonaldization implies the extreme rationalization of production and a dehumanization of employees and customers as both categories are locked into efficient production processes over which they have no control but that do control them. McDonaldization can only produce standardized goods that flood our markets and promote homogeneity. However, the impact of homogenization is only fully felt if there is corresponding mass consumption of such standardized items.  McDonaldization applies to production processes. Where McDonaldization produces homogeneity and sameness.McDonaldization function hand in hand in that the creation of supposedly diverse cultural experience is based on behind the scene production that tends to be McDonaldized.  Ritzer (2004) defines “nothing” as social forms that are centrally conceived and controlled and that lack distinctive content, such as fast food restaurants and shopping malls. “Something”, are the cultural products that are locally conceived and controlled and are rich in distinctive content and provide genuine cultural experiences. Ritzer’s main point is that globalization is both a product of the mass production and consumption of “nothing” and makes such production easier and more widespread. Today, we are more and more surrounded by “nothing” and have less and less access to “something” as a result of globalization.Source: https://globalsociology.pbworks.com/w/page/14711190/Globalizing%20Cultures%3A%20The%20Question%20of%20Cultural%20Diversity.

TEXT: Slaughterhouses and processingThe drastic expansion of industrial animal production in the US has been accompanied by the rapid consolidation of the meat industry. This industry is now dominated by a handful of huge corporations that process most of the country's meat at enormous facilities, and consolidation continues to increase. As of 2005, four companies controlled the processing of over 80% of the country's beef and three of these same four companies (along with an additional fourth) process over 60% of the country's pork. Additionally, the four major companies in broiler chicken processing provide over half of the country's chicken supply. It is the same situation for turkey meat. In 1996, 79 percent of cattle slaughters (approximately 22.6 million) occurred at only 22 plants. As a result of this concentration, meat

packing companies have become increasingly powerful, while the government bodies that regulate them have done little to keep them in line. When animals are slaughtered and processed (the meat is cut up and packaged), several dangerous elements come into play. The first is the presence of fecal matter from slaughtered animals, which can contaminate meat with high levels of bacteria such as E. coli. Other sanitation lapses can also contaminate food, as can other animal diseases like salmonella and campylobacter. Another food safety hazard is the risk from mad cow disease (a key step to preventing humans from contracting the disease is the proper removal of risky nervous system materials from the beef supply). And in addition to these food safety risks, the use of hazardous machinery and sharp knives can injure workers when mistakes are made. Food SafetyFederal health authorities have estimated that foodborne diseases sicken 76 million people, cause 325,000 hospitalizations, and kill 5,000 Americans every year. Likewise, a number of studies have confirmed the presence of harmful bacteria in meat in the US. After collecting ground beef samples from meat processing plants around the country in 1996, the USDA determined that 7.5% of the beef samples were contaminated with Salmonella, 11.7% were contaminated with Listeria monocytogenes, 30% were contaminated with Staphylococcus Aureus, and 53.3% were contaminated with Clostridium perfringens.These unacceptable levels of contamination are caused by the filthy conditions in which conventional food animals are raised, as well as the high speed at which meat is processed. In order to maximize profits, meat processors have continually increased the speed of their production lines. Twenty years ago, meatpacking plants slaughtered about 175 cattle an hour, but, due to increased line speeds, today plants can slaughter as many as 400 cattle per hour.The US continues to experience periodic outbreaks of foodborne illness and large recalls of contaminated meat. In 2002, ConAgra was forced to recall 19 million pounds of beef produced at its Greeley, Colorado, processing facility after meat contaminated with E. coli killed a woman and sickened 35 others. By the time the meat was recalled, about 80% of it had already been consumed. Out of all foods, ground beef is the leading source of E. coli infections in the US.The USDA cannot shut down a plant that does not meet sanitation requirements and as a result there are often lengthy delays between the discovery of unsanitary processing plants and action taken to improve their conditions. Worker SafetyMeat processing facilities are known to pose significant threats to worker safety. In 1996, meat packing workers were listed as having the highest rate of repeat-trauma disorders (like carpal tunnel syndrome, which develops over long periods of time), making meat packing the most dangerous job in the country in terms of non-fatal injuries. Common ailments among slaughterhouse workers include back problems, torn muscles and pinched nerves, as well as more dramatic injuries such as broken bones, deep cuts and amputated fingers and limbs.Although meat processing is a difficult and dangerous occupation, precautions can be taken to minimize the threats to worker safety. Among the most important safeguards is to set reasonably-paced production line speeds so that workers are able to process meat without putting themselves or their coworkers at risk of injury. However, in order to maximize profits, meat processing companies continue to maintain unreasonably fast line speeds, thereby jeopardizing the safety of both workers and the food supply.Time for ChangeGiven the high incidence of worker injury, the recurrence of sanitary violations at meat processing facilities, and continual outbreaks of food-borne illnesses caused by contaminated meat, it is clear that the U.S. meat processing industry is in dire need of reform. Production line speeds should be slowed to a pace at which workers can perform their duties safely and food safety standards can be guaranteed. Government oversight of food safety standards must also be improved. In order to protect public health, the USDA should conduct more rigorous inspections at meat processing facilities and should have the authority to order recalls of contaminated meat as well as the power to shut down plants that fail to meet food safety standards.Source: http://www.sustainabletable.org/issues/processing/

Rhetorical Functions: D. Classifications

When we classify, we arrange members of a group. For example, if we take the following list:Physics, Chemistry, Biology, French, German, Spanish.It is quite clear that we have two different types of word. We have science subjects and languages. So it is simple to divide the list into two:

Physics, Chemistry, Biology, AND French, German, Spanish

When we are classifying, we often need to say what our classification is and how we are making it. Parts of Classifications : 1. CLASS: WHERE THE ITEMS BELONG2. ITEMS: WHAT ARE CLASSIFIED3. CRITERIA: THE BASIS FOR THE CLASSIFICATIONSExample: Read the following text.

Lavas may be divided into two contrasting types, acid and basic. Acid or siliceous lavas have a high silica content, about 70 to 75 per cent, and are stiff or viscous. They move slowly over the surface and solidify close to the vent. Basic lavas have a silica content of about 50 per cent. Dark colored and fluid, they flow more easily at lower temperatures and reach a greater distance from the crater than do acid lavas.This earth of ours, p. 3 .

What is the text classifying? Lavas.1. CLASS How many types are there? 2 (Two)Acid and basic. 2. ITEMS. How do we make the distinction? The amount of silica present. 3.CRITERIA

MARKERS OF CLASSIFICATION Can be divided into… Is/ are classified… Is made up of… Comprises.. Consist of.. Is composed of.. Make up.. Can be categorized in…

Source: http://www.uefap.com/writing/function/function.htm

Activity: Read the text and make a tree diagram to represent the classification.

TEXT: TYPES OF BUSSINESS ORGANIZATIONS A private business may be owned in two different forms. The unlimited liability companies and the limited liability companies. In the unlimited liability companies, the owners are responsible of all the debts and legal responsibilities of the company. Some examples of this type of companies are The sole proprietorship and The partnerships. On the other hand, in the limited liability companies the owners are only responsible of the sum of money (capital) they put in the business. These companies are called Private limited company (LTD) and Public limited company.**********VocabularyThe unlimited liability companies: Sociedades de responsabilidad Llimitadathe limited liability companies: Sociedades de responsabilidad Limitadasole proprietorship: Empresa unipersonalthepartnerships:Sociedad colectiva o civilprívate limited company (LTD): Sociedad Limitadapublic limited companyolistedcompany: Sociedad anónima

TEXT: Types of Food

In order to understand how we can enjoy greater health and wellbeing, we need to understand something about food. There are four essential groups of food. For health and wellbeing we require food from all the groups. The purpose of this page is to stress that ALL four groups of food are essential to health and wellbeing. Even though we may be encouraged to eat less fat, this page stresses that the body requires at least some food from each of the groups every day. Many foods contain more than one group of food, and milk contains all groups of food. Food is often classified as: Carbohydrate, including Fibre ,Protein ,Fat and Vitamins and Minerals .Carbohydrates: are substances that contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They are used in the body to produce energy. They include sugars and starches. Carbohydrates are usually obtained from plant sources. They are broken down in the body to form glucose, and any that is not immediately required in stored in the liver and muscles as glycogen. Plants use carbohydrates to build structures and store any excess as starch, whereas, animals use protein.to build structures and store any excess as fat. Carbohydrates are mainly used by the body to produce energy. Where there is a lack of energy, we might think of carbohydrates. The energy in the body is used for external activities (behavior), such as work, sport, leisure - that is any movement of the body and Internal activities including breathing, pumping blood, digestion and the activities of the immune system. None-digestible carbohydrate (Fiber): Fiber, or roughage, refers to the non-digestible carbohydrates in vegetables and to a lesser extent in fruit. Fiber may actually be 'fibrous', as in celery, or may be a powder, or, when mixed with water in the intestines, a jelly. Fiber provides: Bulk, lubrication, and nutrition for friendly bacteria in the colon. In addition, friendly bacteria in the colon feed on fiber and they are therefore nourished by it. By helping these friendly bacteria, we enable them to help us to digest food. Also, by giving them support, they are more able to exclude other, less friendly bacteria, from our colons. Fiber is, therefore, necessary for a healthy and efficient digestive system. Proteins: are composed, like carbohydrates, of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, but with nitrogen. They may also contain sculpture and phosphorus. They are complex molecules composed of amino acids. Proteins are used by the body to: enable growth, development and repair, build structures such as muscles, tissues and organs, including the heart, lungs, digestive organs, enzymes, such as those required for digestion and hormones, such as those for the endocrine glands. Proteins, therefore, are needed not only for obvious body structures, such as muscles, but also for the immune and digestive systems, etc. Complete proteins are obtained from meat, fish and dairy products including eggs. Proteins can also be obtained from certain combinations of foods, for example, cereals and beans. Fats and oils: are substances that are not soluble in water. They are composed of fatty acids and glycerol. Fats are also called lipids. Sources of fat include animal meat, fish, and vegetable oils. Fats are used by the body: In every cell structure, especially to build nerves and brain. The brain is 40% fat, to insulate the body, to produce sex hormones and adrenal cortex hormone, to produce cholesterol (essential for cell membranes and bile salts, for example),to absorb certain vitamins (A, D, E, and K) and to store energy. Fats have got themselves a bad name in recent times, yet they are an essential food. That is, the body requires its intake of fat every day for health and, especially, well-being. Like the other groups of food, when the body does not get the fat it needs, then illness results.

Vitamins and Minerals: are substances that are required in the diet for health and wellbeing. They are often grouped as fat-soluble or water-soluble. Fat-soluble vitamins are vitamins A, D, E and K. Water-soluble vitamins include vitamins C and B.Vitamins and minerals occur in a variety of foods. That is, by eating a variety of foods, you can get the necessary vitamins and minerals you need for health. Deficiencies and excesses in any of these groups of foods produce illness and lowered wellbeing. Western diets are especially deficient in the minerals calcium and iron and in the Omega 3 fatty acids. Source:http://www.trans4mind.com/personal_development/nutrition/typesOfFood.htm

Rhetorical Functions: E. Exemplifications

Exemplification is a common linguistic device used in academic discourse. It is used in paragraphs to provide instances that clarify or specify the topic. When presenting and argument we often give a general statement, which is then illustrated, supported or clarified with an example. This rhetorical Function often appears in the texts with some others like classification, definition and description.

Parts of Exemplifications

1. A GENERAL STATEMENT: sentence that expresses the argument.2. A MARKER: That is an expression or connector. 3. AN EXAMPLE: The concrete illustration. Look for transitional expressions—MARKERS--- that indicate illustration: * For instance , * Another instance of , * For example , * Another example of , *Like, *Such as, *i.e. ,* To illustrate , *Another illustration of , *A case in point is , * Here are a few examples , * Some instances, * One such in particular,* Yet,*Another, * One illustration …etc.Example: 1. At Universidad Nacional, there are many kinds of students from different regions of Colombia. 2. For example, there are students from Guajira, Bolivar, Cundinamarca , Nariño and Caldas among others.Analyze the following paragraph and find the elements of exemplificationVitamins and minerals can be added to enrich (replace nutrients lost in processing) or fortify (add nutrients not normally present) foods to improve their nutritional quality. Breads and cereals are usually enriched with some B vitamins and iron. Common examples of fortification include the addition of vitamin D to milk, vitamin A to margarine, vitamin C to fruit drinks, calcium to orange juice, and iodide to table salt. --P. Insel and W. Roth, Core Concepts in Health.

Summary*What is exemplification? :The method of development in which the writer uses a series of examples to support a point. To make a general statement more understandable, more clear, and/or more convincing.*How long is it? : It can be a few sentences, paragraphs, or several pages long. *What is required in order for an illustration to be acceptable? : The example must be relevant and representative. * Why do writers use exemplification? To Create interest, *Clarify ideas , *Convince .

ACTIVITYLook at the way examples are given in the following texts. Analyze their parts.

-Podcast, the digital media file, or a series of files that is distributed over the Internet for playback on portable media players such as (MP3), ipods and personal computers. --Multinational firms are more innovative than domestic firms. This can only be partly explained by multinationals’ greater investments in R&D. A more important reason for their being more innovative is their higher propensity to learn from sources like suppliers, customers, and universities.--The quiet outpouring of lava is characteristic of basaltic lavas with about 50 per cent silica. The Hawaiian volcanoes are typical examples. On the island of Hawaii, Mauna Loa rises 13, 675 feet above sea level and 20 miles away is Kilauea 4,000 feet high.

--Though the authorities do not seem to have been aware of the scale and significance of capital flows within the sterling area, they were aware that the exchange controls in that area were not all that London hoped. For example, a major recipient of capital from the UK in this period, Australia, had notoriously "leaky" controls.--Morgan was not interested in the terms for themselves but in the principles which they seemed to reveal when they were put together. For example, he would have been interested in the fact that the English word "uncle" can be used in speaking both of one's mother's brother and one's father's brother while in Swedish, for instance, two different words are used.

Review on Rhetorical FunctionsEXERCISE: Read the following paragraphs and identify the Rhetorical Function. Justify your answer.

Using milk from different mammals has an effect on the final quality of the cheese. For example, sheep's milk contains high total solids and thus makes the cheese harder.

Management is the process of getting activities completed efficiently and effectively with and through other people.

Eruptions of volcanoes may be divided into three main types: The explosive type, in which rock fragments are thrown out with explosive violence; The quiet type, in which hot liquid rock quietly flows on the surface; The intermediate type, in which eruptions are at times violent There are numerous geometric shapes used in mathematics. The most common are listed below.

It all starts when a company wants to raise money to invest in something they think will be profitable such as a new manufacturing process more production capacity or a new product.  The company can do this a number of ways but the two most popular are to borrow the money or sell part of the company.  Borrowing the money is usually done by issuing a "bond" which is a promise to repay the borrowed money with interest.

Of the three genera of influenza viruses that cause human flu, two also cause influenza in pigs, with Influenzavirus A being common in pigs and Influenzavirus C being rare. Influenzavirus B has not been reported in pigs.

CEO (Chief Executive Officer) is the title of a person who holds the highest position in a company or on a board. A related title is president. The title of president of a company was commonly used for years, but in the democratic sense, the people choose a president.

When you sign up with Twitter, you can use the service to post and receive messages to a network of contacts. Instead of sending a dozen e-mails or text messages, you send one message to your Twitter account, and the service distributes it to all your friends. Members use Twitter to organize impromptu gatherings, carry on a group conversation or just send a quick update to let people know what's going on.

San Andrés & Providence is one of the departments of Colombia. It consists of two island groups about 775 km (480 miles) northwest of Colombia and 220 km (140 miles) from the coast of Nicaragua, and eight outlying banks and reefs. Its capital is San Andrés.

Three Types of Executives: Efficiency begins with you and your executives. THE executives can be classified into three types. THE TUBE TYPE - uses lots of power to accomplish production and get products, is inefficient and solves problems with force, authority, intimidation and money. THE TRANSISTORIZED TYPE - uses less power than the Tube Type and is much more efficient but is out-of-date and just keeps up with the production quantity and quality necessary to move forward.

Rhetorical Functions

Active and Passive Voice

Active Voice : In sentences written in A ctive Voice , the subject performs the action expressed in the verb; the subject acts.In each example below, the subject of the sentence performs the action expressed in the verb.Examples: 1. Colombia produces coffee 2. Tom broke the window 3. They repair the bridges4. The boy kicked the ball 5. The explorers found Gold

1. DEFINITION 2. DESCRIPTION 3. CLASSIFICATION 4. EXEMPLIFICATIONPurpose:Explain the meaning of a term.

Purpose : Represent or detail (a person, term, object, place, substance)

Purpose:Group entities that share similar characteristics

Purpose : Provide instances, clarify, explain or illustrate

Elements:A) Complete Definition : 1. TERM2. CLASS3. CHARACTERISTICSB) Incomplete DefinitionB.1- Semiformal: Contains only 2 elements;1-3 0 1-2B-2-Non-formal: Is short, general, appears with a synonym term.1-3.B-3 Deduced: Intention to define, is implicit in the text, is marked by verbal forms

Elements:

1. WHAT IS DESCRIBED2.CHARACTERISTICS

Elements:1. ITEM2. CLASS3. CRITERIA

Elements:1. GENERAL

STATEMENT2. MARKER3. EXAMPLE

MARKERS:IS/ ARE/ MEANS/ IS TAKEN TO BE/ DENOTES/ IS/ CAN BE DEFINED AS/ IS KNOWN AS/ IN OTHER WORDS/ THAT IS…

MARKERS:CAN BE DIVIDED INTO/ IS DIVIDED/ IS MADE UP/ CONSIST OF/ INCLUDES/ CONSTITUTE/ IS CLASSIFIED /COMPRISES…

MARKERS:FOR EXAMPLE/ FOR INSTANCE/ LIKE/ TO ILLUSTRATE/ SUCH AS/ LIKE/ E.G./I.E…

Passive Voice ThePassive Voice of a verb is used when the subject of the verb refers to the person or thing receiving the action described by the verb.Examples:1. Coffee is produced by Colombia 2. The window was broken by Tom 3. The bridges are repaired by them

4. The ball was kicked by the boy 5. Gold was found by explorers

*In sentences written in passive voice, the agent performing the action may appear in a "by the . . ." phrase or may be omitted. **In scientific writing, passive voice is used because it allows the author to write without using personal pronouns or the names of particular researchers as the subjects of sentences However, overuse of passive voice in an essay can cause your prose to seem flat and uninteresting. This practice helps to create the appearance of an objective. P.V. : SUBJECT + VERB TO BE + VERB IN PAST PARTICIPLE + COMPLEMENT

Passive voice in the simple present and the simple past: The Simple Present of to be, and the Simple Present Indicative of the Passive Voice of the verb to show (irregular verb) are conjugated as follows: Simple Present Simple past Passive Voice of To Show passive Voice of to showI am shown I was shownyou are shown you were shownhe is shown he was shown

she is shown she was shownit is shown it was shownwe are shown we were shownthey are shown they were shown Negative statements

To form a negative statement, the word not is placed after the first auxiliary. For example: You are notshown the sights. / she is not shown the sights.You were not shown the sights./ she was not shown the sight.

I. PRACTICEa. Write the following sentences in passive voice1. The professor asks me 2.Pedro manages the store 3. I order a package 4. My friend bought these shirts. 5. Sandra and Luis wrote the answers 6. The students presented an optional exam 7.The studio filmed a movie 8. Japan sells technology.

II. Topic: THE PASSIVE VOICE

Each of the sentences below is in the PASSIVE VOICE. Write the correct form of each verb in brackets: 1. Tom was ______________ many times to stop talking in class. (tell) 2. He was ______________ by the movie. (disappoint) 3. He was ______________ by his brother to go to the beach. (convince) 4. The present was ______________ to her by her co-worker. (give) 5. The thief was ______________ by the police. (catch) 6. This book is being ______________ by all the students. (read) 7. "Jitterbug Perfume" was ______________ by Tom Robbins. (write) 8. A new shopping mall is going to be ______________ in Pasadena. (build) 9. Many mistakes were ______________ by the students. (make) 10. The meeting was ______________ in the conference room. (hold)

TEXT: GANDHI A MODEL OF NON VIOLENT ACTION

Mohandas K. Gandhi was one of the most important political activists of all time. He was born (bear) in 1869 and he died (die) in 1948. He lived (live) in Africa and India, but he __________(know) worldwide for his work. He______________(become) famous because he_______(use) nonviolent action.During Gandhi’s life, India__________ (Control) by Great Britain. Even though many Indians_____________ (want) independence, they ____________ (not give) control of their country by the British. Many different ideas__________ (discuss) about how to get independence. Some Indians ____________ (buy) Guns and___________ (fight) in bloody confrontations, but Gandhi_______________ (teach) nonviolent action.

Finally in 1947, India______________ (give) independence. Gandhi’s work______________(not finish) because the new India____________(face) with many new problems. But sadly, Gandhi_________(kill) in 1948). Gandhi´s work________(end) with his death. But his ideas and beliefs_________(remain).

III. ACTIVITY A: Read the following biography and fill the blanks with the past tense, you can use the active or the passive voice. Use the verbs in parentheses

ACTIVITY B:Now, using what you´ve learned, write about famous historical person. First, find information about his or her life, and then write. Use these questions to help you prepare.1. Who was the person? 2. when and where was the person born? 3. What was the person known for?4 .Why was she or he important? 5. What examples can you give of this person’s work or accomplishments?

IV. Topic: PASSIVE VOICE: passive voice sentences in the simple present. Everyone in the house has a task that he or she normally does. Describe what everyone does, changing each active voice sentence into a passive voice sentence: EX: John buys the food. --> The food is bought by John. 1. Thomas washes the dishes. --> The dishes __________________________ by Thomas. 2. Frank feeds the dogs. --> The dogs ________________________ by Frank. 3. Maria prepares the food. --> The food _______________________ by Maria. 4. David cleans the kitchen. --> The kitchen ____________________ by David. 5. My father pays the bills. --> The bills _______________________ by my father. 6. The gardener trims the bushes. --> The bushes ______________ by the gardener. 7. Helen sets the table. --> The table ________________________ by Helen. 8. My mother waters the plants. --> The plants ________________ by my mother. 9. Arthur does the laundry. --> The laundry ___________________________ by Arthur. 10. My uncle drives us to school. --> We _____________________ to school by my uncle

V.Topic: PASSIVE VOICE: Complete the table changing the sentences form active voice to passive voice.

DATE EVENT- ACTIVE VOICE Change the sentences to passive voice1885 John Pemberton created Coca-Cola.1963 Douglas Engelbart patented the mouse1973 Martin Cooper invented the first cell phone1976 Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak founded Apple1979 Engineers Developed the first laptop1980 Sony introduced the first Compact Disc (CD)1982 Gabriel García Márquez won the Nobel Prize2008 Panasonic launched the first plasma T.V.