pg. n/a

J

'r " '~ "-

\ li'

J

l'

.s

~

-- .

/

/

/

SHORT TITLE:

>,

-THE PONDOK-PESANTREN

..

1 ..

..

/

/

,"

• « 1 '.,- (

o •

, 1 , -'

...()

()

• THE PONDOK-PESANTREN: AN ACCOUNT OF ITS DEVÊLOPMENT •

I~ INDEPENDENT INDONESIA (1965 73! ~ , ,

0-,_1 . .,

." ,. j)y

\ ..

" <;pO ... ABDUL HAFIZH e~SUKI

.. A Thesis ~

~r~sente~o tue' Facu1ty ~f Graduate Studies

and Researeh, MeGi11 University, Montreal, .. - 0 • in part~à1 fu1fi1ment of the require-

merlts ' for thé deg~ee of Master

J of Arts in Islami'e Stud-les' , , , J

C>, , •

"---'\ -t, • . .

r. .;

MeGILL UNIVERSITY - •

~ MONTREAL

1974 »

. oC .' .... 1

~ r 1 ., ..

• •. t ~

4\ ~ ~

;

" . ~ .

,

écî Abdul Hafizh Dasuki 1 1975

•

•

l '

•

, .

) " .é.BSTRACT ri

" , 1

Author: , l"~ Abdul Haf ~zh Dasuki

~Title:

Department:

Degree:

lrhe pondok-pesantr~en: an account of its tlevelopmeQt in independent IndoneSla (1965"-73)-

Islamic Studies, McGill'University

M. A.

The pondok-pesantren is an Islamic educational insti tut ion which plàys an import:ant role in Indonesié(:. Being the earllest suç'h institution, it has tm effect on the' eduça~lonal field in the Archipelago.

'It is cbnsid~red t~at/pondok-pesantren is the lead'ing Islamlc 1 educational institution, and ' it is. still in operation. It can be characterized,into two types. The first, lS the purely traditional, WhlCh 'do~s not ~dapt any modern educational theories. The ~econd" is the modern, which teaches arlthmetlc, the ~eading of Latin script, and foreign .languages. Both lnstltutions emphasize .religious education.

The thesls presents an account of the develop­mentoof pondok-pesantren, partlcularly the Pondok Modern at Uontor Ponorogo .(East Java) which is known as a . modern pondok-pesantren ln independent Indo~esia (1965-73). This ~ccount will emphasize the discusSion of the institution ln the period after the influence of the Islamic refcirm mdvement which too~ - place in the:early twentieth century ln Indones-ia. The stf'ongest, influence of the\Islaml ç reform movement is indeed, in the educa­t~onal fleld, i.e. the religious school.

\ "

Many graduates from pondok-pesantren play an jmportant role in Indonesia, as religious teachers and preachers, and,many of them became leaders of various rellgl0us organizations and political parties.

~ ,/

•

(

• )

'.

•

ABSTR.(\IT

Au:teur: Abdul"Hifizh Dasuki }

J • 1 \ ~,

Le ponqok-pesan1ren,: ùn' compte re~du de son developpment dans l'Indonésie

. indépenda~te (1965-73)

Department: Etudes lslamlque'i5,\ Uni~er$Lté McCill,

Degré:- M. A.

Le pondok-pesantren est' une ulstitutlon d'enselgne­ment qUl j ou un rôle impovtapt eh" Indonés i e. Comme l'institutlon la plus anClen'ne de' ;tél genre, .le pondok­pesantren a eu son effet sur le champ de l'enselgnement dans l'Archipelago.

4

Le pondok-pesantryn est consideré comme l'insti­tution dominante de l'enselgnement'îslamique et est encore ~n ope~atlon. I~ peut être caracterisé en deux types. , ' Le premier est le purement tradltlonel qui ne s'adopte.à aucune théorie mod~rne de l'enseignement. Le second est le moderne qui enseign~ l'arithm-étique, la lecture en écrlture Latine et les langues. étrangères. Les deux lnstitutions mettent l'accent sur l'enseignement r~igieuÀ. ' . '

La dlssertation présente un compte rendu du développement du pondok-pesantren, en particulier du Pondok Moderne à Contor PoXorogo (l'est de Java) qui est· connu comme un ?ondok-pe~antren moderne dans ITlndon~ie indépendante (1 65-73)t (e compte rendu mettra l'accent sur la dlscusslon de l'institution durant -la periode aprés l' lnfluence du mouvement d(j réformatlon lslanllque -qui eu lieu en Indoné;üe Q au ~0nrm.encement, 'du vingtième' slécle. L'lnfluence la'piuè forte du mouvement d~ réformation islamique est~ en fait, dans le champ de l'enseigqement, c'est à d4re l'école ~eligieuse.

r ' - 1

Beaucoup des finisdants du pond6k-pesantren jouent un rôle important en Indqnésie,'comme enseignants r~ligieux et 'prêcheurs, et "beauéoup d'entre eux sont devenus les chefs de plus leurs organlsa~ions religueuses et de, Pé!rtis politiques. .

' (1, ,-''''IfJ' ~

J \

) ~

•• •

..

• 1 "

" .

• , ,

1 v \ 1 • ",

' \ u

\ , \ ..

. .

, ,

'.\ ".

1'.1. . ,~>t/J~~~0:;.JIj ""\,\~~\.*~_ Lj'C:4J10~

And thos~ who strive in Our cause,

We ~ill certainly guide them ta Our Paths,

, ~nd. ~eril~,All~~ is witt the gQod~doers, (The Qur fan, x'XIX, 69).

1 / ,

•

1

Il

\ -, ~

(

1 0

. ,

•

( .

,1

• ~

. (

- - ---

Î'-, ,

/' ?

'~

• .,)-" -

1 B~OGRAPHICA~T~H.

Abdul H~/1Zh DasulH was born ln Losari, Brebes (Central Java), ~ 1939. From 1954-6~ he studied at Pondok'Modern Gontor Poùorogo (East Java), taugh~ there, and' assisted his time to the Admlnistratlve Assistant. •

C-

He received his B.A. in 1964 at the Arabie Literature Departme~t of the Faculty of Letters l (a1-Adab), the' Institut Agama Islam Negeri (State Islamie Institute), Jakarta, and was nominated as an Assistant Lecturer (1964-6 ~). He obtalned his Doet ~r'andus (Drs.) ln ,1968 fro~ the same,Faeulty. Subseq~ently, he ~as eleeted as Vlee-Dean of the Facul ty of Letters (al-'Adan) and gave l~etures at the same Faculty and the Universitas Indo­neSla (Univer'sity of Indonesia). Most reeent1.y, he worked at the Direktorat Per uruan Tin l A ama (Direc­torate of Religious U~iversity , the Department of Rellgious Affairs, Ja~arta.

'f \

-b

~ -/t,

• ,.

"

~

. or ."

9 •

...

•

\

•

ACKNOWLEDGENENTS D

INTRODUCIION ...

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. THE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS OF INDONESIAN MUSL.IMS

1. Th"e backgrourrl of Indonesian Muslims 2. The attitude of Indones~an Musllms towards

learnlng 3. Mesjld and Madrasa 4. Th~ meanln~ of Pondok-Pesantren

F 0 0 t n 0 t e ~

II. tHE HISTORICAL ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF PONDOK MODERN

,

1. The historical backgroun~ of the • 1

establishment 2. The kyais anà thelf santris 3. The current educational operations 4 . • Educationa1 work

IF 0 0 t n 0 tes

III. PONDOK-PESANTREN AND'THE SOCIETY ,

~1. The relationship of the pondok-pesantren with the community 1

2. The -types of Pondok-Pesa~tren

"

3.'Pondok-Pesantr.en and the' Government ). 4. A~hievemèntd~f Pondok-P~san~en

F 0 0 t no". es" .

IV. CONCLUSION

) !\

1

•

Page

vii

1

l

7 17 37 53

~4

64 73 98 ·

106 .ll4

119

119 122 128 J-37 143

:~. 1 147

APPj:ND1CES

GLOSSARY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

,-152 - 158

159 - 17 2

0:-173 ... ,184

• 4J

r'

'\ ,.~ . ~

, "

•

•

/

~

<

1 _ '.

"

The ,,'riter is lndebted to many peop)~ for-.. thelr

adv~ gUldance, assistance and help, and lt -i~ !1c;>t

possible to mentlon th~m aIl, here.

'I he ,writ er wlshes to record hü" lndebtedness to

Professor Charles J. Adams, Director of the lnstltute of

Islamic Studles, HcC~lll, Unl verslty "'bose (onstant

encourdgem~nt made it posslble to undertake and complets

this thesls. He also ,'ould l.ike 'ter express hlS lndebt--

" edness to hlS thesis advlser, Professor Ahmad Abu-Hakima

t

..J

for ~lS valuable suggestions, and guidance throughout'

,.,r lt lng thlS thesls. The "rriter would like' to thank aIl , t,he staff of the Il)stltute of Islami, Stud1es with whom

~ ~~ . he.enJoyed the sym~athetic guidance of its Professors

durlng h1S·studies at the Institute, particularly Dr. R.N.

Ver?-ery; Dr. D.P. Little,and Hrs. H. Salam L1ebich.

Grateful ackno, l~dgements should be made here to

trhe <- aTl'adlan International Developmènt Agency ((..1. D. A), '"

both the Ottawa office and the McGill (~ordinator, for

award~ng l1lm a fello,·ship to-study at 'the lnstl.tute and ~ .'

for supporting hlS library research ln the Unlted States l' •

of America durlng the '::>ummers of 1973 and 1974. Without 1

th1S ass1stancé, thlS study "'oulc;l not have been possible.

lhe 10Jrlter a1so ,dshes to· .. thank the Indoneslan Govern­i ,-J 1

ment, 1. e. the Department of Religious Affalrs.

vii

"

--. 1 ....

.~

" , ,.J

•

'"

viii

In the U.S.A. the writer was given considerablê

asslstance. He gives special thanks for guidance and

help to Professor Bernard Da~mof,Yale University and-

Professor B.R.O'G. Anderson of the Modern IndoneslB

P:r:o)ect, Cornell University. H'-' wishes to thank the

members 0f {he staff of the former Ilbraries and the

Llbrary of Congres.s. (-

The writer also extends his grateful thanks to

hyai 1Ia]l Ahmad Sahal .and Kyal Ha]i Imam Zarkasjl 1,'ho \

gave him ~upport andovaluable information and materials

on Pondok Modern Gontor.~Fu~t6ermore, the writer wishes

~ to. thank many .co.~lt'Jigues in. Canada, and those ~ndJnes .ans

who !sent~ hlm vàluaÔle materials -from home.' ~ ,

Durlng the course of thi's 1oJo'rk, the, staff of the , .;.

Library of the Institute has ~een extremeLy cooperative

" (' 1 r-'" and he would like to thank, in particular, Mr. Muzaffad

- Q

AIl, the Llbr,a'rian, and H1SS_ Sah'a Ferahian, the Library - l , ,

ASslstant. Aiso he thanks the sta~ of McLennan Library

and the staff of the Facu} ty o-f-Religi<rus ,studles' • .

Library at HCC111, Universit,y. If

Th~'writer expresses specla] thanks to M1SS

'-' C. Yuile, Admlnistratl.ve Assista'nt, for help in varipus

admlnistrative matters. Aiso to Mrs. R. Dayton Hammond,

and Miss Joan ?lper who edlted the English,.he gives his

t'hanks,.!, ~ To all who" cç>ntributed and ga,,:"e ap~reciated

' .

"

'-

• ,

•

l

t .

•

!'" • -- " .... ix

"( . , assistance to the

'" cO(l1pletion o.f ,thi.,'"t-~ thesîs' are sincerely

, --.,. thànked. Hany thanks are' due to Miss LO~llse L~pierre 'who

typed this thesls.

To the l:nstii..tute of Islamic Stu'dles, the State

Islamic Institute in Jakarta, ,'Pondok Modern , Gontor, the

Professors, kyals, the ~rlter's parents and'fam~ly, th~s t' ,

humble ~ork lS ~edicated . • -

, ,

"1

• , "fo.. . ".

Instl'tute of' Isiamlc Studies, McGlll UniverSlty, MOntreal.

c'

,f '

.. •

~ .

" L •

'/

•

.. ,

•

INTRODUC T ION

The pondok-Resantren is considered ~o b~ the leadlng , .

Islamic educationai institution in Indo'nesla. Indeed, it

has pIayed an important role in the Islamlé ~istor~?f

Indones la from the earÎ'les t per iod untll the present. '

" Being the ' first educational ~stem'ln Indonesia it has

f

béen deeply lnvolved in national education. It has had an J

1 1 ;.

e Pfe c t on educat ional institutlorts in the whole Archipelago.

, 1 The pondok-pesantpen was established more than flve

hundred' y 'ears ago and openated 1n ' the Archipelago 'before '

l '

the coming of the Europeans. Jt was the important medium , ,

o f Isiamic'preaching used by preachers, religlous teachers

and hQly me,n. Fu,rt!).er, many gradl!;ates from, pondok-pesantren

played · tm importal'\t· role in Indionesian society, as reli- ' - . 1 1,

l '.

gio~s teachers, pro pagandls ts, land traders. Also, many' of <' .

them became the leaders o f vario,us organlzations and , "

j

polltical parties.

• : 0

However, pondok-pesantren cannot easily be character-

rz~d under a single label. It is difficult to e~plain it

from one p~int of view', P<[ndok-pesantren caJ1 be ' divi'ded . \ , h

C • \

. \ lutO two typés; first, <the purely tradltional, which does.

-J

not ,adapt ahy modern ed~cat'ional theo;ies, and 'secondlY, ~" . the m6dern " pondok-pesantf'r~n which has adapted an approxi-,

t-matiùn of the W.est~rn type o,f 'sé"b,ool; teaching arithmet.ic, ,r

, \ ~

,l ,

't 1 •

j x

-.>

>.

•

/

•

•

1 xi

r ~

the re~dlng of Latin scrip-t, foreign langua.ges and other

subJects. -

In th±s thesis an account will be given of the ) "

development of the pondok-pesantren in indépendent Indo-~ , f

nesia in the ' y~ars b~tween 1965 arld 1973~ Certain pon~ok-

p~santrens ~lll be examined and one in particular, the

PondokLModern Gontor Ponorogq (East Ja"va) which is known

ab a modern ·pon~k-pesantr.~. , .

In VH~W of the a~ve-mentioned conslderatlons and to - r,

,trea~ ' the subject~chrono;oglcally, this ~hesis lntends to

dlS LUSS the instltutiohs of education of IndoneSlan

,Hus] Ims and ln addltlon the atti-Wle of the Indonesian , f

Muslims towa~ds learning ln g~~pal (Chapter J). " \. f

The -followlng chapter' (.Chapter II) will deSLl".:ïbe the

historical backgound of the establishment an~ develop-

menb of Pondok Modern Gont~~ and its current operations. "

In Chapter I~I observ~tions will be made on the " . ,

relationship of the pqndok-pesantren to the larger Indo-

nesian sOCl'ety. Signiflcant ln this discussion wrill ,be the ,.

, ... ~ charac terlstlcs of tht ..pondok-pesantren in different areas:

\ Pondok-pesantren Buntet, Cirebon; Pondok-Pesantren Dar ...-,e •

al-Falah Bogor (both ln", We$.t Java) and Pondok Pesant.~~n

Tebuirehg, Jombang (Ea'st Java). Subsequently, the , .

relationshlp between the pondok-pesantren and the Govel'n":

'ment, i. e. the Department of Rel igious" Aff,airs will be>

r

•

•

o

•

explored. The ~rnpact and achlevernent~ of the pondok-

Eesantren will also be discussed.

Flnally, this thesls conclu des with an evaluation of

the signiflcance of the pondok-Qesantren and its role in

Indonesian soclet~.

Existlng "lNrltlngs on tins subJect have e ither been

short sectlons of more geryera] '.,Torks, or shorter works

with a speclfic point of V.leN. HOl"ever, no rnonograph

spec i f u ,ally" concerI\l ng the Qondo k-pesantr~.!l e X1StS. There­

fore, this thes lS will syntheslze the eXlsting prlmary ~ secondary sources ln a genera1~ account . of Qondok-pesantren,

and in additlo~, it w l l1 rely o,n the personal éxperiences'

of the writer, who llved ln Pondok ModeEE Contor for

severa1 year.s.

Sorne prlrnary, sou rces for this th es is are ",ri 7ten ~

malnl}) ln Indonesian, Dutch and Eng1lsh.' These inc\ude

) \ brochures and àtlier 'publltatlons bf P'ôndok Nodern ~on~or

\ . ~s we]~ as sorne materials the wrlter recelved,fro~ peo~1e

, t

who hdve had flT'st-hand experlence wi th thes.e pondok-L'

pesantrens: Pondok-P~santren Buntet, (lrebon-Pundok-

Pesantren Dar al-Fa] àh, Bogor .• The maHl secondary sources

ar~ general works and: se.vera] art1

icles wrltten about tlhe ...

~ pondok-pesantren.

In vriting ;this theslS the wrlter fo~]o"'ed the trans­I

Ilteration system of the ·Institute of Is~amic Studies, q ~ f

,. 1 ~

\ \

..

. ' • ,

\"

•

MeCill University'.. With regard tp Indonesian names and

t~~ms oi Arabie origin, ho~ever, the ~riter pr~~erved

the tranSlite~daPted ,by Indonesian writers. r

, .J

-.

: ~. __ . ~.

~ , : '

','

-"

r ..

t

.~. .::. '/

,'\ ",'

,

., 1 ,( "

/'"

. , .. '"

\

V' .. ..

\

~

• • • • 1

xiii ,

.,

, '

... ... I-~~ ,

.... ",'

/\-

1...

•

•

• .J'-~ l ,

/

, '\

CHAPTER I

'1

THE EDUCATI'ONAL INSTITUTIONS OF INOONESIAN HUSLIMS Il

1. The background of ]ndoneslan Mus1ims

It may be useful to touch on the backgrot1nd ofc lndo-

~

neSlan Muslims. The major~ty of the Indoneslan people

(about nln~ty per c.ent) are Mus lims. 'Islam has beert the

domlnant rellglon for at least the last four c erttrles.

The exact number of ,Musllms lS not known. -lIt ~ estlmat~dr however, that. of the s nky mill ion population ln 1930 no A "l~ ,

le s s than flfty-four million were Musllms. In 1945 it was , . \

assumed that among a populat :lOn of seventy milllon a full

l six~y m=!-lllon were MUfllms. In thlS

'-.,. . ,.. concerned wlth the eXlstence of Islam

the great majorlty of the pôpulation . •

thesis we are only

"-as, the ')eliglon of

Accordlng to the clalms of the organizatlons of 1s-

larnlC youth in their conferences and dlScussions, such as

'H impu{Jan Mahas iswa Islam (The Musilm Un~ ve~,s..i ty Student's

Association), PelaJar Islam 1ndonesia (1he Muslim Students

Assoclat ion) , ,.

elghty flve per cent of the Indone s ian

popu]atlon (or 93.5 mlIl,lon ln 1967) \\J'ere MUSl~S. Ho.,.,­

).; ever, not a11 of these . people fully practlce tlY11r .~alth.

Per~aps Slxty per c~t or 1ess could be described as

constltutlng the Is1amlc, ummat Islam (Muslim CommunitJ).

l

..: \ ;

•

•

\ ,

•

These ~~ims aceept the existence of .one·~od" acknowledge

Mu~ammad as His Prophet, fast duriRg the month of Ramadân;

perform ,the prayers and observe aIl the other requlrements

and prohibltions of the Islamic religion. 2

After Clifford Geertz,3 Robert Jay,4 and others con-

ducted surveys ln rural Last Java, lt became fashlonable

t,o speak of-grouplngs of Musllm communitles J?1 Java, as ~,

"santrl". The santri are Urthodox Husllrrts who take thelr

rellgion seriously and fully practlce their falth v The

other group oalled • "aq,angan ", are more influence~.by pre-

lslamlC Javanese culture~ partlcularly Hindu-Buddh19t

5 tnystlclsm. ~

Cllfford Geertz ts~The Religi~n ot Java, provldes

descriptlons and analysls of va~ious aspects of th~ Java­~

nese religlous system~and ~a~~s. The descriptive o •

"

material in the book is organized into ~hree main parts

based upon the philosophles of the. abangan, santri /

prlyayl groups. The author examines each one's style of

life, rellgious variants ànd tradit~ons, wlth an emphasls

on three ~peciflc aspects of Javanese religlous syncretism,

name ly. animif c , 18 lamie and Hl ndu -lJuddhis t . 6 •

In fa ct this classiflcation ""as debated. ""In 'our.

opinion ,If Kuncaraningrat states, "the term abangan and

s~nt~i indeed denote two rellglous variants wlthin the

Javanese culture. However, the,term'priyayi.does fiOt

•

1

l',

•

. '

lndlcate a religious tradition". 7 Kaf:r;'awi states: "" 1

"Prlyayl group has nothing to do with rellgion. It is ln fact soclal class CJ'It. cultural group of people of aristocratlc orlgin. Even sometimes priyaYl is one who works as governmental official. Therefore, there lS no such thing as a prlyayi rellgion. ­Prlyayi can bé either abangan or'santri. AIs0

8many

priyaYl are Christlans, Buddhist and Bindus". 1

Hlst0z:'.lcally', ls Iam reached Indones ia six centuries 9

after its rise, ln three ways: by Muslim traders, by

preachers, and by holy men whQ set out from India,.Arabla, (

and othe~ countries. ~

Toward 'the end of the th~rteenth

cent ury , Arab, traders reached N.ortherlil: Sumatra. .......

Later, ln ",,-~

the flfteenth centur~ they landed in Java, and by peàceful

. means introduced Islam, particularly alon~ the coast of

, th~ islan~. From the fou~teenth century unt~l the end of

-'

the nineteenth c entury, the re was, practically speaking,

3

no organlzed Muslim misslonary activity in the Arçhipelago. 9 . Q

The hlstorical background of Nuslim'trade in the

Archipelago suggest~ that Islam was introduced to ~e Indo­

nesian people by merchants. '- It lS probably that many indi-

vldual merchants ~ted as propagators, as weIl as rellg10us

teachers, holy men and guides. l ,It ls khown that Muslim

p~ers accompanled tradersoon thelr voyages and came to

play an lmportant part ln spreading Islam among the people.

Sàme holy men (~üfis) came to convert the ~eople to Islam

especially ln the coastal regions. Thus, we understand

\

J

•

• 4

that the citles of toastaI Java ~ weIl as Sumatra and

" other ~slaRds were the first regions converted to Islam.

The converSlon of the interior region took place gradually. . .

By establlshing centres of commerce, the Musllm mer-.

chants attracted the attentlon of the pop~lation. By

marry ing local Nom'en .. and securing respected pos ltlons, \

they unconc~ously ptepared the way for conversion ~o Islam. 7 ' . . .

Then, Hu~J...J.lIIt trade opened the way for the preacheiJ to

establish tlJ~msel ves. The Islartization 0 f Indonesia J,. ~ ~ "

extended over a'perlod of severaï~c~tûries and the proces~'

lS stl]l contiriuing. , \

" Another theory of the sprea? of Islam in Indonesia

is given by ~.C. van Leur. Accordlng to hlS theory, t~e

Javanese were converted to Islam ln order to be admlt~ed

lnto a superior society and, therefore, political factors ~ ', l , la'

operated as we(l. . ./

Wlth rega~d to the pe~~od after contact betwe~n .. Ar~bla and Indonesia had been established, C. Snouck

• l' llurgronye mentio'hs cases in Nhich Muslim forelgners

succeeded ln belng' appolnted ta h~gh off\ce at sornE!' Indo-

nesian courts.. ,Sorne even founded kingdoins., He ,points out

that faqihs, (Islamic Jurists) fr~m Hadramawt sometlmes .... 1,

exerted conSldevable influence ln Indonesta by teaching -, ; .

and by wrltl.ng' treatises on ' qUéstions of Huslim law.

•

•

•

"

was a peaceful one, 1

J because of the attractiveness of the

6

nei-/ religion to the lndonesian as a .culturally lnferior

people. This was true even in Java where Hinduism had

Il play,ed a part ·for many centuries.

~-

Kenneth Perry Landon points out that Islam was pro--J ','

pagated by attaching lt to 'local pract'lces and by making

,i t see"m usefl;l~ in procuring the tlungs the Ind"ones ians

5

/ / :wanted. Many Indonesian customary practices were sanctlÎled

--' \ by ~he addltion of Islamlc rltual, and l~rge concessions

were" made to Hinduized elements. , . ,\. ,

Iqlam at first,~he con-"---­-:-

tinues, dld not flght such mystlclS~ WhlC~ is expressed ln

Indonesian mysticism in' the wavàng and gamelan (puppet

• l~ 12 and Ja~.anese orc~estrd( .

There are many factors that may have promoted the

spread ' of Islam in Indonesia. Some scholars malntain that

the influence exerted by Hl'nduism and .Buddhism upon the In-

doneSlan way of l·ife was not very deep. Sorne o~her's are

~ more inclined to think that pre-Islamlc Indonesian society .. ,

',' '",as powerfully infoluenced by the 'caste system that had been

( lntroduced wlth Hlndulsm. Therefore, the Indonesian may l,

,have embraced Islam in order to liberate himse1f from the ) 13 .' yoke of caste.

However, the spread of Islam was largely the work of q

s';:;-fIs, .' ,jh~·: were in many cases tolerant of traditlonal . , usagesiand habits of thought which ran contrary to the

J ,

'"<,

-. r J

•

\ .. strict pra42,tice of Isi~lC unitarianism. The suc cess of

Islam ln the 'early period of its propagat10n was partly

due to the simplicity and 1ntelligib1lity of 1ts teach1ng,

and also largely to its concession to local customs. ,

Indones1an Jvf~sllms folloN' the Shafi cI School . .. \

6

In the early centbries, India and Persia contributed "

c elements of Shi ism and mysticlsm of varlOUS types, with

their relig10us orders, saints and devotional pract1ces)

somet1mes tend1ng to a panthe1sm repudiated and opposed

by the of f1c~ial leaders. ln ~he late sixteenth and

seventeenth centuries, pantheistic mysticism became lm-

i4 portant in ~orthern Sumatra and also ln Java. The most

famous Musllm scholars in North Sumatra: Hamza Fan~ürr,

Shams al-DIo of Pasai, and NÜ~.l-Drn al-Râniri were süfIs. .:if '

In Java, tao, the nine sain~ 'nOlm as Wali Sanga (J~V'.)

"" ",ere Süfïs. Thus" Islam ,,'as easiJy accepted by the Indo-

neSlan people partly ~ecaus~of lts concession to local

tradition.and partly because of the simllarlty'of the

- -' SU fi element ta the lIindu 1nfluences found by them ln the

~ui~ur~f the In~nesian people. Traces of the Hindu

influenc~ are stlll found, particularly in Java.

Subsequently, the Süfls were known in Indonesia by . "

a varlet y of names, sueh, as, ,·'all! kyai, makhdum, habib,

culama1, ajengan, etc., and \o'e find sorne of them moving

tram place to plase and from one lslând to another to

\

"

/ r

1

J.

1 1

•

'. Î

'~.

\' ">

"- /'

\ . "

teach the Islaml( rellg1on. In fuany places where they

taught, they established the lnstitutions for Islamlc

, learning, kno~n by such names a~ pondok-pesantren,

rangkang-meunasah, sur au , langgar, mes ]ld. These pla~s ~,/"

r.,.l 'be~ame the first lnst itutions of Mus llffi learnlng f.~om the , '- .. ,

early period of Islamlc hlstory in Indonesla.

2. The attltude of Indoneslan Huslims to\<'ards learning,.

~ 18 not easy to ae8cnbe the attitude .of the Indo-

nesian Muslims towards learning. There'are differences

ln'this attltude between Java and other islands. One , :'.

should re~ember that t~ere are more than 300g i~lands . \,

wh1<..h extend across the equator, and their lnhapitants

number more than 120 mililon. 1

In a geographical archi-

pelago of thlS slze~ dlvlded and se~arated by seliS and , 1

mountalns, there are no less"than 250 spoken languages

and dlalects. ) / Generally speaklng ln tIns mopFulture q1ere

€X1S"t three .cultural ~.ayers: Indlgenous IndoneSlan, Hlncftt,

a,nd Islamlc; wluch lntegrate ln various ~ms. Indo,neslan cul tye is, traditlonally based on small-scale­

vl'l,lage (ommuni\ies., Most of the Indoneslan populat19n , ~ ..

still llve in thé vil!ages. The Islaml~ culture has had

an effect ln the fleld of culture; and Islam has been an

lmportânt factor ln the active growth of culture, 11'

7

1

...."..."

1,

•

..

-

. particu1arly, in educational activities from the time of .

, 15 Islamization tl11 now.

This statement can be corroborated by the ~xistence 1

of Is~amic educatlonal institutions in great· number, ln the

who1e ~rchipelago. Most ~f the~e institutlons are , , situated ~n the villages, where the people study Islamic

subjects. The arrlval of Islam added new feat~res to the

thought and the way of 11fe of lndonesian society. The " ---....,

caste system had gradually to be adapted to the Is lam le \

belief that Allah alone w.as aIl powerful and that beneath

him aIl men ~

\'Jere equal.

It has already been mentlone'd that many years . before

the coming of Western colonies, the Indonesian Mysllms ,

had thelr ow~ Islamic -educational inst i,tu t lons kno",n by

these names: pondok-pesantJéén, rangkang~eunasah, surau, rp madrasa~ To the people the use of these names lndicated

~

boardlng scho~ls for Muslims . P~ndok-pesantren, for

lnstance, became a permanent instltution for ~ur'anlc "

learnlng and rellglous practices, and later adde~ )he

,subjects of al-Figh, (Jur isprudence), al-Tafslr,

(Qur'an~c CommentarY)r al-Tawhid (1heology) and others.

These instltutions were headed by people who had learned

. Islamics, so~e having returned from pllgrimage to Me~ca.

The Islamic reform move~ent introduced madrasa, similarly , ~\. . ,

based, but including the teaching of secular subjects,

~

)

\

•

• . )

"

•

~

such as anthmeti<" h,!-stqr~, literature, ge~gr~phy,

so forth, which wlll be discussed later. ':7 .. and

Indeed, Indonesian Muslims pa id great attention

toward learning. It is said that pecause of the endeavour

to seek knowledge, some people wan.dered trom place to

place. Hany of t'hem travelled a long distance from one

kyal to another a~d from one pondok-pesantren to a~other.

In a pondok-pesantr~ the santri (the pupll) studied

Islam, as ~ell as learned religlous prac~ices. Some

students progressed through a carefully graded series of

studies, startlng from the sîmplest, most earthly type,

tht'ough increasingly esoterlc stud.les till they reached

the sfage of the ngelmu makrif~t (the secrets of being

of fjivinity).16 The term ngelmu~ orlgipally from the

Arabie word, C llm, means knowledge: , ,

As in the past" the people dopate money, land; t

building ~aterials or even cohtribute labour . To build .<

pondok-pesantren or madrasa, Many of them Pfovlde hodSlng 6

for the kyal, and others give ad~itional lodging for the

santrl. kany parents sell thelr saw~h (riee-fields) to

. 1 . send their sons fa.!' away from home to sèek knowledge

[-rom well-known pondok-pesantren, Dr--tO study abroal!- . .

Many Indoneslan ~tudents went to Arab countrles,

1 pa~ti~'ularly Saudi Arabia or Egypt to seek knowledge of

Islam. Some of t.hem llved in these countries (or

.'

, , IJ

•

•

"

.:

several ye?rs and the num~er increased from year to year.

In 1925 the I~don~sian students started to publish Seruan

Azhar (CalI of Azhar), as the journ~l of the

Khayri a al-Tallbi a al-Azhari

,ASsoclatlon of Java\.Student at al-Azhar

c-Some Indones~an st~dents graduated ~ith the Allmlyya

(r~nk of scholprship conferred by diploma or degree) from

AI-Azha~ unlversity.18

1 In connection Wlth the Indonesian people, who studied

" in Saudi Arabia, C. Snouck ~urgronje states: .,

( ''M~ny young people use the mengali (study') prlncipally as a pretence to loaf pr~asantly through the yearf, for su,,\h time as ',their relatives will send moneYlpr their creditdrs

( will. have patience..... By .the lack df edu-- --"7_ cation of the one, and of lnclination of the

others that is not enough for re;ll stuify: .; they thus limit themsel ves to the' study of

the divine music of Qur'an 'recltals. This instruction they seldom take wi~h their country-folk slnee lt is particu1arly a 19 matter of getting a pure Arablc accent. -"

1

At the beginning of the slxteenth ce?tury the Euro­

peans appeared in Indonesian waters in"order to gaih

control of trade and obtain easy access to the splces of

the Moluccas. , In 1511 the Port;-uguese attacked Halacca ,

and, after an lnitlal repul&e, conquered it. Later, ln oS

1595, the first Dutch expedition ta Ind?nesia set out and

reached Bantam (West Java). ,~t 10Jas follmved by many

voyages tlispatched from HolLand.

,. ".-

10

, "

•

•

,e f

.... , <

, ,/

1 \

Il

It might ' be said that the aim of the coming of Euro-

peans was commerc ial. However", i t lS l'oss ible to s,ay th.f\t t commer~ial, political and relig!OUS aim~~ have b~en very \-

close~y lnterrelated in effect if not in ~ntention.

Once Europea~ control of tr~de became effect~ve in

A the Archlpelago, the colonlal per~od began a~d lasted for

, ~

~ore than two and ' half centuries. We coùld say that at -,

the beglnO;.1.ng of, the e1ghteehth century, the Dutch were

çVTlp1ete,~masters of Java as ",el~ as, the ot~r ,islands.

However, Isla~ not 9n1y co~t~nued to spread among ever

greate,r nümbens of Indonesr';tw.t from the eighteen.,th

c~ntury on, 1t rece1ved fresh impetus fnom incr~asing 1 contact'with the centre~ of Islamic Orthodox ln the Near

East;.

As a, nonsequenC'e, ,by the l~te eighteeI'l.~h century

Indonesian Iê'lam was. 8h,o",!ïng gro,.,ring signs of resti~e~, which in the ç;.9,urse of the nineteenth century exp~oded in /

a series of nf.lJeJ.r upheavals. °Thus, in 1 ~2 5, Prince .. i '" ,"" ,," "l \ " .... Diponegoro of Central Java rose in revoIt agalnst "i.nfidel"

colonial rale. 20 , This was cal1ed the Java War. Meaqwhi1e, \

, 21 ln the extreme north of Sumatra the Acéh War 'beg,art, ~. ln West Sumatra the Padr1 War. These wars are conlsidered

as ! J ,

Islamic , "Ho1y \Vars". 22

'. 23 C. Snouck Hurgronje ,

' / towards Indoneslan Is1arrt as

r t'

, ~

. summat',izéd the Dutch poll.cy-:.

--' f:110w8: -

, "

r-.

L"

•

•

"

1)

! .. -~ . 2)

" r -1 \

• -.#tt

\ " '-,

In matters re1ating to purely rellg.ious worship, the

<-

governmeIl't' , with aIl sincerity, must glve the fullest

freedom;

In matters re1atl~g to po1ities, the go~ernment must J>t"J "' "

J suppress aIl kinds of Pan Islamistic :i.deas, ",hich aim

at lnv1.ting forei~n powers to inf1u.em:e trie relat~ons

17

b 1 h • 24 etween t le' Dutc Government and i ts eastern subJ ects .

• Broad1y speaking, C. Snouck HurgronJe . envisaged a

\ dlVisl?n of Isla~ into two parts, on~ rel~gious, the

other polltlcal. Towards the former, he counsel~d in

favor of to1eration: a policy of neutrality toward • • 1

relig~ous life. But while the go\'ernment ,.,tould respect

t~e.religiQus life of its Musli~ subjects, lt must not

"plator:llC'alJy env isage aIl those trElnds that ~ear, or , tend to bear, a politlcaJ char acter ." Any sign of

incitement must, the;'refore, 'be resoll!l;telYj, met by force,

and aIl interference in Islamic matters from abroad ........ ( t'.. l ( (1 • '25

,,' ïnùsl. .Oe nlppeç] ln the bud. Howèver, . Islam is more than

jus~ a religlGn ln the Western sense; lt has become an

lnsti~utlon which not onl)~",d~crees the re'~atlonslllp of

men towards the Supreme Being, but a)so decrees aIl . '26.

social relé{tion.s of lts folU"",ers·. In other words,

the Muslim doctrine {llalntalns the r~~ 'igious-pol'ltical ", 1

unit y ln Islam .

---

-

• ;

•

•

~. lndeed, the'practical fact was dlfferent from the

theory. ln the educational field the Dutch lntroduced

ordlnances for religious education. The so-called guru w--

,ordinance of 1905 brought a permit system. A ne", guru

o~dinance was proc1aimed ln 1925, whlch only recognized a

represslve sup~rvision. The ordlnanCe was ObVlously

dlrec;te'd to the Hus11m teac_h~rs, and muba11Ü2:h (lslamlc

preachers) lncluding the gurus of Qur' anie recltation,

,..,ho teach the ve~ elementary rellgion ln the v],11ages. 27

In àdditlon _to this fact, the Dutch ne~e~ made an

13

effort to educate the natlve people. For a J_ong perlod the

Du tch were not interested in develoPlng native pe.ople. They

~re (oncerned wi th extract ing.' 1 arge revenues. This 11'aS

especially marked at the tlme of the Cultuu~stelsel

(~~ltlvatl~n System) ~~en the natives were eompelled ta us~

" pa~t of their land '\

to gro~ sugar, tea, splce , and tobacco " 2 t5 / '

l~ r~sponse to the demand of the European ma~<et. " '

The firs,t co1onlal government st~ps edu c atlona1

\ . f le] d were taken only in t he lat ter part of nlnet eenth

centure, fo11owlng the developmen} of admln tration, in

1 which the immed;iat e need for' the ).nstru( ti on of native

admlnlstrators who could

words, the schoals we~e too ~

me native ('lerks,. In other • __ 1 \ '

l' laborate for the needs of the

lower classes. On the othe hand, they ,,'ere too s imp) e t 0 ~

satisfy the aPlsto(ratic groups . Subsequently, the Dutch

• , \

•

'\

•

established schools to educate the native people.

The earliest schools created by\the Dutch were the

tea~hers,1 trainlng colleges for native teachers esta-~ ,

blished in 1851.. Several years later, the governmept

14

r~cognized lts dut y and establlshed schools for the

29 native people. and by order of the Hlnlster of CoIoDles

the natlve people were to have a general opportunity to

receive edueatiûn. It was not until the next century

that the great spread of educatlon occured in the

Archlpelago.30

However, thlS spread ~u~ation and •

establishment of schools occurred in certQin reglons,

Java in partlcular, and malnly for urban people. It was

not unt~l early in the twentieth century that vlliage

31 schools for the rural people began to appear.

Schools for the mass of population were established

offering readlng, wr~ting and arlthmetic. The number of

.~ schools as weIl as the q~ality of edJcatlon was very

I1mited and disc~lminatlon perslsted. Raden Lukmàn Jaya-

dlnlngrat has pointed out:

"111e primary purpose in establishlng these schools, however, was not to brlng education to the populatlon but to train necessar~natlve officiaIs. These schools were establls~ chlefly in large towns, the capltals of di~­tricts and regencies, and wère divided into two groups: "Natl ve" schools of th ~econd class, WhlCh were school for children of lower ranking offlcials and what could be called' the "midâle class" and "Natl ve" schools of the first class, schuols for chlldren of hlgher ranklng 32 of f4la1s and the weI] -to-do pr ivate persons."

t "1

.. '/ '1

1.

/'

\

\

•

•

15

{, In addltion to this early effort ln the e~cational

r fielèi/ the only Western sGhools w!1ic.h ~xlsted were those . '

organized by mlssions in trade cehtres. These schools

were supported by the Dutch. They provlded for Christlan

}chlldren and became centres of propaganda for new con- \

verts. The association of mlssions w{th teaching led io . 33 a'cohfuSlon between education and Christlanlty.

\hthout gOlng ~ any further, it mlght be sald tha.t the

establlshment of schoo1s was stimulated by the necesslty

of educat~ng the lncreaslng number of European children.

In addltlon to this the government had a need for offlcia1s

as admlnistrators and cl erks. On, the other hand, '?ne migtlt . .. say, "The Dutch are 19;1lorant o~ what they want', or, lf they

are not, that they;t0 1e , 34 dOln9," Or lt mi lt be

according to the needs of

the people.

opposite of ~hat they claim to be

sald the educatlon l was provlded

the ru1er and not to the needs of

The system of the Dutch schoolp was entlre1y different

from the natlve system ,of the pondok-pesantren or.~adrasa

WhlCh were e~ablished before the comlng of the Dutch and

had spread wide1y among the Indonesians. The Dutch

schools dld nQt spread, however, untll after the lntro-

ductlon of the so-called "Ethical POllCY" ln 1900. Thus,

in 1900 among those receLvlng prlmary lnstructlon ln Dutch, 35 there were 17,025 Europeans, and only 1,615 Indoneslans .

"

, '

•

'.

•

"

• , "

J

16

As a consequence of the ln 'fference of the Dutch

and their edueational regulations, the 1930 census showed '1 that only 6 per cent of the nati~e population of Indo-/

nesia could read and w~ite. When the Dutch left Indonesia

ln 1942, 90 per cent of the pOPulatio) was 1111terq te' ,; 1 There were not nearly enoug scho~ls and not,one unl-

36 verslty.

A brief note should 'be a ded here. The people were

illitera~e with regards to readlng and writing Latin

?crlpt, but many of them could read and wrlte the Arabie

alphabet. In some parts of Java and Madur~, as weIl as , CI -other islands, every adult knows the Arabie sc~ipt,

through .i t~ _Ise f?r read'lng the Qur' an as weIl as for

religious texts.

We a~e not blind to the fact that modern educatlon

ln the Dutch schools lS relatively new to the Indonesian

'" peo~le, Slnce lt was intrqduced less than half a century

ago. However, the results of that education were not "

adeCluate. By comparison, the si~ple religious teachlng,

" such a~ pondok-pes~tren or madrasa were more "effectlve

than the new government schools.

In the pondok-pesantren or m5drasa wlth the tra-

ditlonal fdrm J the,puplls learn to read and to write in

a local scrlpt or ln' Arablc. They also learn simple

arithmetic. Paradox cally therefore, the people did not

•

•

•

benefit very much from the c~eatl0n of modern schools. /

There were many 111fterate people~ \

17

The causes of 11llteracy varied widely. It was partly

due to the fact that lt was not al~ys possible f~ par­, •

ents to send their chlldren to school. Also the system of

Dutch educatlon was mainly intellectualist and·' lndl vi-

dualist, and subJect to the suspicion of the Indonesian

Musllm people. As"a resul~, most of the people preferred

to take relig.loUS teaching which wâs established ln most

villages or native schools. Indeed, since the early period

of the corling of ,Islam, lnto the Arclllpelagao, there have

been many Musllm schools. In these instllutions the

puplls learn readi~g, wrlting, and simple arlthmatic,

based on religlous teachlng.

The existence of ihe Islamic educational institutlons

shows th~ positlve and a~ive attitude of Indonesian,

Musllms towards learnlng. It might be said that Islam gave

an lnspirati~n and stim~ius to its followers. It did not

only support and strengthen the new education but actually

founded 'l. t and gave ;t its pr esent direction.

3. Mes]id and Madrasa

a. MeS]ld ()

1~ • In every kelurahan (vill~ge) there are one or more .,

mesjids(mosques). In addltion; there are many langgars

•

.-r

•

18

" or tajugs (the prayer hQuse). The size of the building

is dependent on the prosperity of the lnhabltants as weIl

as their rellgi.ousness.· In some villages, nearly aIl

wealthy people have their own langgar for their families,

thelr workers and nelghbours.

Langgar is the same ward as suro in Batak or surau

in Minangkabau and Palembang (South Sumatra)~ Where

there are Muslims, surau is a prayer house, or a small 1

"

mosque, but it is not adapted ta Friday prayer. In Banten~

~- h d f' 37 lS t e wor ur vlllage masque.

==7I""-a:::.,r::...;::::.S belong to ifl\ll viduals, fo à family

gro~p or to a/group of colleagues. Many langgars are

- ( (- )38 wakap religlt'\ûs endowment . No matter who owns the , property, langgars are open ta everybody who performs

the prayers. Rècently, many more langgars have bèen

estab~ished wi~h the more pORular name of the musalla.

The government has established langgars in ~ost bus

statlons, as weIl pS in the railway.~stations and govern-

ment offices.

(

Most of the me~jids· are built up by the local Huslim - f

)'

communities. Ta build a masque, the people give contri-I! ,

bution~ and there lS sorne competltion in thls giving.

Often, someone bUllds the masque at his own expense. Any-, <,

one whq cannat give flnanctal support can give support by

working without pay. Building a masque means preparing v

, 1

/ .

, .

•

l ,

•

•

1 19

a place ln he aven for the Hereafter. The express~(}n,

Bayt Allah (House of God) is applied to aPy mosque. AlI

Nusl1ms are encouraged to contribute towards build1ng the

mosque.

~here are many mosques <of mbdern con~ruction in 'the

cities, Slnce a mosque construction d€pends on the pros-

perit y of the ~eople. However, most masques are st1l1 of

the traditiona~ form, with ' characterlstic Indonesian

style. Regardini the characteristic~ of the Indonesian

mosque, P.A. Huse1n Jayadiningritfs descr1ption lS- as

follows: r 1

j

"The tradi tional mosque in Indones ia has as ' its character1stic style what is known as a broken ~oof, consisting of two or three, layers with an inàependent, curved roof line. If the're is a minaret i t is a tower which stands apart from the mosque. In the new mosques a new architectural style is being lntr'oduced", influenced somewhat b-y the mosques of western Islamic countries. In IndQnesïan mosques the time for prayer ~s announced by powerful beating on a great dru~ made of, a t'hic~, hollow., tree trunk covered wit~? buffalo skin; then the calI to prayer is usually / chanted either from the mosque itself or from the roof 'of the mosque." 39

Dow import~nt the mo s que is in Indonesian Musllm

society ca~b~ measured by the extent of 1ts many functions.

These w111 be dlscussed first with regard to the mosque

as a rellgious centre, later" as a state administrative

inst1tution, and last as a centre for Is~amic instruct1on .

'" 1

/

• ..,

•

20

'" In the flrst place, of course, the masque lS a · re-

lig~?us centre, viz. place of worshlp, where the Husl~ms

perform ~he s~lit (prayers) fi~e "times a day. The masque , /"

1.S, prlmarlly, a place for divlne serVlce or a "hous,cl 'ul

Wh'lCh Ced has per~itted ttt be er,ected and in whlch His ... 4~

name may be ment loned. Il Aiso the masque be~omes a

place f or ' c eremonies of worship as weIl as for prayer

assemblles and oth~r religious actlvlties.

During Ramad~n (the month of fasting) rellglous

meetlngs are held every night ln the mosque, or the lang'-

gal' .. ' Here ritual prayers, called teraweh, are performed.

There is also recltation "of the Qur'in, or listenlng ta

the recltatlon of the Qur' an, called tadarus or"" darusan. C r,

Accordlng ~o Shâfi I teachlng, the d~~cent of the

Qur~an took place on one of the uneven dates of the last

/ ten days of Ramad~n. Therefore, these plghts have a

speclal holy meaning. The people ~sually spend these

nights performing acts of devotion, sueh as, salat,

dhiklr, Qur'anic recitatl0n and by performing such acts

"

of devotion. They hope will be blesseèl on the nlght

which eommemorates the descent of the Qur'in, called

laylat al-gadr. ThlS is the nlght in winch, ac"cordlng to

sŒra 97, t}~ Qur'an was revealed. 41 -- , People living near

1

the 'masque or langgàr senti food as a contribution for a

slametan (a ,meal of well-belng) a ceremonial meaI wh~h

t

•

•

( seeks a blessing. The day after the end of the fast,

people dress in their new clothes to go to visit f~tily

and acquaintances. This is a general festlval day 42-throughout Indonesia.

'\

The Mus lut community wh{ch- surrounds the mosque is

ca lIed kauman: In this community are usually f~un9 the

most fanatlc Muslims. These communltles are found ln

most clties in Inctonesla, particu"larly ln Java .. "

Other religious activitles of the mosque 18 dhlkir, '-e, .-

21

or dhlkr (the mentloning of ~he name of Allah), the reci-• c tation of the Qur'an, and l tikaf (retirement of a mosq~e

for a period of time) .

It lS Interesting ta note, however, that becauRe of'

rnisu~derstanding of Islamic yachibg, there lS another

form of worship. ThlS consists Df the veneratlon of the

dead by ~orshipping sacred graves, known as kramat. These

graves are often located in part of the masque. The most

famous are the tombs of th~. wal~s (salnts) whu were the

flrst preachers of Islam ln the early p~rlod.

The Javanese chroniclers say that Islam had been

introduced ta 1.,his lsland bl the' nine walis, known as. 4~ . ~I Wall Sanga. These nine walis are regarded as salnts.

The earliest Sultan of Java was regarded as ~ ~~ .md ft • hlp t6mb lS situated in part of a mosque. Eyery day,

and Thursday evening ln particular, many people come to

-:::::::=- .,. .

• ,. '.J vlsit tfilS tomb in order to obtain berkah and slamet

(,lessing o~ one's salvatio?, prosperlt~ Ev~ry year, in certain m~nths, th~é

welfa}.>e) .

are celebration~

of Grebeg.Besar {on the lOth day of the last Javanese

c- _ -1\ 44 month, Suro ~F ~slamlc Ashura,. Similarly at the tomb

of Sunan Gunung Jati (only a few m·iles from 'Cirebon, West

Jaya) the ' celebration lS t~e ~eek before the Grebeg Maulud

(on the 12th day of the ~hlrd Javanese month, Maulud or f

-C Hulud, t.he month of Rabi al-Awwal ln the Islamic calender).

Durlng the season WhlCh commemorates of the birth of ..II

the Prophet, t}1e people come from near and far to v isi t

~he grave of Sunan Gunung Jatl (~ne , of the nine saints in , ,

JavaJ. The grave is located on the top of a hil~ and ,-

ordlnary vlsitors can go only as far as the first terrace.

In thlS celebra~n thousands of people from many

parts of the country come for various purposes, sorne of 1

them only to v l!3i t, but many of. thêm come for a certain "'\

purpose, such as seeklng a blessuig or asklng for sal-

vatiQn. Very often some of t'lem sleep by the tomb, and

many of them recite the- Qurf'an in the mosque, for several

clays.

Further dlScussion on the l'ole of the mosque as a

state and administratlve instltution follows.

ln l~lam, reJiglon a~d politics cannot be separated. 1$ .

There l~ d religlous-politlcal unlty in Islam. Therefqre;

"

• • •

\

••

•

23

the Sultan is responsible in both fields and the mosque

13 the centre of both politlCS apd religion. This

relationship found expre~sion infue fa ct that the mosque •

was placed in the centre of Muslim ac~ivlty. Histori-. a>

cally, we can trace from the events of 'the early Islamic

era, that the growth of the sultanate ln the Archlpelago

w?S followed by the establishment of the mosque. Indeed,

the mosque became the centre of the government, as weIl.

f ' l" t" t Ibn Battu-ta45 t(';llis us of as 0 re 19lOUS aç lVl les.,

the piety, humallty, ' and rellgio~~f zeal of the Sultan,

who llke hlS people, was a follower of the Sh~ficI

school ~of Jurisprudence. Also, the Sultan 'Al-Malik a1-

~ahir held meetlngs with theologlaqs for discussion of

rellgious matters and the recitation of the Holy Qur'ân. . '

He went to Friday ~ublic ,,-;orshlp on foot, and fro~ time

to time went to war- agéfinst--the-unbëlievers in the ln-

46 te,rior reglons. These activities mostly t'ook place in

- '" the mosque, which indica~es the,exlstence of the rela-

tlonshlp between religion and politics from the earliest - - \.

sultanate.

The other example can be found in the Sultanate of

Demak (Central Java), where the Sultan established the

palace then followed by establlshing a state masque.

Slmilarlly, other sultanates ln Java and other lslands

establlshed the signif~cance of the mosque .

\

"

••

'.

• 0 ,

24 .

In every eelebratioQ of religious significance the

~ mosque became the centre of the celebration. Today cele-

1

brations are held ln the mosque in the Sultanate of

. Yogyakartâ (Cenwal Java) ,and the Sultanate of Clrebon "1

(West Java). Th~se:two sultanates celebrate the annual

ceremony which is calle~ sekaten. 47 Sekaten is, from the

Arabie word, sha~adatayn, and lt means that there lS Onè

God, Allah, and the Prophet Mu~ammad is His Messenger.

For this , ceremony mesjid jamLC

(the g:eat mosque) became

the place of the conversion, where unbelievers embraced

Islam. Pres~ntly, the celebration is held inothe mosque

in its nal, and traditional forme In addition to

the cere ony, there are other performances, enterta,inments,

exhibit ons, and various stands fill the whole square of

the palace and mosque.

This celebration has started to become a means for

encouraglng the people to 1nvest ln the count~ 'and

develop it. ' Eventually, lt could greatly contribute to

the incorne of the local governmertt. c

A mes]ld jami is bigger~than a vlllage mosque.

Generally speaklng, they ar~ found in large clties,

kecamatans 0the dlstrictsJ an~ kabupatens (the regencies).

There are usually offi6es for rellglous ~dminlstration in 1

these mos~ues. These offlces serve as ~~e ~pparatfis oL , .. '

the Dep~~tm$nt of Religious Affairs. Th~ masque has its

/ ;~

, ,

J '

•

" ,

(

own staff depending~ on the size oof the mosque 4

25

.'0 or'the/' of the reglon lt serves. Each masque has a superlntendent;

The superintendent of the mosque in the capltal of the .

Q . regency lS r.egarde"d,as head of aIl the masque Qf(lcials

in the. who le' "~i§tr_ict ..

In Java and Madura the superintendent of the mosque­

lS gene rally \names t'hé pénghulu or pengulu, '·",i th some

dlfferences ln the pronounciation and spelllng. Pengulu , ,

(Javanese), panghulu (Sundanese) and, pangolo (Maduranese),

li terally mean ",headman Il oro director. Il They are some-

tlme$ called lm am or imang ln Mak~ssa~e&e and 'Acehne~e. 1

, The penghulu is the director of the mosque and thé chief,",

48 of ltS personnel. .

It lS difflcult to generalize when dlscussing the \

functions of penghu lu in the mosque. His functions are

varied. , Ope of hlS duties is the He can

act as, imam, but sometime!s leaves his tG somé~~e. el se !

In additlon t~ trye pe~ghulu there are-a large number of ,

other 0 fficlalls. 0 ne of them is he ketib (J av. J, ta"ken .. ... from the Arabie word,khatÏb, who d 'll.vers the sermon.

49

for the The other official, the 11 5: 1 i t , can , ),

penghulu. 1

The function of the ~~~h~u~l~u~; includes actlng as the , 50

age' offlc,ial. This is

the

/

/

• q

• ,

"

, ..

('

~ 26

. , pe~ghu14. SubsequéfitIy, we will discuss the function of

-- ) -

the mosque as an edueatlonai institution.

Indeed, the mesjid and the langgar are the flrst

lnstltutlons 9.~ Indonesian Muslim Iearning. Instruetion

in t~e elementpry ~orm is in Q'ur' an~c reei tatlon, gi,ven

on th,e -basJ.S of the ~booklet in wh~('h . Arabie" c'har,acter:s

" a~J~._printed wlth and 'without the vowels and other,

51 symbols. ChJ.Idren usually learn th~ Arabie alphabet in . ,

the flrst grade. Instructor? use what is.knows as the

Baghdad method, or BaghdadiYYd. In the flrst ,grade,

lnstructlon is glven by the 'guru ngaji (~eliglous teacher).

llowever" ]us senior pupil sometimes gi ve a lesson. Teach-

lng lS ~arrJ.ed out on an indlvldual basis. The guru

ngali teaLh~s the ptipil~ w~o are seated one by one, on the

floor around hJ.m in a clrcle. EdCh pupil waJ.ts for his

~urn tu see the guru ng~Ji ~nd recelve instruction. They

aisu oft.en rec J.te the Qur tan together wlth a' certain

rhythm . . .1

ln this method of instruction we fin4 SlmJ.larlty t~

some aspects of the teachlng WhlCh ha~ been carried out

on an lndivlduai basls and monltor system.52

In a further descrlption of ~he instructlon in the

mosque or the langgar, A. Huktl, AIl sta,tes:

•

•

•

, "Pr imary or el ementary rel igious education, was given in the langgar or surau. The be-

.ginning bf learning for every Indonesian Musllm was the recitatyon of the Qur'â~In this less emphasis was laid on understandlng the contents of the book than on correctly ~ntoning the Arabie sound. The method of instruct~on was that\. ~~e teacher . would read' the Qur'an word by wo~p and the pupll would repeat the teacher's readings. The following day, the pupil would read the same portiori-of the Qur'ân which had been read by his teacher

,'the day before. There were no classes ln the langgar. The amount of readings would depend on the intelligence of each pupll ..... When the pUPll had practieed the Arabie script, he started with the recitatlon 'of the last of the 30 portIons (juz T) of the QurTan. Next he proeeeded to learn from a small catechism the essentials O~religiOUS doctrine, usually twenty attriB tes of Gbd, besides which he +lso was trai ed in the performance of the five daily pr ~ers."53

27

,

No explanation is needed to argue the important role

of the guru ngs,ii in instructIon. Then, the question is, f

what are the qualifications fQr a guru nga]i? Any parent

might beeome a guru ngaJi, jt least for his own childx:§n. tI

However, the basic requirement is abillty ln Qur'anic

~ecitation and a basic knowledge of Islamic teaching.

Usually the guru ngaii are trained by local pondok­

pesantren (religiqus school).

Jraditionally, instruction in the mosque or in the / 1

langgar is glven not only in QurTanic recitation, but 0;-

also in religious Instruction, including Instruction ln J ~ \_"

.... '~ '

ritual purification and in performance of the salat

-

• Î

./

.~

" )

•

, (the daily rituaI prayers)~

,

One is instructed and in ... the proper way to fast, which should be done during the

month of Ramaq~n. Sometimes Isla~ic h1story is also ,

given, partlcularly in the life of ~he Prophet and the

Four Orthodox Caliphs.

Often, sorne families have spec1q l guru ngaji for

their own chlldren a~d ite him to give instruc-

tlon in thelr houses. e also puplls who come 1

to a guru nga j i 's hous e for i truction. Howeve~, gen-

28

erally the instruçtion is glven in the mosque or langgar.

\ lhere i8 not çertain time for ' 'instruction, but

cat be 'usually it 1s~inJthe mornlng, though sometimes lt

"r in the' afternQon or evening. Evening instruct ion is

usually after Maghrib (the evening 'prayer at sunset).

Instruction usually begin~ at the age of flve or

six, ,

perhaps earlier, and, contlnues to the age of thir-" \ t} 1

teen or before maturity about flfteen. Instruction can 1

1 be glven fo~ boys and glrls together, or only for boys.

1

or only irIs. The guru ngaj i are both male and

female.

The between the pupll and the guru -

nga]i is very close. The guru ngaii do'not receive a

salary. It is not surprising therefore t.hat the guru

.ngajl receives the gifts or Pitrah "(almsgivlng at the ...

end of Ramad~n) from the pupil's ' parents and other people .

. " .....

.'

•

•

---..

Sometlmes, w~althy people give him wagf (a pious found­

ation). Fr,om the proceeds of this waqf he can support

himself and sometimes build an ~dditional room for

_ instructlon, bUll~ new langgar, or use th'e" wagf for

maintenance of his own langgar.

After a pupil has completed studying the Qur'an, 1 it

29

4--proper to demonstrate his competence ln re'c i ting the

trfan at a festlval gathe'rlng ~'f his parents and ft:;iends.

ThlS is foll~wed by a speclal meal, called kataman. The

dim ot the kataman is the expresslon of gratitude. A •

~prayer of C ngratulations and thanksglYlng is utter~d

reading df the Holy Qur fan. The

katama encourages other pup1is to f~lOW a~d'lomPlete

thelr Qur f anie instruction. Some'times, wi th t1e cele-

" " bration of kataman ~s included a ceremony. of eirh~~ciaion,

followed by a festlval with speclal food, called slametan

(salvation and happiness). Properly, the bU.Jang sunat

(cireumClsed ehlld) wlll demonstrate lus abillty ln

recltlng the Qurfan, which is eonsidered an aecompllsh-

ment for the parents and ehild.

'b. Madrasa

, Hadrasa is another form of IsLmlle sehool WhlCh has

progres'"'s ln several regions ln the Archipelago. The

madrasa is the contlnulng s'chool for the dllld who has ,.

•

•

•

30

/

mastered the inttoductory studles in the mesjid or the

langgar. Indeed, those who "'ant to go deeper lnto the

study of ,~

Islamlc teachlng should go to a madrasa. Some of <

them go to a Qondok-Qesantren which \4ill be deal t wlth

1ater. The$e religious schools exist in Most villages.

The m~asa <8 considered a modernized form gf . , Islamic religious instruction, such as mesjid instruction

and Q~ndok-pesantren. The madràsa origlnated on the

elementary level and proceeded to the secondary level. At

the secondary level ~t is called thânawlyya for the first

three years and CSliya for the second three years.

l' In comparlng tl}e madrasa and the Qondok-pesantren,

it lS in the nJ,p.drasa, rather than ln the~pondok-pesantren,

'that the more modern ideas on education ard s~hooling

have generally had the Most influence. The madras a lS

more like a western-style school than is the pondok-pe-

santren, with ~ts dormitory arrangement and traditional, (

unregulated way of study. Over the last few decades,

there has been Increased development of madrasa. They

have been fou?defr and maintained by loccal or national

. . ,\ ', 54 Islam1C organ.l..ZaÜ"ons. As to rellgious instructIon,

there are simila'r1ties in madrasa and pondok-pesantren.

Thé d'ifference between ,them 11~S ln the ffct that ln 'the

madrasa,there is discipline iri regards to \he years

ne eded for graduation, the method of instruc,tion, .. ,~ " 55 attendànce, fees and the like.

1

•

.'

•

~ It lS difficult to generalize about,the madrasa. It

depends on the foundéT', i. e. t'he per~onnel, Musllm com-

munit y, Islamic social organizations, Islamic political

partles. Consequently, the type of the madras a varies.

Sorne of them may be considered as tradltional màdrasas,

and others may be consldered as modern madrasas.

Teach~ng ln the madrasa, either traditl0nal or

'" modern, puts more emphasis on the religious subjects and

Arable. The 3 R's ar~ also_given in Latin scrlpt. Other

non-religious subjects, such as Geography, Hlstory,

Physics, Mathematlcs, are taught.

31

Madrasa developed and increased following the demauds

of the society. It deve10ped not ~ in nimber, but a1so

ln quaI ity, thanks t 0 the efforts of the Isl'amlc social

organization and· the efforts of lndlviduals. .

The following passages describe the achievement of ,]

the lsiamic social organizatîon in ,developlng the madrasa.

" . ' \. 56 ~e Muhammadiyah movement is ~rominent - as are

many others - --in the development of the madrasa~ which

has as its obJective the reform of Islamic education.

From the beglnning of l ts establlshment, the Muhammadiyah

poin~ed the way in educatlonal reform, i.~. it gavq re-

11g1ouS educatlon in 'the Dutch school$ and established

s,·hoo1s in WhlCh both religion oa'1/her subJect§ are

taught .

•

)

, •

'.

..

32

The earliest school set(p by the-Muhammadiyah was

c... . f. ~, the Mu allimln, a school for trainlng male teachers 'and

the Mucallimat, for training ~emale teachers, both at the,

secondary level. In addition to these'schools, Mu-

ballighln, for training male propagandists and Mubal-f). '

lighat, for trainlng female propagandists were esta-

blished. The firs~ two schools are flourishing at the

present tim.e and great numbers of students come to them . from aIl over Java as weIl ~s from the dutland. 57 The

other two have closed. ;,

By 1938 the Muhammadiyah had organized b52 branches

and 898 subbranches witb 250,000 members and had main-

tained ~34 mosques and langg~rs. They had opened 31

publlc libraries and 1,774 schools and employed 5,516

o

.male and 2,114 female propagandists. 58 At the present ,.

tlme it 'is dlfficult to get actual data concerning the 1

extent of the Muhammadiyah's madrasas. Gnly the sta~istics

of 196'2 inaicat~ that the Muhammadixah has developed a

net",ork and has opened 4,030 madra,sas. These ~mbers

59 .included madrasas at the elementary and se~ondary levels.

,Islamlc education reform ,.,ras contlnued by Islamic

organlzation. Pers;tuan Islam (abbrevlated to PerslS,

or Muslim Unit y) was established ln 1920. 60 An lmpor-

tant contribution of Persls was activitl€s in the

educational field which led to the establishment of

/

•

•

, L

•

... Pendldikan Islam (Islamic .Education). Its first effort

in Islamic educâtion~l reform was the establishment of

madrasa, more popul~r1y b:rned pesantren. Originally it

was lntended only for the chl.ldren of members, bllt 1ater

other chlldren were included. Historlcally, Persls

was organized as a discussion group attended by young

people who had st~dled at Dutch schools and who wanted

to learn more dèeply about Islam. A few years later

Persis establlshed the schools launched by Mohammad\

, 61 Natsir.

During the Second WO\ld ,~ar (1940s) educationa1

activities were interrupted, and only in 1950 were they

\

resumed. Their activities were movéd to Bangll, a few

miles from Surab~a (East Java). In this period the

activities were focussed on the establishment of a pon-

dok-pesantren. Recently, the pondok-pesantren of Persls

has prospered and has enlarged lts facilitles in the

Islamic educatlonal field for Wltera (boys), and also

puteri (girls). .

Other organizatlons in the educatlonal fleld were

AI-Irshâd,6~:an~ JarnCiyat al_Khayr. 63 These organlzations

were op~n to every Musl1m. / However, the majorlt~ of its

members ~ere Arabs. Gradual1y- by co-operation with the

~Muhammadlyah and Persls, they expanded ~heir responsi- _ . /

bilities to broader probl,ems of common concern to

. .

• "

)

•

•

34

Indonesian t-1uslims Jct "took part in various açtivitie }

partlcuiarly in the educational field.

AI-Irshâd showed vitality and energy in carrying out ~

its operation. c

In.1905 Jam iyat al-Khayr founded the )

elementary school. It was not of an exclusively rel~~

gious character, but a1s'0 taught non-re1igious subj ects}

~uch as Arlthmetic, Geogra~hy. The medlum of instruction

was Indones1an, The s1gnificant' aChievCent of this ""_,

organization was its lnvitatlon to teac)e~s from other 0'

areas and also from abroad to teach ~t ltS school. In

pa~lcular, teachers from Arab countries played an

important. role by introducing new ideas in Islamic

64· education.

Al-lrshiid established branches in Cire bon, Bumlayu,

Tegal, Pekalongan, Surabaya and Lawang. These branches

set up schools, most of them at the elementary level. In

the 1930s the Surabaya branèh established a ~wo-year

course for ~eachers' tra~ning and a Dutch language ele-

mentary.

varied.

In Jakarta the AJ -Irshlid 's schooi w~ mOre

lIere, there weie elementary schoois '~J weIl as l

-a school f or teachers' tratning. In addition there was

a special dlvislon, called takhassus (a two yeats course)

where the students could specialize in elther réligion,

education, or literature.65

In the Hlnangkabau area the most Slgnlficant

...

.r

•

• l ,

•

35

contribution to the development of. the reilgi~us ~chools

was thj3 66

foundin~ of the Surau Jembatan Besi and the

! Dlniyya ~ "

school,?7 both ln Padang PanJang. The ~uccess of

"'''' these scho~ was subsequently followed by the establish-

ment of many lndependent schools throughout Minangkabau.

These subsequent schools were inltiated by pupils who

-had graduated from the Surau Jembatan Besi and Diniyya

68 school.

It is important to note the significant role played

by Sumatra ~awalib (the,Students of Suma~ra) and Sarekat \.

1

Islam (Islamic Ass\ociatlon) in the polltical "and socla],

development of Minangkabau. Since the Sare kat Islam~9

was mor~ actlve i~ politlcal affairs, the most importa~t .. organlzation w~th emphasis in the educational fi,ld and

religious matters w~s the Persatuan Guru-Gupu Agama Islam 1 ""0

(abbrevlated ~o F~G.A.I., Islamic Teachers Association).'

*' GeneralLy, the rel igious scho~ls of madrasa ,..:r;,e

called by various Arabic names which usually indlcate the /

level of the school or to note that they are sekolan agama

(religlous schools) such as: Bustin al-Atfal, Awwaliyya, l .. ."

Ibtidaiyya, Thanàwiy~, CAllya; al-Azhar, Dar al-Na]ah, •

.. c ~ C'

nïnlyya, Da wa Islam, Islamiyya, Manbac al- Ulüm, al-

Salam, Sanûsiyya, Wataniyya. Sometimes the ma'drasS-aS- are

named by the Islamlc Organlzation, wlth names'such as

Muhammadiyya, Nahdlatul Ulama (Nahdat al_culma f ), • 1 •

Mathlaul Anwar )(Ma~laC al-Anwar).

•

•

•

i

"

36

The currlculum in the madras a is varied. lt depends

. o~ the orlgins and aims of the madrasa. Generally bhey

may be catagorized - more or less - by the f~~~g sub-

71 J eets WhlCh are taught in mo'st madrasa.

a. pinget~huan Agama (Religious studles) include many

subJects, such as: c

l'lm al-Flgh (Jurlsprudence) perha~~

the most important subJ~ct; U~Ül al-Flgh (Prlnciples

of lslamic Law)~ an essent~al part of the law studies.

Both are usually taught at the advanced level; al-Flgh

(Jurlsprudence) lS ~he most popular among the students.

It lS dlvided into four parts, i.~. c __

al- Ibadat

(Rellgious Observ

courses), al-Mu =~;..:;.:.:;~==:=-=...;;..

(Marrlages};' and al-Fari 'ld

(~w of Descent Distrlbutlon); c1lm al-Vur'ân wa

al-Tafsir (Qur'anic Exegesis) includlng il-Qiri'ât

(Qur'anlc recitatloq), al-TaJwid (Art of Reciting the

Qur'~n in pronunciation and lntonatiolJ,), al-Tarjama

(Translation), al-Tafslr (Commentary.), al-~Iadith

(Tradltion)', uicluded Mustalah ai-Had'Ith (Sclen~ •• , 1'. •

the Tradition), and al-Tawhld (Theology) . . b. ·Bahasél Arab (Arabic Language). The lnterest of the

" ~

Musllm in understanding their rellgious teachlng,

partlcularly the Vur'in and al-Hadith has led them t~

study of the Arabic langJage. This subject is \

" o

1 1

•

•

.-.

-,.-

.. ......

divlded into variqus branches as an lndependent sub-

j ect, l. e. al-Kha tt (Calligr';phy)., al-Imlâ' (Dictation) , .. al-MutaIaca_ (Reading). At the intermediate and ad-

vanced levei subjects taught are al-Insh~' '(Com­

position), al'-Nahw wa al-Sarf (Grarrunar and morphology),

ai-Balagha (Rhetor ic, or Scien,ce of Eloquence) which

~s divided into three parts, al-MacanI (Rhetoric),

--- ----- - - -c ---- -al-Bayan (RhetorlC), and al-Badi (Art of the Science

- , ",.,-7

of Metaphors and i? generpl of good style), al-adab

c ..-al- Arabl (Arabie Literature) namely al-Nath~ (Prose),

c C -, al-Shl r (Poetry) and Ta'rikh al-Adab al- Arabi

History of Arabic Literature); al_cArüo (Metrlcs or '-,

Prosody) . Other foreign languages a're al$o taught,

g?rticularly English.

'c. Pengetahuart Umuffi-> (Ceneral studies) lnclude Geography,

-National and World Hlstory, Biology, Physics, Natural

Sciences.

3. The meaning of Pondok-Pesantren.

Pondok-pesantren, sometimes called pondok or ..

pesantren, also pasantren, literally means the residence ~

of santri, the place where the pupl1 pursues hlS rell-

gious studles. d The word pondok ltself, means hut, a rude

72 or sIllall house, h?vel, cabin"or dormitory. The term

,,' ,

•

•

•

. .

.. pesantren.

In the pondok-pesantren the santri (pupi1- or dis-

ciple) stays and receives variru,s Islamic teachlngs, i.e.

Intellectual, mental, spiritual as we~l as physical .

educatIon. ThE institution is governed by one or more ' ....

persons called kyai (the religlous teacher and venerable

man). The kyal is con$idered as a teacher, guardian,

trainer, guIde, and helper.

The term pondok-pesantren as used in the Archlpelago,

-" refers to the Islamic educational institutIon, or re~i-

gious school, which in Madura is called penY,antren, in

P asundan (West Java) pondok, in Aceh rangkang meunas ah

and in Minangkabau surau.

To give a general idea of the meaning of pondok-

pesantren, it is necessary to refer to the points of Vl€W

oJ:.. both forelgn. and Indonesian scholars.

• Pondok-pesantren, according to R.A. Kern is a

seminary for students of theology (santri) on the islands • 1

of Java and Madura. He states t~at the pondok-pesantren

\,~ the Institution'~o~·~dvanced theological·tralnlng, and . -.

c6nsists of several ~

the ~,ountryside, It \

buildIng? '" : \Vhen l t is not bUll t in

is at l~àst ln a ~eparate' quarter of

th 'Il 73 e YI age . - ~

He descrlbes the pondok-pesantren as

follows:

•

•

•

39

"The pesantren consists in the first place of the house of the teacher and his assis­tants, then of lecture-rooms . ., a cha,pel (Sl;), rarely a Friday mosqu~~ the !odgings of the students (pondok ricé-barns, aIl of which

- 1 occupy a considerable space. The pondok alone possess à pecuLiar form of archit~c­ture not found \in ''uther buildings. A pondok ~s a quadrangular building built of the usual mate;ials."74

Descrlblng the interior of pondokls buildlng R.A.

Kern cont inues:

Q

"The ;:;interiqr lB divid~9 by ~o '"alls into three long compartments of about equal breadth, the central of which forms a corridor running from an end of the building to the other. The two outer ones form the livlng rooms; each of them is divlded into cells q{ equal size by partitions. The door of the pondok is in the centre of one of the shorter outer walls; it opens into the corridor. Only blank walls are s~u on right and left aS one ênters; then it is noticed that very ~ow little doors ar, let into these'walls, made o~ ,the samè,materlal as they are; these admit tQ the cells. The lit~le doors are at regular intervals in the two walt~, two always being opposite pne another. "75 . ",

<:>

\\Tl th regard to the Qortdok-pes antren in Aceh, C. ""'''\

(. Snouck HurgronJe states that th~ rangkang ~s buil t ln the 1

form of a dwelling-ho~se, but wlth less care. Instead of o , f,

/

three floors of different elevatlons lt'ha& only one floor

on the same level throughout, and lS divided on elther " \

side of the" central passage into small cft-ambers, each of

which serves as a dwelling-place for one ta ~~ree muribs .~ ,

6 ~ (pupils).7 ,

",

, -

"-

•

•

•

f

40 "

Clifford Geertz states th~t the genetic name for the

traditional Muslim school in Indonesia is pesantren, a . ~

residence for ê9ntr~s (religious students). A walled

compound of student dormi tories centers around a mosque';

usually in a wooded glade at the edge of a v~llage. The

~ pondok-pesantren consi~ts of a'religlous teacher (usuâlly

'called a kyai) and a nu'mber of young, in most 'casses >' ,

unmarried, male students, who chant the Qur'an, engage in

mystical exercises, and seem generally to carry on the J '

pre-exlsting Indic tradition with a slight, and not very , 1 77 accurate, Arabiap accent. C. Geertz describes the

nature ot the pondok-pesantren as follows~

"\\Then a European first sees a tradltional pesantren, it reminds. him almost inevitably of a Cathol~c monastery. Usually loçated at the edge of a village, it lS placed awa~ from the road, concealed in a small grove of trees, around WhlCh a whlte-washed, chest-high stone wall runs. Wi thin this grove, tl:!-~> most pro­minent buil~~ng is the mosque, a white stone structure, totally bare inside and wlth a shining tile flour, in front of WhlCh hangs a wooden sllt gong WhlCh lS beaten five tlmes a day "to announce the obligatory prayers."7 8

C. Geertz describes the dormatorles of santrlS as

fol~ows:

"The dormJtorles of the students, or santris, are gro~ped in an irregular semi-circle around the mosque, and eâCh consists of a serias of small" doorless, · sparsely furnish~d cells, joined together oy a continuous front porch

,"

, /

\ . '

•

•

•

1 •

• .

open aIl àlong the outward side. Between the dormitories, thé mosque, and the 'bathing en­closur~ next to the mosque thete are ralsed stepping stones, so that the santri wh~ once bathed hlS ~et may move in and out the mosque without each time re-washing them. The kyai's house is off to one side, its veranda commonly facing away from the maln.build~ng cluster, and between it and the mosque there ia a large open square, where various semi­secular actlvltie~ - sports, hôliday celebra­tions, and the like - take place. 1T7lJ

41

Clifford Geertz reJects the oplnl0n that the pondok-

pesantren is sim~lar to a monastery, and he argues that

a 'pesantren lS only superflcially like a mdnastery: for

the santris are not monks, sinee they have not made vowns.

The santrlS come to the pondok-pesantren when they wlsh,

and leave it when they wlsh. While th~re, they are ~

1

expeeted to lead_a reasonable faesimile of'the holy life,

but they are not expected to dedicate themselves to it

permanently. They are not men of extraord~arlly powerful

religl0llS needs who have decided to cut themselves off

forever from secular existence and to devote themse~ves

to the service and adoratron of Cod. He concludes that

they are, rather, ordinary young men who have come away

from the ordinary village Ilfe to get h certain amount

of clemAntary religlous training experlence, and when

80 they have 'liS they will re'lurn home.

Many definltions of pondok-pesantren mlght be glven .

However, the def lni tions are not really deflni t 1.ve. So'me

. \

•

•

•

."

definitions depend on lrnpressions of, sorne aspects which

are found in the pondok-pesantreg, such as the building

or ~ltory) others on the life of the santri or kyai;

sti~l others on the edu5Ptional method.

According ta the definition given by team surveys

of The Improvement of Religious Examinatlon Committee of

'" the Department of Rellgious ~ffairs, the pondok-pesantren

is, "The educational lnstitution which has a complete (

;. \ compound where Islamic education and teaching is given 1

at an advanced level and py indlvidual instruction."i3l

The Commlttee also catego.rized the pondok-pesantren into 82

three types, namely:

Type A: ~le èantrls st~dy and Ilve together with .

the guru (kyai); the currlculum is dependent on the kyai;

and the method of teaching is lndlvidual and without

maârasa for study.

Type B: comblned with madrasa for study; has a

deflnite currlculum; the teachlng of kyal lS applicable

to thelr life and the main te~ching is ln the madrasa; -

the kyal glve a general lecture to the santris at certain

tlmes; the santris llve in the pondok-pesantren and

• follow the teaching of the. kyai~b/sides studying the

rellgious and non-religious subjects.

Type C: the pondok-pesantren is only a dormitory

c

•

•

•

for the santris; the santris study in the madrasa o~ C:-

r I}, school outside the pondok-pesantren; the Bunction of the

kyai lS as superlntendent of spirltual instruction.

According to A. Mukti Ali, t~e present MiQJster of .

the Department' ~ Religlous Aff airs, the p@-ndok-pesanLren

43

is an Islamlc ed~c~o[lal lnstitutlon~1 ",rhich has a speciflc

system of educatlon and teaching called f as weIl, pondok-

pesantre,n. Generally the pondok-pesantrens are located \

outside of a t~~n or in the vlliages. Most of the santris

come from farm familles. He feels therefore, that the

pOQdok-pesantren has a strateglc'posltion ln the buiI~i~g, - 83'

of the Indoneslan natlon~

Kyal HaJl Imam ZarkasJi infers that the pondok-

pesantren is an Islamic educational lnstitutlon 'vith the , asrama (boarding house) system. The real meanlng of the

• r;

pondok-pesantren is in the content of its teaching

rather than in the bUllding. The essence of the pondok-

pesantren is educatlon. J'hrough several centurlep the

pondok-pesantren have gi ven a splritual educat ion ,.'hich

was valuable to the santri who became Islamic propagan­

dists and leaders of the ummat Islam (Islamlc communlty).8 4

Accordln~ to Kl HaJar D~wantara,65 an lmportan~ 86

figure ln national education, the founder of Taman Slswa, . the pondok-pesantren lS: "A form of resldentlal reli-

glOUS school ln ,,,hich the pupils gather around a

. .

_e

e

/

~ reputed master in religious instruction, supporting them­

selves by work in the community. ,,87 ~IS1stlm pondok dan

asrama itulah sistim nasional" which means "The pondok /

• - 88 and asrama, boar dïng house, is the nat ional syst-em."

The real meaning of th'e pondok-pesantren is lost to

those who examlne ~ from a materiallsti~ point of view,

1.e. wlth reference to the buildlng a~ a dormltory, or

the da1ly living hablts of the sWltris. The essence of

the pondok-pesantren Iles in 1ts lmpact on Inponesian

culture. It was the original, educational system and it

has moulded the Indonesian nation through the impact of J,

its educat10n.

The pondok-pesantren, however, was not immune to the

influences of either the indigenous Indonesian culture

or Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam which reached the Archl-

pelago and had an effect i~ the educat~onal field.

~ugardo Purbakawaca ,observes that the pondok-pesan-~- ~ ..

tren lS more llke a Hindu educational ~nstitution than

the, Arab educatlonal i.ns"Litutlon, even in Islamic charac­

teristics. b9 The sam€ conclusion is also reached by

SuteJo BraJanegara who states that·the system of the

pondok-pesantren_originally came not from Arab sources, ,90 \ )

but from Hlndu. '---" 91

I.J. Brugmans made an lnvestlg \tlon regarding the

orlgin of the pondok-pesantren and arr~wed at ~he

44

•

•

• (

conclus~on that ~t was a Muslim-influenced form of a

typ~cal educatlonal institution from lndia. He argued.

that the pondok-pesantren is older ln origin then Islam,

and that the phenomenon which points to the non-Isiamic " .

origln of the pondok-pesantren as an educatlonal insti-

~ution i s that it does not exist ln contemporary Muslim

countrles . Whlle lt lS qUlte comJJarable to lnstltutlons

WhlC~ are stîTl opera~ing in Hlnduist~ Indla and ln

BuddhlStic Burma and Thailand. 92

1

However, the establishment'of the pondok-pesant,ren

did lndeed follow the spread 6f Islam in .the Archlpel~go,

and particularly ln JavJ. From the early ,perlod of the

"" Islamlc era, ,the preachers stressed learning, wlth great

emphasls on Islamic teaching as weIl as Qur'anlc reci- .

tatlon. It is agreed that ~he ,flrst preachers were the

suris or at least l~flu~nced by the s~flsm. Part of the

method of preachlng Islam was the establlshment of the

institutlons for Jslamlc learning and practice. These

iœtltutions are recogn12ed as pondok-pesantren. It is ~

also bel~eved, that the founders of the pondok-pesantren

l)3 were the walls. Hlstorlcally, sorne of the s~fI9 sup-

ported the Sultan, and the Sultan gave them the liberty

of giving religlous lnstruction. Sorne of the walls

founded sultanates. For example walls founded the centre

45

1

•

•

~of Islamic learnlng in Gresik (Ea~t Java) ln the early

Islamic period, and the sultanates of Demak, Bantren, and

Cirebon. These sultanates had become centres of Islamic

propagation as ~ell as centres of learn~ng. People were

encouraged to study. In addltion, they sent miSSlons to

the M~sllm world and lnvited scholars from abroad to , .-

teach in their centres. 94 ,

ln connection Wlt~ thlS, Muslim holy men (wslis)

cul !lm;:) ,.) kya1 s or "..,hatever names are used, undoubtedly

played an important role ln the converSlon of people to J

Islam, especlally in the coastal cities. They gained

- 95 considerable fame as miracle preachers. I~'the ea:ly

f f th t M 1 - - -1 . --""k lb -} ~ '9 6 l' b ' l t·een cen ury aw ana Ma l ra 11m, a~. egan

to Rropagate Islam ln East Java. In the reign of .' ,

Brawljaya ~,97 k~den Rahmat (known as Sunan Ngampel),98

99 . regular lnstruction in Islamlc teachlng "'as pe\mltted

ln Ampel, Surabaya (East Java). This institutlon was one

a f th e ear lies t lnS II tu t ion fou 'Id ed by "ahs iF. In IslamH teachlng and ôther actlvitles' of. the

, c-walls or kyalS are remlnlsc~nt . of the u]ama' ln Medlaeval

Islam. The Islamic lnstltution or the Islamic l'ea'rning "

in-IndoneSla (mes ,id, surau, pondok-pesantren, madrasa)

might be compared to Islamlc lnstitu(ion in Medl~evel \

Islam or 1.,0 those found even earyler in llassiea], Ages.

c Abbasid cvaliphs, for example, o~fned Dar al-HadIth

(Bouse of Tradltlon) \,Thile al-Ma 'mün (813-833) founded

46

•

. . , .. / '

• .. ~'~ ,

•

•

Dar, al-c 1lm (House of Knowledge),. and the Fatim,ids iri

Egypt subsequently established' al-Azhar as a m?sque and 1

university as weIl. These were followed ln' Zaituna of

Tunls and Qarawiy~n of Fez in Maghrlb. ThlS utsti tution

was .deve loped in the eleventh and twel"\6:h centurles. 100

Nlûim al-Mulk modifled the Islamlc school of madras a . 1

, ,Nür al-DI~' Zangi, Saladln, and others foundeçi schools of

flqh,which were institutl0ns for the ,study of Islamlc

101 religlon. There are Slml1aritles between these early

Islamic lns(ltutions and the pondok-pesantren. ~

• Basically, the ~ or kyai are recognized as

learned men of Islam. They eÀlst ln every Musllm country,

no matter wh~t~ they are called. However varied their

culture, they have unit y irt their ,rellgion. The term

kyal is slmilar to culama' (learned men of Islam) in any

Muslim country, whether in the Middle East, Northern

Africa, Pakistan or anywhere. Thus, where there are

l' -l.. Husllms the term ulama' lS weIl known among aIl Musllms.

Wlth reference to the kyai and hlS pondok-pesantr,en

• . v many scholars c~aim that the pondok-pe s antreh owes more

to Buddhlst and Hlndu monastery-sch?ols than to Islamic '102

schools, 1.e. madrasa. Sorne scholars clalm that pondok-

pesantren lS a continuatlon of the old Javanese Hlndu-

Javanese mandala's (converts), and neither the life of

santrl nor the social pOSltion of these theological

47

• ,

•

•

schools' have been considerably changep in ava by four

, 103 centuries of Islam.

We mlght arrive at the co nclusion th t pondok-pes-

antren was partLy lnfluenced by the Buddhist and Hlndu

monastery-schools, which were responsible for " the soc ial

and r,eligious circumstances of the Indonesian people ln

the early period of the Islamlc era. In fact, however,

the pondok-pesantrens were more strongly influenced by

the kyais, who wBr~ perhaps ~üfis. The existence of the

pondok-pesantren as an Islamic educatiorlal institutlon

was established by the kyai with Islamic character and

adapted to Indonesian culture .

The development of the santren can no~;'be ~------~~------

seperated from the 1\1u~lim COmmUIllty: The growth of the

~, (pllgrimage to ,Meccaj ln the nineteenth century) . gave a positive effect. Ac'Cord~"}-o H.A.R. Glbb, the

pilgrlmage to Mecca was the most effective of aIl the

re;lgiOUS institutlon that nourished the community spirit .~

104 of Islam. The kyal came increasingly from among th~se

1 people' wh.o returned from the ~a il to Mecca. And the

.pondok~pesantren increased due to the ~aiI, as weIl,

al though, not aIl kyai had been to Mecca, and most of the

48

wel1 known ones had. By far, n?t aIl ~a.iIs were kyais.

The I;a,iI\ concluded an iJl\portant perlod of Musllffi llfe in

105 which many haJ1S became more dedicated,to religious life. ...

1

:

•

•

•

\

\ , .. wlth the.- _support of the society, mosque~ and lod-

,

gings were often built with the funds of. the wagf. Sorne

49

people gave a wagf or built a dorrnitory. Therefore"there

were buildings called regenCles, which indicated the

origin of the persons who gave the building anQ. the stu-' ,

dents who lived thare. Thus, 'untll the present tlme

there are "kombongan Brebes" for lI~stance, where the stu-

de~ts from the Brebes regency lived or "kombongan Cirebon:'

etc. In sorne places, kombongan lS also called bl1ik,

which rneans lodge or dormltory.

Pondok-pesantrens were aIsé located in the penH kan

. 106 desa (free vlllage). This system of givlng land for

<,eligl0us school existed in the Islandc and pre-Islantlc

periods. In the'Islarnic period, village units, slngly ,

or in blocks, were asslgned by the Sultan to the kyai for

the purpose of establishing religlous educational insti-

" . ~

tutlon. Usually the perdikan desas were free from taxes

or obligatlons and governmental co\trol. AlI authority

was ln the hands of the kyai, rna~y of whorn were closely

related to the sultan. An example is the p~rdekan desa

of Pondok-Pesantren Tegalsarl in Ponorogo (East Java).

It was establlshed in 1742 by the Sultan Paku Buwono II

(Sunan Kumbul, 1725-45) to show hlS gratltude to the

107 kyal, 1.e.Kyai Basharl (or Besari). Not only did the

Sul tan Paku Buwono II continue to support tlle pondok-

/

•

•

•

, \.

50

pesantren, bu~ he "also built the dormitory and mosque.

The pond"~k-pèsantren 'vas, and is, a continuation'of

st~di~~ for any pupil who wants to pursue and penetrate <'

deeper into Islamlc subjects. Such institutions can be

very large. The subjects' they 'offer may incluJe aIl -.., ,

branches of Islamlc studies. Studies include elemen~ary

Qur'ânlc recltatlo~, the Islamlc subjects of Law, Theology, ~

SŒfism, Arable grammar, the study of ~adlth, the lnstruc-

tlon of the Qur'~n' and its branches, al-lafsrr~·al-Tajw!d, ~

al-Qlrâ'it, lncluding Qiri'it al_Sabc

(seven ways of the

Qur' anlC l'''ecitatiofl),' Students may also .learn ~_he. ~h"ole

Qur'an by heart .

Several branc hes of religlous subjects are also

taught ln the pondok-pesantren: CI,!m al-Flgh, including­

Usül al-Figh and al-Fariï'ld lS perhaps t,he most selecte.d •

subject among the students. Arablc, lncluding al-Nahw wa

al-Sarf, al-Balagha, are also taught. cÎlm"al-Kalam . ,

(TheQ~ogy), al-mantiq (Logic), al-Akhlaq (Ethics), are "" . - . ...\

1

sometftnes taught, as weIl as al-Tasawwuf (HY9tics) and

al-F~iak (Astronomy). ,

Sorne pondok-pesantrens speclé~lllze i~ cert"aln Islaml'c

subJects, Ta~rga, as weIl. However, the pondok-pesantren's

-cha~acter and ~etho~ of teaching lS most lmpor,antly

lnfluenced by the kyais themselves. Sorne of the pondok-

1

1

(

1

51

pesantrens weIl known in certain specia1ities. For

instance) Pondok-pesantren Ljrboyo and PJ~o, both ln \,~

Kedirl (East Java) a;'e known in a1-Qawa'i d and al-TasawWjl-f~-. - . J ampes, Ke,diri is a1so kno!-ffi in al-Tasawwu f. Tebuireng

, --(East Javà') lS weIl "known in al-Tafslr and al-Hadith. ,

Purwoasrl, l\edirl and Buntet, C irebon (West Java) are

known for physlcal education. Alsa there are other

pondok-pesantrens which plaee~inore emphasis ;in the Qur'-. "(

anie SClences. These lnelude Pondok-pesantren ~asem and

Mangkuyudan, Solo (both in ç.'entral Java) and most pondok-

pesantren ln Banten, Serang (West Java).

Pondok-Modern Gontor, Ponorogo is weIl known for , language teaching (A~~bic and English).

_ c_ Dar a1- Ulum,

Peterongan, Jombang (East Java) is weIl known in

Tasawwuf. Pesantren Persatuan Islam, Bangil, Surabaya

(East Java) is weIl known in Islamic Law. Dar al-Falah, •

Bogor (West Java) is weIl known in ketr~mpl1an (manual

skill) partu'u1arl y ,agrlcul ture. These "pondok-pesantrens

are consldered as modern pandok-pesantren because where

the teachlng has been adapted to modern methods.

lIowever, there is no obligation ta take all subJects

'and the student is free to choose his own subjects as ..

weIl as follow any- kyal in the pondok-pesantren. There­

fore, sorne studènts study many subjects, \'lhlle-:-~ther do

not take ,an~ As a result, sorne of them successfully

,..

1

1

master their studies in a relatlvely short time. As a ",' ,

, result educational system in the pondok-pesàntren,

some student may become learned scholars of Islamics, .,1

however, man of them may attempt for y~ars without

acquir,ing an IrnoWle<Îge whatsoever.

nt

. ~.

, \

,-

/

52

- "'-

\ ,.-

1

0.

\. "

1

1

FOOTNOTES

"0 ' , lSee yv. J. A. Kernk~mp; "Government and Islam in the

Netherlands East Indies, lf The .Moslem World, vol. XXXV, no. l, Ja uary, 1945, p. 6 ; see alsô Fred R. von der Mehden, Re l ion ,and Nation lism in Southea t Asia, Madison, T e University of W~consln Press, -1963, p. 5.

\

2See ROSlhan Anwar, "Islam and PolJ,.tics in Indonesia," in Robert O" Ti1man, ed., Man, S\..ate, and Society ln Cont~mporary Southeast Asia, New iprk, Praeger Publishers, 1969, p. 115,' \

\ u

, . 3The Amerlcan anthropologist, who spe~t approxi-mately fifteen months during 1953-54 ln an East Javanese toym~re, . in WhlCh . his boo~" Tbe Rellgion of Java-, ~e.d Mojokuto was written.

,.4His dissertatlon on Santri and Abangan, religious schism in rural central Java, Camb'ridge, Mass., Harvard University, 1957; also by same " author, Religion and Polltics in Rural Cen'tral Java, .Ne",' Haven, Southeast . Asia Studie , Yale-UnIversity, 1963 and Javanese Villagers; oeial elatlons in Rural'Mod'okuto, Cambridge, Mass.,

M.I.T. P éss, 1969.

.. , 5See Rosihan"Anwar, op. cit., p. 116. ~

'. 6ci.-(, Book Revlew, Koent~ araningrat, Ma]a1lah I1mu-i1mu Sast?a Indonesia, vol. l, no. 2, September, 1963,

1 7 . Ibid., p. l 8~ .

pp. l88_l91'~' "

8KafraWi: The Path of Subud, M.A. Thesis, M"t(il~. UniverSlty, Mo nt,:e,Gl 1 , 1969, n.S, p. 176. ,

\ 1

9 \ See C. ,Snoù''Çk 'HurgronJe, Vers reide Geschrlf

" vols. IV,V, Bonn, 1 .24,1925;' see a1so Bernard H. Vlekke, Nu~antara A Hlst,or of Indonesia, The Hague amr Bandung, W. 'van Hoeve Ltd., 19 _ ~, Chapter IV; for mor..e· -1nformatlon about Is1am'ln ~ptiçnesi\l, see H. Kraemer, Agama Is1am,-, Jrd. ed. by C,A~van NieuwenhuiJze~ Jakar~a, Balai Penerbit Krlsten, 1952, especially chapters VI and XI; also T.W. Arnold, The Preaching of Islam, London, C9n~t~ble, 1913, Chapter XII, pp. 363-407. ,.

53

,

..

"

1 - ~ - -_ . . -

1

54

]0 . See c.e.. Berg, "The Islamlsatlon of Java," Studia

Islamica, J:V, 195.5, p. 115; For further details on Early " Asian l'rade, see J.C. van Leur, Indonesla Trad~ and v

Society, The Hague and t3andung, W. van Hoeve Ltd., 1951, especlally chapters 2, 3, and 4. f

Ils e e C. (' . \} . t 112 ~ uerg, op. Cl., p. .

l2See Kenneth Perry ~andon, Southeast ASla: c.rossroad of Rellglons, Chlcago, Ililnois, The University of .C.hlcago Press, 1947, p. 136.,

13C. A. U. van Nieuwenhuljze, Aspects of Islam ln _ "Post-Colonlal Indonesla, The Hague and Bandung, \11. van Hoeve Ltd., 1958, pp. 35-36. \

14 ccc See Abdu-l n\lu tl Ali, The MuhammadiJah Movement:

A Bibllographical Introduction, M.A. Thesls, HcGill .....-; Universlty, 1957, pp. 9-10.; For à brief account of Süfl in IndoneSla, see A·. John, "Aspe.ct$> of SUfl Thought ln , lndia and Indonesla ln the flrst half of the 17th century" ( ... .:1/-, ~IBRAS, vol. XXVIII~ 1955, pp. 70-77; see also, G.E.

l~ Marrlson, "Persian Influence ln Malay Llfe (121:)0-1650)," ./HBRAS, vot XXV~II, 1955, pp. 5~~69.

o l5Se~ S. Takd'lr AlISJahbana, Indonesla: Social ~and Cultural Revolutl0n, huala Lumpur, Oxford Universlty ~ress, 196,6, P .. 2 and pp. 10-11. , "

l6See Benedlct R.O IG. Adderson, "The Idea -of p'ower ln Javanes'e C.ulture," ln Clalre Holt, ed., Culture and Polit ies 'ln Indonesla, Ithaca, N. Y. C6rne Il Univers ity Pr~ss, 1972, p. 43; Compare, C. Geertz, Islam Ubserved, N~ H a ven, Y ale U n 1 ver s i t Y Pre S s, '19 6 8, pp. 36 - 3 7; se e a,1so C.C. Berg, "Indonesla" ln H.A. R. Clbb, ed., Wlther Islam. A Survey of Modern Movement in the Moslem World, London, Vlctor Gollancz Ltd., 1932, pp. 256-57.

17 Fol' ~ore inform at lon about Indones ian students in r-:gypt, see Will1am R. RoCf "Indoneslan ana HalflY

- "~-tuàenL~ ilLtai~o III the 1920 I S , II In<1oneSla, no. '1J/"'1tprTI, /1970, Ithaca, N.Y., Hodern Indone:·na ProJect, Cornell

Ùnlverslty, 1970.

l~ lbld., p. 73. 19 .,. ,

'- (. Snouck Hurgron~ e, i>lekka ln the 1 at ter part of the 19th' century, translated by J. H. Nonahan, L<;>ndon, Luiac U Co., 1931, p. 250.

, 1

1

. /

1

55

~O For more details on Diponegoro and Java War, see Justus M. van der Kroef, "Prince Diponegoro: Progenitor of lndonesian Nationalism, 11 The Far Eastern Quarterly, vol. VIII, No. 4, A-ugust, 1949,. pp. 4 2 4-50.

2l For lan acçount of tl e Aceh War.l see E. S. d.e Klerck, Histo of the Netherlands Ind16S, Rot-t·e-rdam., 1'938-., II, 342 ff. ~ . \ . ,

22 J ~:' For further informatlon on the Padrl War, see:.

Huhamad RadJab, Perana' Paderl di Sumatera Barat 180 -38), Jakarta, P. N. Balai Pustaka, 19 4; On the lmportance of the war ln !the history of Indoneslan Isl~, see Harry J. Benda, The Crescent and the Rising qun, The~lague and Bandung, W. ' van Hoeve Ltd., 1958.

23c.·' Snol!.ck Hurgronje in 1891 had entered the regular service of:the East Jndies' government as adviser for Orlental langu~ges and for Muhammadan la~. The first important task he was given the position to investlgate the religlous and pO]liical situatlon in Aceh, which was to ]ead eventually to his work The Achehnese.

24See (. SnouGk HurgronJe, Versprelde ...• op. Clt. pp. ;P9- 20 . This Jslamic policy policy has been critl-C izeJ1. 'by G. H. Bousquet ,in La Pol i tique Musulmane Coloniale des Pays-Bas, ~aris, Paul Hartmann, 1939. For a comment on Bousquet's ~rlticism and the Dutch Is1amic policy, see M. Natsir, Capita Selecta, vol. l, Bandung, 's-Gravenhage, 1954, pp. 153-1-67; see also Harry J. Benda, ".C.hristiaan Snouck Hurgronje and the Foundations of Dutch Is1amlc Policy in Indonesia," The Journal of Modern History, vol.

~ XXX, l-ià'r ... &h-December, 195b, -pp. 338-'47.

25 . "La polltique musulmane de ]a Ho11aI}de," quoted by Harry J. Benda, "ChFH;tiaan Snouck .HurgronJe .... , Il

op. Clt., p. 342 .

..... 26W-!J.A. hernkamp, op. clt., p. 15.

" /

L-_______________________ ~22~~~~-.-,-n~~~----~~---------------------------------.~.~/~---

1

2bS ee 13ernar.d Dahm; History of Indonesia ln the twentJ.eth Century, l:;ondon,--Praeger Publisherrs, ' 19ft-'; p.- 10.

, ,

1

.. "

1,1

1

(

1·

56 \

29 A . D. A. de' Kat Angelino, Colànial Policy, vol. II, Chicago, Ill., The UniverSlty of Chicago Press, 1931, p. 204; see als0 Edwin R. Embree, Margaret Sargent Slmon, and W. Bryand -M"umford, Island Indla Goes to School, Chicago, Ill., The University of Chicago Press, 1934, pp. 39-40 and 41.

-"-:r' 30see S.L. van der Wal, Sorne information on education

in Indonesla up ta 1942, The Hague, Netherl,.ands Univer­sltles Foundation for International co-oper'ation (Nufflc), 1961, pp~ 5-6. :

3l For further study on educatlon in lndonesla ln the Dutch period, see Raden Loekrnan Dj ajadlnlngrat, From llliteracy to University,. Bul1itin 3 of the, Netherlands and Nether1ands Indles Counci1 of the Instltute of Pasiflc Relations, submltted for the Elght Conference of the Instltute of Pasific Relations at Quebec, Canada, in December 1942; see also J.S. Furnivall, Educational Pro~ gress in Southeast Asia, New York, International 1 Secretarlat Institute of Pasiflç Kelatlons, 1943. •

/

32Raden Loekman.DjaJadlningrat, op. cÜ., p. ,10. Natlve schpol refers to educatl0n giV'en exclusively or maln1y to Indoneslan WhlCh was orlental in character, or educatlon for and by Indonesian. Instruction is given in the_local language.

33Edwin R. Lmbr~e, M. S. S1.mon and W. B. Mumford" op. cl t., }L -40.

34(; .1I. Bousquet', A French View of the Netherlands Indies, London, Oxford Uni~ers1.ty Press, 1~40, p. 100. . ' /"

35See J.S. Furn~val, Plural Economy, Cambrldge, repr inted, 1\)67.

Netherlands India, p; StudY oC/ The Universidy Press, 1,9} 9 .... /'

36See Raden Loekman DJajadlningrat, op. Clt., p-\65;; see a1so AIl Marsaban, "Indonesja" in T.W.G. Miller, eV-, hàu<-~i-eft--;i iT.-t5-o:rth-Lati E AS1.a, Sydney, IAN Novê:lli. -;'" 1<)08-;--­p. 117·

37 See R. A. KB""4't,·~···n1'he" o1"igîn- 6t~t11e Malay Surau, TI

JH13RAS, vol. 29, l'art l, Hay, 1956, pp. ]79-551.

1

- . {'

1

1

57

1

38According ta S. Alisjahban~, in Prlyangan (West Java), tajug lS mostly wakap; see S. Alisjahban,a,--Â-. Ereliminar stud of class structure aman the Su danese in the Prijangaq, M.A. Thesis, Corne Il Vniversi~, Ithaca, N.Y., 1954, p. 65. 1

1 39 p . A. Itoeseln DJ8Jadl.nlngrat-, "Islam ln Indonesia, Il

in Kenneth \1/. Horgan, .ed., Islam the Stralght Path, New York, The Ronald Press Company, 1958, p. 3 "5 5.

40AI-QurTan, Süra XXIV (AI-Nür), 36; Also the mosqu')s of Cod shall be vlslted and malntained by sueh as believe ln Cod and the Las Day (Sura IX, al-Tawba, 1 8)

4] The trans la tlon of the Süra is: 'ttve have lnde d revealed this massage in the nlght of power (la lat 1-qadr). And what wlll ~Àplain to thee what the nigh of power? . The n~ht of p~wer is better than a thous d months. fI (AI-Qul\'an 97: 1-3).

42p . A . Boesein DJaJadiningrat, op. cit., p. 387.

43'lradltiona11y it was believed, the spread of Islam in Javel was carrl.ed out by Wall Sanga, name]y: 1. Sunan (;reslk, or Nawlana Malik Ibrahlm;" known as Hawlana Haghribl (d. 1419), 2. Sunan Ampel (or Ngampel), or Raden Rahmat (d. 1470), 3. Sunan Bonang or Makdum Ibrahlm (d. 1525J, 4. Sunan Giri or Raden Oaku (d. 1530), 5, Sunan Gunung Jàti or Fa1etehan (d. 1570), 6. Sunan Kudus (d. 1560), 7. Sunan DeraJat (d. 1572.} , ~. Sunan Ka11Jaga or Raden Syahld (d. 15t55); for further detal1s on Wali Sanga see li. AbDebal,ar, Sed]arah llidup K. H. A. Wahid-­Hasjlm dan karangan tersiar, Jakarta, Panltya 13uku Peringatan A1m. LH.A. \vahld HasJlm, ]957, pp. 5-22, Solichin Salam, Sekitar Wall Sanga, ~udus, Mondra, ly63.

440n the ten~h of Muharram - the day the ShiCites remember the martyrdom of Ilusayn -. Un that day many people prepare a special dlSh whicl-us called bU,bur sura.

1 1 __

451'he Moroccan trave1ler (d. 1377) ;t~S vlsited Sumatra on h Ü; way ta (h ina in 1345. J

.--------,,- - 4 6Se e P.A. lIoesein DJajadiningriil,l, op. ('lt.-,\ p. 376; see also II.M. Lalnuddln, Telrich At]eh dan Nusantara, Medan, Pustaka [skandar Muda, 19611 p. 248 .

. "

1

1

1

58

47Sekaten 18 a festival occasion to ce~brate the birthday of the~Prophet Mu~ammad. In this f~tlvql, the p~ople are attracted to come by gamelan, a Javanese orchestra, and as soon as th-ey have gathered, a kyai or Imam preaches 1slamic teaching and finally they are aske~ to reclte shahadatyn as a basic condltion for embracln~ Islam. -

4b For further information on penghulu, see R.A. Kern "PangulÜ ", Shorter Encyclopedia of ls1 am, H. A. R. Ci bb, J.H. Kramers, eds., Leiden, E.J. Bril1, lond?n, Luzac & Co., 1961, pp. 456-59.

1 49 See R.A. I\ern "The Mosq~e ln the Dutch Cast Indla," E.1. ; see also by the same author "Pangulu, " Shorter E. 1. op.cit., pp. 457-59. The word of Ketib could also be deri ved from Arabic, kat lb, WhlC h me<lns the secre.tary.

... "t •

50 ) W.J.S. Werkamp, Op.Clt., p. 19. J,

'ra r See P.A. Hoeseln DjaJadiningrat, op. clt., p. 381.

52

For a more comprehensive account, see Ag. SUJono, New Trends ln Indonesian Educatl0n, Jakarta, Harapan Masa~ 1960, p. 1.

53Abdu_l MUCtl cAli, op. ~it., p. 19.

54See Ronald A. Witton,' Schooling 'and adult educa- , ~ tion ln rural Java, M.A. Thesls, The Unlversity of Sydney-, 1967, p. 205:-

55c Abdu_1 MuCti cAli, ~cit., p. 19.

56 ' The Muhammadlyah lS the blggest Islamic organiza-

tion in Indonesla and lt emphasizes activities in socla1 and r'eliglous work by stlmu l~ting Husllm ~e] iglOUS educa­tion and studies and promotlng the re1iglous life. Founded ln 1912 by Î1aji Ahmad Dahlan ln Yogyakarta. For more study on Muhammadiyah, see cAbdu-l MuCti cAli, The Muhammadiyah Movement. A Bibllograrihica1 Introduction, op~ cit.; see also Deliar Noer, The Modernist Mus1im Movement ln 1ndo­neSla, 1900-1942, Singapore, Oxford University Press, 1973, pp. 73-83; see also Alfian, Is1a~ic Modernlsm in IndoneSlan poli tics. The Muhammadlyah durirrg the Co-10n.la1 Period, 1912-1940, Ph.D. thesls, Unlversity of \'hsconsln, 1969.

•

•

•

57 Int~rviewed with sorne co1leagues of the write'r, who taught in the Hue aflimat for several years.

59

58pantiaran Amil, Vol. III, no. 6, March, 1938; see a1so cAbdu-1 MuCti CAli, op. cit., p. 74; see a1so Dellar Noer, op. cit., p. 83 t

59 For detai1s ;n account of the Muhammadiyah's madrasa, see Statlstlk Sekolah Madrasah Muhammadiyah, November edltion, 1962, Jakarta, Pimpinan Pusat ~luhammadiyah Majlis ,pe'ngajaran, 1962. ,

: 60persls' main concern was to disseminate its ideas ~y holding publ~c meetlngs, tablighJ by conducting sermons, $tudy groups, or~anrzing schools and publishing pamphlets, periodlcals and books. The important flgures in these movements acti v l tles w.ere Ahmad Hasan and Hohammad Nats ir. for an interestlng account of Persis see Howard M. Federsplel, Persatuan Islam - Is~amic Reform in Twentièth Century Indonesia, Ithaca, N.Y. Modern Indonesia Project, 1970.

61Hohammdd . NatSlr worked ln Isl~mic organizations ri 'and'schools ln Bandung, from 1932 to 1045. After the revolution he became "art y chairman of Mas Jumi' for a number of years. In 1946-47 and 1948-49 he was Minister of Information, and in 1950-51 Prime Mlnlster. Since hlS retlrement he has devoted much of his time to social organiz,ation t particu1ar1y in Dewan Dacwa Is1amiyya.

~ ~-. 62AI-Irsyad, or JamCiyyat al-Islam WB al-Irshad a1-

CArablyya, or Association of Islam and Arabian Guidance, abreviated to A1-Irshad, was established in 1913 and the organlzation gained 1egal recognation from the government, on Il August 1915; Concerning al-Irshàd, see G.H. Bousquet, La Politique .... op. cit., pp. 19-20~ see also Deliar Noer, op. ci~ ., pp. 63-69. See also a1-Bakrl, Tà'rikh Hadramawt al-Siyasi, ~hsr, Mustafa al-HalabiJ, 1936, Vol. II, pp. 257-350

1, • ",

63;am(iyat a~-Khayr wa~ established ln Jakarta on 17 July 1905. The organi~ation devoteq ltself malnly in two actlvitie~. The first was the establishment and_ maintenance of the scllo01s; the second, the sendlng of several youth ta pursue advanced study abroad. See Dellar Noe r, 0 p . ci t., pp . 58 - 63 .

b4 Ib1'd., 64 65 pp. - .

• . .

•

60

66~., PP' r 44-46~ see also Abdullah Taufiq, Minang­kabau, 1900-1927= Preliminary Studies in 80clal Develop­ment, M.A. Thesis, Cornell UniverFlity, 1967, pp. 91-92. . .

67Dinlyya schoo1 was estab1ished by Zalnuadin Labai el-Yunusi in 1915 as a further step in the modernization of the re1igious school. The co-eôucation system was introdueed as part of the western systefl1 and eopi.ed' from

" r the praetice of the government schools; See Abdullah Taufiq,op.clt.pp. 91-92; see a1so Dellar Nqer, ~p. ci~~, pp. 52-56:'

68Abdullah Taufiq, op. cit., p. 92.

69Ibid., p. 92; Fo~ further study on,Sarekat Islam, sec Ahmad Timur Jay1anl, The Sarekat Islam Movement: its Contribution to Indonesian Nationalism, M.A. thesis, MeCi11 University, Montreal, 1959.

7.0The P.C.A.1. was founded ln 1919 an'd the' govern­ment r~cognized lts legal right ·on July 7, 1')20. The main

>1 program of the P': G. A. 1. was to improve the educat ional system and to establ~h t~e religious sohools.

7 1For a more eomprehenslve report, see Mahmud Junus, Sedjarah Pendidlkan Islam di Indonesia, Jakarta, Pustaka Mahmudiah, 1960; For more information on Islamic educa­tion, se,e Dunia Madrasah, no. 3-36, November 1954 to July, 1957. Recent issue, Penda, issued by Directorat of Rellgious Education, Department of Rellgious Affairs. ,

72 : . If For furthe r de~ils see R. A. Kern !lp asantren, Shorter Encyclopaedla ~ Islam, op. cit., pp. 460-62; see also H. AboebakaF, op. cit., pp. 43-52; see also Clifford Geertz, The Rellglon .... op. cit., pp. 177-1 8 2.

73 R. A; Kern, "Pasantren, Il op. cit., p. 460.

74Ib1d ., p. 460.

7 5Ibid., p. 460.

7 boSee C. Snduck Hurgronj e, The Achehnese, vol. 1, Leiden, C.J. I3r 11 1 , 1906,'p, 29 .

'.

",',

•

•

61

J

77 See C. Geertz, IfModernization in a Muslim Society: the lridone$.ian Case, TI in Robert N. Bella, ed., Rellgion and Progress in Modern Asia, New York, Free Press; LOndon Collier-MacMillan, 1965, pp. 98-99.

-'78Clifford Geertz, "The J avanese Kij aJ 1: the

changing role of a culturJ,\l broker, TI Compar.at1ve Studies in society and history, vol. II, no. 2, ~January, 1960, p. 234.

79 Ibid ., p. 234. , ~o Jb1d., pp. 234-"35.

t) lLaporan Pene1itlan dan Sem1na:' Pend ldikan Pé.da \ Perguruan Agama, J akdrta, ProJ ek Peningkatan Penell t1an Keagamaan Department Agama, 1971 ,~. 5.

82 Ib1d., p. 5.

b3Ibid., pp. 481-82; see also A. Mukti AIl, Beberapa Hasalah Pendidikan dl Indonesia, Yogyakatta, Nida, 1971, pp. 17-18.

r;;~

b4See Il Seminar Pondok-P-es ant:ren se1uruh Indonesla, II Al-D,lamiah, No. 5-6, Tahun IV (Sep. - Nop., 1965), p: 26.

b 51\.1 HaJ ar Dewantara was born Raden Has Soewardl Soerjaningra"L. Under colonial rule his aristocratie status enabled hlm to persue hlS formaI educ at ion ln the \vestern

1

stream of the Dutch system. He dropped out of 'medlC.'al \ 9chool, and subsequent1y became a Journallst. He flrst 1 sett'led ln Semarang (Central Java), but in ] 921 he returned to Yogyakarta .. and -it was here he became a member of a cultural dlScusslon group, the .s~ehan Slasa Kllwonan, which seems ta have glven ·the f lnal lmpetus to hlS< decision ta found il National School System, which lS known as Taman Siswa.

\

~6Taman Slswa llterally. me ans "(~arde~ of Pupils." lt was operated in Yogyakarta in -1922. l'aman SJ"swa was not purely traditi.onal, 1t was con-sc iOllS ly pr~gresslve and"" open-rllnded. The central principle of Taman Slswa was known as the" sistlm among, which meant the construction of education"around the chi1d, making the maXlmum use of h~s own sel f-eùuc a"Llonal lnstincts.

•

• (

•

~7David Radcliffe, Ki Hadjar Dewantara and the Tamansiswa School Yogyakarta, Maj1is Luhur Bersatuan Tama~ S~swa, 1971, pp. 11-12. -

62

88See Ki Hajar Dewantara, Karja, p. 37~; reprinted . Wasita, vol. l, No. 2, November, 192R; see a180 David Radcliffe, op. cit., p. Il, n. 16.

b9S~e ~oegardo Poerbakawatj~, Pendidikan da1am a1am Indonesia Merdeka, Jakarta, Gunung Agung, 1970, pp.17-IS.

90Se e Sutedjo Bradjanegar~, Sed]arah Pendldken lndo­nes~a, YO,fD'akarta, 1956, p. 25.

911. J. Brugmans, Geschieden:u3\ van het Onderwi lS in Nederlandsch Indle, Groningen, J.B. Wo1ters, 1938.

92See Se losoe~ardj an, Soc laI Changes 11l)J og,] akarta,

lthaca, N.Y. Cornel1 University Press, 1962, pp. 341-42.

()3See H. Aboebakar, op. cit., p. 5; see also Mahmud -.J Junus, op. cit., p. 100. He states that Raden Fattah, one of the wal1s in Java was establlshed pesantreh in' G1agah Arun or Dlntara, in 1475. Now this place known as Jepara (Central Java).

Q4For hlst6rical-lnformat10n, see John Crawfurd, Hlstory of the Indian Archlpe1ago,' Edlnburg, Ib20; see also Robert van Niel, "'l'he Course of Indonesian History, li in Ruth T. 'HcV~y, ed., Indonesia, New Haven, Sou-Lheast ASla Studles, Yale lJTnl vers lty, 1963; see a1so Il. J. de Graaf, "South-east ASlan Islam to the Elghtepnth C entury, " The Cambridge History of Islam, vol. Il, (ambrl",?ge, The Unlversity Press, 1970, pp. 123-154,-..... see also D.C;. [. Hall, A I1istory of South-Cast ASla, London, ~~a(mi11an, New Y?rk, St Martin's Press, 106~. #

// 45See Robert ~an Nle], op. clt., pp. 277-7~. q6 - - ~ - -r / Mawlana Hal ik Ibralllm, according to the J aVdnese

chrofllclers.was one of' the important walis ln .Java and the f irst preacher ln Java. Dut modern scholarship prefers' ta regard 111m as a wea] thy ms.;:chant who __ probably made good money ln the spl<e traùe.

East ally

97 Brawij aya V was the la"st ol the HaJa)illt Javd, who re..Lgned l'rom 146~ to 1471'-. l was atcepted that Majapahit fell in 147~.

ru] er in '-'

gener­~

)

•

•

98Raden Rahmat, in the third quarter of the fif­teenth century, had been appointed imam of the Musllm community by a Hajapahit authority. His numerous pupils spr~ad Islam further across Java.

99 The Inst i tution of Rapen Rahmat was in Ngamp\31-Denta, the foreign quart~r of Surabaya (East Java).

63

lOONlzam al-Hulk was the minister of the SalJukid sultans Alp Arsa1an and Malikshah. He gained the power­fuI support of the culamaT, especially those of the Shafici school, of which he was an ardent champion, by the institution of innumerable plOUS foundfttion, ln parti­cular of madrasa.

101 For further details on Mus1im lnstitutlons, see

Maurice Gaudefroy-Demombynes, Muslim Jnstitutlons, London George Allen & Unwin, 1950. ;"9 .

1

102For a brief account 'of Islamic tradlti~:)ll, see Lsoriard Binder, flIs1amic tradition and poli t;ics: th e kiJaJl and the alim," a comment on C1iffort Geertz's --l'The J avanese Ki,'j aj 1. ••• '. ," Com arati ve Studies in Societ and History, vol. II, n?,..: 2, January, 1960, p. 250,

~r ,11""~

"Indonesia," op. cit., p. 257. 103 C. C" Berg;

104 Ibld., p. 372.

105For further detai1s ·~n ha j j see Jacob Vreden­gt, "The HadJ dJ ," B. K. 1. (Bydragen tot de Taal-,,, Land­Volkenkunde, Koninklij k Instituu t r, Leiden, 1962"5

106 For further informatlon on Perdika~ Desa, see W. Fruln-Mees, Geschiedenis van Java, 2 vol., Veltevreden, 1922, p. 86; see a1so C. Geertz, "The Javanese Kljaji: ... " >0<

op. cit., pp. 231-32; see also Robert Jay, Santri and Abangdn, op. cit., pp. 160-61.

1

l07F' . ft' P d 1 l' ] or more ln orma lon on ~~ ega sarl, see Ti,ldschrift "bol" Indische Taat-! LàÏ1d- en Vo1kenkunde, vol: XXIV, 1877, pp. 318-336 .

'> 1

•

•

•

(,

CHAPTER II

THE HISTORICAL ORTGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF PONn'OK MODERN. J

/,

1. The hlstorlcal background of the establishment

J 1 The hlstory of Pondok ~odern, Gontor Ponorogo (East

Java) goes back to the latter half of the nlneteenth

century. The relationshlps eXlsts through the weIl known

kyai oi' Pondok-Pesantren Tegalsar-t, ~ai ,Hasan Bashori

2 (or Besarl) when he took Raden Mas Sulalman Jamaluddln as

his son-1n-1aw. Subsequent1y, R.M. Su1a1man Jama1uddin

gave instructlon in Qur'~nic recitation and Is1amlc teachlng

at his pondok-pesantren at Contor. By the latter half of

the nineteent6 century the Pondok-Pesantren of Gontor was

wel~known even ln West Java because of Jama1uddin 's repu­

tatlon. Th1S pondok-pesantren was recognized as Pondok

,Contor Lama (Old Gontor's Pondok). -Later, this pondok-

pesantren ('ontlnu~d and wa~s headed by his grandson, Raden

S t A Il : 3 1 1 1 f' h t h~ an osa nom uesarl, W10 was a so tle at er 0 t e nex~

founder s . t.

We do not know much about the Pondok (;ontor' Lama ln

thlS perlod, and have no record regardlng lts deve1opment.

However, the e:Xlstence of the pondok-pesant ren was impor-

tant to the p~ople and it became a bond of re11gious

practices amongst them . By the end of the 1 ast century

64 '

(/"

•

•

65

Pondok Contor Lama WaS~~ly-gOOd-Sized Islamic

.' institution, but under: the pressure of the Dutch colonial

1 rule, it and other institutions of that time gradually

deterlorated and drew farther and farther away from the

llfe of the community. ~oral degeneration preva~led in

society as a result of neglect of rellgl0us teachlng.4

The becond wave of the establlshment of Pondok­

Pesantr"en Gqnt or was begun in 1026, and the lnstitutlon ! was re-est abllshed by the three broth:rs) the s~ps of

Raden Santosa Anom Besari: Kyai lIa,Ji Ahmad Sahal, Haji.

Zalnuddin Fahanl dnd Kyai l-lajl Imam ZarkdsJi. Of the

three founders, I\yai H~ Ahmad Sahal is called Pengasuh

&( Guardian) and, appar~ntly 1)e devotes himself mainly to the

moral edu~ation of the santrl as weIl as the development

of the bU1Idlng, wlÜ]e Kyal Ha,li Imam larkasjl lS stlll

the .dlrector of the sd\ool. The other brother, HaJ i "

Zalnuddln Fananl, was formerly a hlgh employee ln the

Departmen"t of Social Affalrs and member of the Ha.Jlis

Permusyawaratdn Rakyat Se1entara (Provislonal PeQple's ,)

(onsultative CongTess). Ile died several years ago in

Jdkarta.

,-T~lere are mant: factors wlue h stlmu J ated the fcv nders

to est.abllsh a new lystem of IsIamlc educatlon. They were

partIy urge~ by a sonse of "responSlbillty ta continue and

lmpro:ve t,he work of t,helr predecess;ors ln spreading Islaml<'

"'.

•

-.

\

-.

66

sciences and cUlture",n5 The other factors Alotivating

them were love for their religion\ and for their country, . ~

a sense of dut Y to carry out the sacred task of preservlng

the teachu« ~f Allah, awareness of whàt Muslims f:)xpect

from t ,heir capable and honest leaders and scholars, and ,_ 6

the welfare and happlness of m~nkind,

These factors prompted the founders to re-establish

Pondok-Pesantren Gontor and revitalized their flghtlng

spirit, thelr dedlcation, and thelr devotion to thelr'

educatlonal efforts, with the aim of the security and ",

f

wélfare of Huslim,s in partlcul ar and of mankInd ln general,

In Il) 26, hyal Ha Ji Ahmad 'Sahal proclalmed a new type of

pondok-pèsa~tren, call1ng the place Daarussalaam (ôPode of

Peace). It was, soon weIl known among the pe~ple and

popular ly l abe lIed "Pondok Modern" (Nodern Pond ok) Gontor" - ,

The t irst sehool established was the elel\entary

sehool, called Tarblyatu] Ath~a1 (T.A.), ln 1926, attended

un~y by boys from Contpr and l ts nelghbourhood, Later , ,

hUJldreds 0 r pupils gathe'red atl"ounu, By·_~th 1 8 t Ime, the'

J lnstructlon was not only for boys but also for adults, who

usually L'dme to sec the ky,Ü at night, \ 10

InstrUttl0n was glven only in reJigious teaching and

prac 1., lcè')in the 10('<;1.1 languàge, 1. e" Jav:anese. Sometimes

Kyai Hajl 1 Ahmad SahaJ performed acrobatie feats or held

"

[ J

•

•

•

\

/ ...

67 /

festivals with special food to attract people. After they .. had gathered, he would teach them. . .'

Kyal Haji Ahmad Sal).al divided the progranme of the

Instltution into a nlne-year plan, with three three-year

7 duratlon.

The first phase (1926-29), emphasized the intro'duc-...

toryrtea~hlng of Islam and encouraged the peo~le ta seek

knowledge, and to develop the spirit of Islam. ln this

phase there were three hundred pupils. Slmilar schools }

wer,e set up in ~ surroundlng v lilages as brànches of

Tarblyatu] Athfal (T.A.). .~-

At the second Ph~ (1929-3 2), new courses were

established té) fit soci y's needs. Instruction was r '

expanded to new ,subJ ects, lncludlng QUI" anic [,xegesis,

methods of propagand~, publlc speech, dlScu~sion, and

debat~. Also taught were subjects ln eduLatlon, psych-

~

ology, and related aredS. Dy' this time Barlsan :tvlubalilghin

(a propagandist group) was establ~shed.

By 1932 se~enty flve students wlth abllltles ln~ '" Islamlc teadllng and propaganda had graduatesl. Sorne of

> ..... ,

them estab11shed madrasas in {helr' 'own vi'l] ages, and many

of them. ,became J'vluballighs (propagandists), involved 1 lslaml( pa~tles as weIl as 80l1a] organization. ~

The third phase (1:932-35). Jn eap]y lC)32 Sullamul

( # Muta alllmln (llterally, the sca)ç , o'f the student.s) was

• ..

•

4

c~tabllshcu dS a conLlnt1at.lOn ot ''larbiYdtu {At.: [:}' ~ . The

... stud ent -.. numbercd fi ve h;;ndl'ed. ln this ita(~ , llch all< ed

i!-,]dml< l-IubJeC'l;·:;, and varl0U:-'> Vocdtlonal shîl']~ .lncl .

prat t l(' d 1 sc .lCIH es wcre t aught . lhe language u-;e.d was

Imlone~ lan. At tIn:s tlme "yal Hddi Ahmad Sahal a]80

Intl'oduced the Boy ~couts" i'>por'ts and clrama. Ile a.lso ,

intl'oduceu a(tlvltles for g.lrls, WlllC'h were dl;,:,(Ontlnueù

al i çl' a fcw yC<lrs. These dctlvltles were stl]} un(ommon

ln .ln li'>1aml.<- Jnstltutlon, or perhaps ::,tllJ strange among

the J...yais.

Al the end oi 1~)35, mdny clubs and youth or!,;,anl­v

_. " - of .l,allOns w~r'c CSLlbllshed. 'lhese were larblyatul JI\.hwan

(tur boys), '(al'b.lYdlul Mdl' laI! (tOI' gl'rJs), Mubdlllghin , " (l'ur pl'opù!2,'andl::,ls), lJintang l ~ lam (fol' Doy .':icouts) dnd ,:

.JÜy~dJatuJ Bddal1lyyd 'ldr'blYd1'l(1 At f • 1 (tOI' sport;-;).'

'Ille 1 U':-,,{ !2,'redt t,p .... tlVid· Wdb held ln J()J6 to mark "

\' l-..Jt Ol'S Il'Orll rtldn) pl'O\ IdH P,...,:, 1 edelcl·..., of \ dl:HlU:-' op!,;anl-

()l ' u.'n t .11 1 -; 1 ..." ,1I1e1 rntlll\ ut he!'.., . Ihl..., O( ( ,1:-. Lon marld~(.l a

(- -1.., 1111111 ( S( lino 1 lldlllt'd "'li 1 1 1 \ 'lt 1I1 'h .. ; ~II j LllIl Il. d 1- J ..... .vdm'h·) J

(1)..'1.1.1 ()l' re/llhel ..... Il'dtll!'r)~ .~( Iluul,

,r llll.lill ! dl ' '',\-, 1 !

J l ,\llll{ lled b) ~

--~\ .

"

~î \ f

,~

"--. .o. ,

•

•

••

lhe K.H.l. COJl~ls"ted of thanawiyya ü]a (Junlor

S('hoo]) whH_h WdS subsequent] y-. improved th rough the

establj s hment of cu]yâ (:::; e nior lIigh Seho01).

6Q

Four years 1ater, ln ]940, ln addItIon ta the ~.M.l.

ther. e was a takhassus dlvl s lon, named 'ledchel' ('0] lege of

'l 'heology ..rttd Arq.bi<.; where the .students lould spe<. ialJ,ze

It.s purpose wa:::. "to meet

o the shortage of teache r.s ln l11gh ~chools at large. fi

\ lhi t> <.~o] l e g e -Jevcl ,])l' uJe<. ~(àme ta an end in 1945 because

of th'e ol!lt-break of: the revo]utlon. 'fll e students, ' par!{-

cularl) Hl the }ughest <.la~ s , left the pondoh -pesantren

LIn urder to tdhe actIve pdrts ln the ~evolutlon, and , ~

becomc J nvo] veel in the war a g èL"lnS t (010nlaJ i s m. "

l t was t.cmporar' ily intcrrupted beC,.Hl S e numcT'OU ,S

santris wc re ln\olved ln the wal'. Many sant.l'is \Vere

member .s ~t 'lentdr~ Pela,Jdr (the SÜtelent Army) ,. Lven the

'.r.-- 10 • kydls, ,,:>u ppor-t ed t hem. \\-h e n the war was ov e r, '. some ,'::>ant.rlS

Q

re"Lurn e d t u t.he ponou/..., wh .Ile man)' 01 then! (ont.lnued in

,the-ll' Cdreel'b ln the miJ ';,fr<1l'Y t leJ d. Ihe Dut cil ",ere , \ ,

SUSpH lOU,,", oL l

the ky (.us and t,hc lr san-Lr 1. '"', and pond ok-

pebantr('ll)t' wer'e always und e r pressure fl'om the DUlch.

As 6 l'ObUl t oi -iJ1C revolu t 1.0n, i he ire -Ot'gdn~zatlon \'

o j Ponduk Modern (:ont 0 r' \'la .":; de] ayed . A l ew ~' e drs J ater,

. ... c.

•

.'

, , i f

1

70

Ar falI', tuu\.-. place ln t.1.Hliun ln 1 ~'4~. Thil! short revoIt

~oon -tnf lUf'n( ed Pondol-:: Hodern. lhe rebels destI\oycd the ~ '" "

pondok, i: hen t ook the kyal, and arrosyed and nedrly kll1ed

Kra.! Ildj i Ahmad Sallal dan Krai lIaJ i Imam ZaI'kasjl. ~,

A short t ime af"ter the revoIt, Pondok Modern (;ontor

wa~ conso 1 idat ed . Many student.., both 0] d and new came .,

bac k. In d short tlmc the number of stucÎents 1ncreased.

They Cdme not on1y t rom J av a and Hadura, but d Iso from

SUffidtra, "-al-tman ldn, :,=",ul awesl, Nus atenggara, and other

1 Pondok Modern helS developed and, progressed. From

ltS earlle:,->t lnccptlon, the founders had modern IdeÇls

l'egar~ing the ncfol'm of lslaull(, 'lnstltut IOns. Pondok

Modern (;on-Lor wa~ bet up llke other pondok-pesantrens

wltl1 thé kyal a,,,,, an e:x.e(lILlVe leader and ""l.th hlS santr1s

ever, the iounder want~d 1,0 ret~r:'m JsJamlc educatlon

along modern t l.olCS uSlng the pondok system. As the

jnstJ_lutlun ha.-:;J deveJopcd, it hels (retalned its pondok

but the l'ounder also ] ooked toward the futur'e, /

<I!dra<"ler,

élnd he be l 1 eve/~l :-;~rong] y in his phllosophy.

:"Jhaykh Ha,'-,an al -13aqürJ, former mlni ,...,tcr 0 f Awgaf

and lsramj( AfJalrs of the CnJted Arab Repub1ic had this

to Sdy when he v]~lted Pondo!..: t>lodern.:

4 ___ ~J

•

•

••

,-'f1 dm very much int erested and pleased to see and observe this~rondok, not because of lt8 building, not because of its students, but becafse l know t~at this Pondok has a deep and realAy strong phllosophy.nII

} -

Rus} an A.bdulganI, the former Icndonesian Hinister

of PeopJes 1 l<.elatlons, aiter obServl,g the Pondok,

cOnsidered Pondok Hodel'n CO'1tor as a reVl val. of ls] am in < l 12 ~ ndonesla.

Pondo}.. Hodern (;ontor ha'"> succeeded in maintainJ-ng

the educatIonal program, and hds madE?~.slgniflcant, progress.

lt has galned reco~nltlon not on]y tram the society and \

the government of Inuonesla, but aIs a from fOl'eIgn coun­.-

In 1957, fol' .Instance, -the goyernment ai the United

Arab RepublH' gave ai t'1C.Idl re( ognItlon through an official

letter s'la ting that grdduates of the "- .Î'l. 1. oi Pondo4-

f'lodern Gant 01' were aut omd-tlca1ly ellgabJ e for ddmlSS 10n 13 to lél1-ro UnlYers}ty.<lnU to Al-Azhar 'Universlt.,y.

" ln Il)63 a un1\' erslty -of Pondok Î'loùern (;ontor ""as ,

estab-\lShcd. It 1:'5 call e<,! Inst ltut Pendidlkan Darussalam

(Dar al-Sal am li nlY erslty ). From the outset the unl v ersi ty

".Jas made up of two U.\cu 1 t les: 1 ar:b1y a ( ,~acu 1 ty ot· Lducat lon)

and llsul dl-Din (Faculty of Theology). 14 In fhe fir,:::,t (year' --.

1- t had 101'ty studcn t~, must of wl-t(Jm gr.aduated f rom "-.H. l .

<.lnd later be('ame teél( 'her~. thcre . 1 h t [ lI' st 13d ( he] 0 r 0 f

•

, .

•

72

Arts degree from bot}} facultles has been fully accredited

and given the sta1,us of il state universlty degree by the

Covernrnen1, of the Republ le of Indonesia, thruugh the

. 1 5 t-linlster of Religious Affairs. 'Ihe number of students

ln the acade9'lc yedr of 1973-74 was elghty tiL\., of ",hom l.../

t weI ve were e xpect ed t 0 t ake th e f inal e~amlnatlon for the

Jb Bacilelor of Arts degree.

J 7 At present Pondok-Moclern Contol' lS dn 181a011(,

educatlonal ln~titution wlth the ~.t-l.I., a th~nawlyya

e ' •

1evel, a tiecondary schoo1 provldlng a tiix year course.

r lb 'Ihe number oi studenls ln\ 11173 was 1341 (1244 ln Ill70).

Sorne of them study there direltly aiter compJetlng ~èh.olah

~ Dasar, or Seko]dh Ddsar ls]am (the Prlmal'y .'::><.hoo1 or the

lsldml(' Pl'lmar'Y School) and .. ,>ome j'rom ,':,eko1ah Henengah

Pertdllld (.Ju~llor 8econdary Sch60I) . .. RecentJy, many 01: thern come l'rom Sekolah Henengah Atas (Selllol' Set ondal'y

Sl hooJ), dnd sorne corne [rom o1,her pondok-pesant i~enti. 1I0w­;

ever, rnost ot>.}t.he pUPJ.]:-' who ent~el' the l\..~1.1. have

comple1,ed prlmdry s( hool .

. Slnle 195"', Pondok-~lodern has conducted Sp~Cla.J t

c ~ asses, c,llled the ~e las LXperlOH:='nt (t he exper llhentaJ

c la":i,->e:o.) at1,ended by 8ekolah l\lenengah pert dma and Sekol ah

Il) Meneng<1h Atas gradua les, as wei 1 dS un l vers i ty students.

ln thesc (lasses the 1,edclung of t'flll !:;l,oUb .<.JItlbJe( ts, as l

we] J a'1 Arabi( and Lng] ish lS emphds lzecl. 1 ,'Ihe rnaln aint

\ ,

•

•

•

r 73

-' in the estab'lishment of these cl asses was to permit the

students ,."ho want ta study religious subJel'ts Jnd to

complete al] l'ourses in a shorter period. /

The stIpulatIon fo~ adml~sion 1$ an exa~ination by

Pondo\-. Hodern Itsell" in severa] subJecti:>, narne1y:

Indone~31an, ar i thmetl(" and abil] t Y to rea? the ~ur' an 20

and ·to write Arable. The sehoo1 year usually .starts ln

t he second week .or Shdwwal (tenth mont h of 18] amI<' L'a1-

.2.

2] Aecordlng ta LdnLe CastIes,

"GantaI' diiter8 from the old 8t.yle pesarttren ln t hai l t 18 more systemâ'ti(.' and dIse Ipllned, lt devotci:> consHiel'ab1 e tlme to secular learn­Ing, and h~s a more (omfortable, urbane atmos­phere that il lS somet.lmes, vel'y d lstant1y reminu;cenl of ~n Lngllsh or Austra] lan 'publIc S( hoo1 ' . IL dd i ers t'rom an Indones lan st~te <-;chooJ III that the ch Ildl'en 1 ive on i he pl'emlsès and are subJect tü Lhe disLip] J.ne of a full day', .... a(tlvitles and the unobtruslve but neve'rtheles.':> (Ontlnuous su pel''' lsion 0 r d strung-mlnded lOdlVldudl. 1here 18 a re]lglou8 clement in aJ] actlvltles. And the empha~ls on Ardblc and Lne,11sh- and the dIrect method of . 22 t ed( h.lng them i8 probabJ y unIque ln Indones la.) "

The kYdÙ.., and theu' santrls '~"

a. '1 Il c kya l •

1 'lhe term ITkYc.ll" l:-. , ... el] known arnung Javanese ln

pdrtlcu]ar and aIs? among Indonesians in generai. It

orl~lna]l'y i':.l.mp1y meani: o]d, respect cd man, or

1 r'

,f<.

•

•

•

\ l

74

chal'i':>mdth rellg10us t&ilcher, and alsu mol'(=' specfl<.aJ1y

-QUI" ilnl{' i. ea< her. IhlS Lerm l~ stijl used tu refer , to

helr]ooms -) spe~l1's, keru;t (J>risses) \yllJ <. h are cons idered

b

~Y.al is also related' to the term "(;uru" uf Sanscrit 1

urlgln, which means tea(hel'. Sometimes It refers tu the

lord, masfer, smIth. . '

( sm l th 1 lS uSUellly descr Ibed ln J a, el as a pOOl' iilnd 1 ~

humble man, 01' honoul'ed person. From h11:-o own behavlour

-lu ':") pro t esslon br.lngs lum Into contelct 'H th supel'-natural

23 'Ihe guru of i he ngèlmu kasampurnan (J lter<Jlly, powel' .

SC1ence of peJ'fel'ti~n) or ngelmu tuwo or sepuh (Jlter'ally,

uJd ..,llenC€), the S{lll'liudJ lE1adel' ln ihe an( lent perfect

,sclence, tedche.., us ihat /n tl{lS :-:,Llte une (.ln ha\G l

e>..per 1cn<'c:-. 0 f whl<. h or~e üS not capa bl e ln the llSU a]

"! ~. 24 star or lull <.ons<.10usnc;-,s. 1hJ:-',W.lS the influence ot

III ndu my,'"> t 1L al tedc 11lIl~ wh1ch pcrhaps was al -;0 adupt ed

lIuWC\CI', t he ~ can he (onsulered ct \ener.lble meln

",ho hd.., il d e~t'('e . ln 1 s] amH know,led~!'l and cl CellC a t es ~1S \ know~e(rgE' to :-,ocle\Y'Q M.lny of them devote them~e1ve/-) to

thC11 wur"- a,:,> a rnubd11.lgh (pl'opaç,andlst)j gu,l'U ngd,)l '(" .,

ln pondok- ' -"'.' ....

peSJ.Iltl'en) ;-;011\(1 oh them ilr~ do:-,ens (thc lectUl'el's ln the 1 4

( -unner':-'lty). The kyal al'e a1so callcd alim (,\Iu:-,llm

~

•

\

. •

75

J "

scholar), especla)ly ln rel1.glous subje<i.s. 1here ]5 no

(ategor, 1.0 be regarded as a kyal. Only regulative l'ustom

~ ot Lhe Jo'clet y dec ides, and no one ('an proelalm 111rnself a

kyal. Rccently, the tltlc of kyal has not been monopollzed

by someone who graduated trom pondoh-pe~ant ren. ~ome who \

studied ln He~ular 5ehoo1s and have an ablilty wlth rJF \

1 Islamic knawledge ~nd strong dedlcatlon to the re]lglon

\ h a v e i h e t lt l e 0 t ky al.

The ky<.ll in hlS classical J'ole, a('(ording to Robert c

RedCicld, lS a spcciallst ln the communicatlon 01 Islam ~o

the mas:-:; uf the pedsantry. At an estab] lshed l'ellglous ( ,

, sehou1", he ha~ J ong oecupled d pOi'>ltion J n the ":-,oc iai

structure of the local communlty thruugh whlch the mono-.~

~

thelstl<. J e;..cluslvlst Musllm <r:eec} ha':> penetrated the 25

tolel'ant, syne retl.~~ed lountry,'nde.

Accorcllng -Co (1lilord Ceer-Lz, the role,of kyal has

begun,to (hange 111 the Llst ilfty ycars or 50, and he

'Il! nder the pressures of nat londl ism, ls] anl1 e 1ll0dernlsm,. and the whole eomplex ot SOl iai transformations Whll h hclVe t al- en pl d( e Ln Indonesla ln thlS ('clntury, he lS be<omlng, or dttemptlng to bccome, d new klnd of broker ) fo~ cl dit lerent sort oi ~O( jet y ~nd a dlf[e~nt i'>ort of cuItur~, that oi the nationality cen­tered, metl'opolitan-based, intel] 1gen>;aa-led ' t New Indones id'. And, as sÛc. h, he hat> lnc redS­lngly found himseJf oe(upyin~ a new 80<lal role pre[Jnant \>,11th possjbllltles bath l'or ~eLuring dnd enhdn( Ing hlS 80('lal power and pl'Cstlge,

.• -

•

•

dnd tOI' destroying the essentlal foundations of lt: that ' of local party leader. In thlS effort of the kyai to combIne the l'ole of traditional religlous sehoo1 with that of nat i onaJist politlean are mirrored many of the conflicts and contradictions which cha~ac­terlse the contemporary, rapld1y . changlng Indoneslün SO<'lety ln general.,,2b

!

76

looklng back bn the hlstory'of Islam ld lndonesla,

one may JUsU y see tlle .]um tHm of the kyal and '{i8 l'ole

ln the community and court. A' probable expJanation 11es

ln the fa( t that ft, 1 dm wai-> first spredd t1n'ough the mes J id

and'-surdu, a1so "Ydi. ln cert;ln places there'arose pondok-

pesanlrerf 01' m"adra:-.ou where the pupil ~tuclled I,-.;}am. 'l'hose

pl dces were usuaUy establlshed ei t her by, a ky al, or a

su l "ldn and a180 by the loc al Husl lmf~' ommunl ty, and thcy

becdme lmpor~ant as lslarnl( ledrnlng lJlstitutlons. The

, ~ 0]' pondok-pe::;(mt l'en also becdrne J .:J,..J,1ks bet ween court

• and cornmunl"ly.

ln the edrJy twentleth <entury, the roJe of the kyal

begdn to (hange. Under the lnilul'nc/e 01 Islamic modernism,

and the ...,o( ,laI (hdnges the kydl ha ,s inCreaslngly iound

him,...,eJI' O(Cllpyln~ d new p"lltüaJ dnu soclaJ l'ole as weJl •

as d-l'ell~10uS on e .

l ndones id bc('ame indep~nden l dncl est dbll sIH:;d a Depdrtmen t

of RcJlglOU:-' Al1dlrs.

The e':.\.lstcll(e 01 the Depal'tment of Rellt;10US 'Affair:j

"

{

•

•

..

•

j

\

governnlcnt and th~s led to in<reased rellgious activlti,es.

~~n('e the firsi. Hinlster, HaJi ~!ohallirnad Rasjidi27

held a'

:posit~on in the Department of Rellgious Affairs in ]946, \.

'nlany other kYd..lS have joined this Department .

. I~ormer ly, the kyais '/ only leaders of the peasant.

communlty, out now t,hey alsq take poslt~ons in the govern-

ment and surne of them arc concerned wi1.h poJltlCS. They

also 1ntro~uce the Musllnl communi1.y to the w1cler worJd.

\ The ~ hang~n~ l'ole bein~ pl ayed by the hyai and oi'h'er

l\1usllm ledd ers 18 not an lS0] atee! phenomcnon. 11. 1":;

t1e-lai~d, or (our'se, tu the changes inthe :C;O(> let y a:::. a

whoJe. The nat10nal strugglc fol' .LndependerH. e aga.lnst

colonial rulc Lonf lrmcd them as leaders of the Indonesldn

people. Ait,el' ..lnclependence they fl]lcd the ofrües WhH:h

'0 fot~ll)erJ y wcr;/' monopolized by the Dut( h.

1l0Ncver, as mud1 as the h.y,-n~ are lound ln· guver'n-

mcnt pusitlun..;;, they sCtJI retaln a kya1 (hara<ier ln

t he11' ba<::-H .. funcllon in l he 1\-lu:::. llm (omnrunli,y, and more

ponduk-pesantl'en '. III 1hi.è> U1eSl1::> the emphasl .s wlll be on

;/ the kytlis and the 11' f un( t lon ln pondok-pcSé1l1t ['ens, USlng

( <:IS e;>'<lmple--. < el'taln p()ndok-pe~antren .c." part Hularly Pondok

\ '----- --;Modern Contor.

Bd~ le <:Illy, the Hu.sllm bellcf ~h that ~eel>J.n<:b kno',·-

ledge is an ob] l~atiol1 fol' every ~Iusllm, e1Lher man 01'

,1"jI •

•

•

•

7b

woman. Thel"c is no llJni t to Lhe tlm 1earnlng. Als o

to teach lS the dut y of every t-lus 1.1;\, and to inst ruct lS

a 'prlvila~e of 1earned man, sltch a s , the kyai, or c alim •

Nothing- lS more noble than to hold a rnajlls (counell for

study) .

Th e position QI' kyai in Indonesia e ~ pe(ially among

the Musl1ms ]5 highly respeeted and some holiness lS 2f\­

attrlbuted to him. The kya 1 is él rel igious teae her who .1

The kyai 15 u:-,ua'lly cl ha]l ,who has en11ghtens one's mind. , '

spend several yea rs ln the lloly C l tles:'~eel,,"II(ng knowledge.

Many a kya i becomç an (al im. There

( ' -[erence between kyai and aJim. Lv e kyai is essentially ('- ' c_ an dllm and <>\ery a11m lS a kyal. Une be eomes a kydl 'or ( -dn alim thrqugh study ln one or more pondok-pesantren.

Une of the J'emark~1e t1ungs in the Indaneslan Mus] lm

educatlon.al fleld -,-13 that there are very lew profesSlonal

1 1 1 •• ~f d '1 ' 1 . teac 1e1'1-,. ~ven the kyal lS not or<. e to t e de 1 no!' ln us

t e a<. hing i~ he supcrvlsed by any pers an or any <. oun( 1.J. Ile

--- -rrrc::t.ru<i. ,"i only because ai the ObJ.q~d t1.0n {lt lus rell[l,lon.

'lhe kyai usually tca<. hes in I11S own house and ln hu; own

\Vay. Neverthe]css, the r e are kyals who dedH'dte thelr

liv e s to the educational tleld, and e stdbJu.h pondok-'

p e santl'en. lq,r thle:; reds on, ln th..lf-.. thcs i l-, unly Fiueh

mat ters as are ùlreet lyre 1 ated ta pondo!. -pe santren \'1 dl

b e ,'dlS(Us sed.

"

•

•

•

79

The quest Ion may be asked, who 18 eljgibJ e to be d

kyai. lhe simples"l answer to Ùüs question "i.3 that every

one who consider.s l'limseJ} capable of Islamj c tea( hing or

!2ur'dnlc .l·e(l.tatlon, lS give_n_ t~e~pportunity to do so.

No "rcquirements are needed, no degrees or diplomas a~e

necessary to bec Ollie a kyai. There lS no one from whom one

as!.. ... permlSS10rl. Urd111ar lly, the "-yal announces, ' Wl thou t - - - - --~

consullation~ wl.th the people or the authoritles, hls

reddlncss to gi ve in structJ:on, and when and whe re he lS

I.,;oln~ 1.,0 tedch. LsuaJly, too, at the request of the ]ocdl t ; ~

"" people, the kyal may begln lnstruc t-l,on for a local group",

eithet' ln l)l~ own house or by establlslnng a pondok-_ .,. .... 't:;-\

pesdntren: .':Jomet lmes, ln;;;t ruci:lo-ri lS gi ven in a mes,] ld

or langgal'. Through the reputat 1.on 0 f the kyal 1ums e 1 f,

( ert aH\ pondok- pesan1..!'en md:': bec orne well "-nown among the

people. ln thls way. the sa'nt~ dl'C at. trdcted to t.lle kyai

As tlme passe~ the numbcr ot santrls

lncreasC,-,. \\'ith the support 'ot the local Musll.m communlt.y,

tht' santl'1.S bl111d the doOrnlltory where they \"1.11 llve dnd l

study. 'lln~ lS the ba~nc prlnclpJe oi the e.::.tabLu;,hment

ol' d pondok-pcsantren.

ln the absent e (jC~(fe7!;rees and d~pl()tIla::; wlHc h LOU ld

ln(Ll('ate l)l'oiessl0naJ stc.lndlng oi the kyai, bome I,lnu, of

tesl lS essentlal. 'lhJ. "'. test l~ /Ilcasurcd by t~he ...,O( let y " ~

....

.-'

•

•

')

•

bO

•

ltsel t, ln the abi1lt) 01 kyal lumsel i, and ln the quallty

01 the santl'J_"> who gY'dduate from the pondoh.-pesclDt l'cn.

If the ky,Ü dcllieveA d gcod reputation, the santl'is wll1,

gathel' around }llm and thelr number' Wl] J 1.ncreasc. The

su('('e:-:,~ of the sant rj s Hl thei1' (aree1'S 1S a1-,,0 dependent

on the qua] l t'y of t he educatIon they had ret e i ved at the

pqndok-pes,mt ren. The capLlbilHy of the !'>ant rIs is a\

plct ure oi 1. he quaI i ty of 1. h e :pondok-pes antren.' An

eè\.ample 1.S the Pesant,r~ Tebulreng, Jombang lLa,-,t >~av~\). , \

ln the t 11':::,l quarter ot the twentleth \8ntu1'Y, the quaJ\lty

o j the Pondo!... -l'esant l'en of '1 ebu lreng was (' Jose J y 1'o1a t ed

to the reputatlon a"bleved by lhe founder, l\.ydl lla]i j

c. lIasy1.m As)' arl and 111.'-. de!':>c.endcr;lt:-:" sorne of whom were

211 al~o kYd1.k. -

At the prescnt lUlle, the l'epuL.~tlon (li POlldok i'iodern

(;ontor l:-:, InsepardbJ c from 1. hat oi l ts t'ounders, i. e.

r..Vdl Hd,Jl Ahllldd .':::lahal , ~ lajnuddin J'ananl and r..yai lla]l

/ arka,':>Jl \

,f

Imam It not theref ore, i hdt le; SUrp1'lS1.11.g a

pondok-pesantren has becn Hel] known bec. au se 01 it...,

' .. ~ papl-H'ular k)al. f'urthel'nlOrE-', nlcl.t:ly pondoh.-pe:::;antren~

decll!1cd ln qUdllty 0<Cl' the dea-lh or the kyJ.i. Ihe

kYd1. j Ol'm..., the ~'hal'dC~ll' of the pondok-pesantl'en. 'lhe

-.,alll-l'i'-) oe(omc -.,pc(]cllist": ln ihc kya~',.., :-,>pl'(i~llty cyon

. ' .. t

\.

........ rl

~ f' ",

• .1

~.

•

t

••

bl

1he kyai of a ponduk-pesant1'en lS Ilot onl) a

relJgious teacher 'vIla g,lves instructlon at <-e1't3..1n 1..101eS,

he lB a]80 t,he O1"ne1' of the lnstltutlon, and devotes aIl

In.s I-d'e and time to lus pondok-pesantren. H1S dedicat ion

to his pondok-pesantren and Q1S sant1'ls has only on~

purpose - that of seeklng the willjngness of Allah.

lncluded in the dutlês oi the kyal l~ -the supèrvlsion of

,his santrlS. He lS also the1-r advisor and guardian ln

the affalrs of everyday lire. The kyal ls invol ved ln

al] actlv1.ties in the pondok-pesantren from earl;y mornlng

before dawn untl] midnight., .

R.A. ~ern describes thé daily aLtlvlties of riondok-

pesant1'en as follo,,~:

"The pesantrens have a ]=\.[e of tl1e1.1' own. (;reat a(tivlty -p1'evails even before dawn. After -the iaIât al-Subh ~~lLh the teaLher hdmself condu",·ts and ",!'nçh 15 Collm..,red by dhlk1', the leLtures b~gin. The tea(her takes

\)-the beglnners one af-te1' the other and after ' the 1.1' 1 esson they rei.u1'n to the poneJo k; he re the'y go over ""hat they hav.e l earnf'd by them­sel ves or' lv.l th a more advan< ed student or "'lt,h Lhe he ad .of i he J.?ondok untl] !10~ 1 he btuden-ts then have thell' mldday rneaJ, the s-ant,I'l of each pondok fOl'lll.1'ng, Olle mess; t Ill . .., l<-; practHally speaking (helr only mea1. Al1 ihen·go tQ chapel (Hl(.) Lu t.lte saLit, a1-zuhr. They:sumllloned to threë fur{her ~alats ~ ,

ln the course of tlle day. 1 he lnt er,'a1 s between them are devoi.ed tu Jcctllre:-,; and stuc],y l "he more adVaM(!3d st udenLt. are t aken t,ogenler by the t eachbr; Ile l'ead.;:; the Al'abl<' i ext, t l'anS 1 ai es l t, dnd addt. an) nr( e . ...,s ar, noteb ui e),.,plc.wallon. Ai'Ler the Sd!dt dl­('1~hîT the day's',ol'h. h Il\er' all(\ thu

, . , ) -.;1 l1dt!~lli~ l'et 1 re f\Jl' il-le Ill{.!.,nt. ".)l

.; , ,

&- -. • -,/'>. ..,.- \

". . . \

••

• . '-

•

'.

\\ certain In som\: ponÙOk-;~antrens

instruct ion iu the form of a general ] ecture. In the ..

" Pondok-pes'ant"ren of BuntE l', (lrebon (\Vest J av a), for

, . instance, the kyaJ glves Instr.l1ction aiter ~ubl.1, either

ngaJ1 kltab (read1ng book) or QUr'anlC re(itbtIon.

During the month of Ramadan, the kyai give.';) lnstruction

~n partlcu]ar kit.lbs, su ch as FIgh, TafSlr, Hadldh.

t1sual]y the lfhs truci.lo'n is glven after (I",h~' prdyer and

1 -:r:- - , 1S toi ow e d by !2ur'anlt' reCJ.tatlon. The In.s tru('t l o~n by

the kY,ll go~s on con t lnuou ,s ly until early morning, and· ~ . . , ...

he take onli a iew minute intervd]s tor i.ed or coffee.

Slmlldrly, He kyal 01 Pesahtren Tebuuang, reads ~ ln Tafs ir and lIadïdh durlng RaÎna'd;n:

At Pondok Modern (:ont or, the kya1 gl v e s a g e ne!' al

lec ture' after subh praye r' dur).f1g Ramadan. 1h1") lecture ai. • • t. • \

the present tlme, le;; kno\Vn as kuliah '3ubuh_Cthe subh . . ~-. . ] e <. ture ) . Incrfondok-Pes antren Dar al-r~]dh, Bo g or (\\est

Java) the kyal or the insbructor al~o gives a ge'nel'al

'lec t ure, called kU]lah s ubuh, ln th e early mornln~ a f ter

Su bh prayer. '1 h e actl vi t1es h'h.lch follow are gymnastics -\

and work in the stab] es and rH.e-f le] cl.

31 :.>tu dy ln the L] dS ~ ruo!hs .

Ldt,er the santris

Often, the kYdl. glVp ,t!; iI1~truction nut only to the ,~

. SdntrlS ln h1b pondok-pesantren, but, also to p~ople who

'.f

come tu'the kyal's h~use or ' pondok-pesantren. Sometlmes,

, "

t

.'

• o

.. -

~.

•

, '

lfI

t~ey 1nvite the kyai to give instr~ct~on outside the

11 pondok-npsantren.

The kyai lS r'egarded as the leader o'f the I1onèlok-• 1

83

pesantren and he'must be an examplary ~eader. Be mou Ids

the pattern aqd char acter of u the whole -pondok-pesantren.

·He is' also regarded as a mlraculous or holy person .

Therefore, many people 11ke to come ',to Îllm to ask for

happine ss and to receive h1S berkah (blessing). The (

\ t s,antr1S emulate their kya-i ln order to absorb sorne of his .. powers and k~O"le?e~J2

U : b. Tt\e .5antr 1

t

~s discussed ln this thesis, the te1"m "santri"

r e"l s to the pup11s w~o study in the pondok-pesantren. ,

However, th~ term also lS applied to Orthodox "Huslims who . \

take their religion serious]y and fully practice thelr

faith.

The Ws1 amlC t'radition of searchi~~ afte~ knoWle~ from the crad] e to ~he grave encouroages tJte santris, par-,

t~cularly ln Islam1c subj ects:> A santrl 'will go great

d1stances'" from his own town to learn from -one ' kyai or .

pondok-Qesantreq, regardless of his age or-the length of

t ime to study.

Another factor which encourages t~e people _to seek

cl'

knowl~dge outside oP their o'.,rn VIllages is the rantau

/'

" .'

1\

e

1

-e

•

. 84

pattern., which means on'e must leave las home land in

order -to be~omc a- man. 1

One becomes a kyai th~ough'study

ln d'pondok-pesant~en fa~ from one's own village. There-

fore, any santrl who expects to become a kyai woild do

weIl to attend a pondok-pesantren.

Th~ Sdntri oi pondok-pesantren may - ~e divlde~ into

two fJ!oups: Flrst, lrregular santri, and Second, regular o

santrl.

(1) Irregula~ Santris

lrreguldr santrlS are those santrl whu dol not "'-..,

pur:,ue thelr studies fo"r long periods. They come to pondok­

pesantrens and stay there temporarlly. Occaslonally they f _ ~ , ~

wlll go to"a 2ondok-pes~ntren to attend lectur~s by the

kyai l.n certain subjects. Most df-them are graduates o~

the pondok-pesantre'n. Sume qf :them are farmers ~ labourers,

manual workers, traders, busl1ness men, and wor k at various

Jobs.

Sometlmes; the number of ~

1;'han the r egular sant ris . They ,

irregUl~ santris lS more

wish tp 1tudY with the

hYa1, but thelr. major interest lS thRir professions.

Irregular santris may stay and stutly in pondol< -pesantren J\

[or a r~w m~nths, orne for a few ~nths, and tQen

return to the few months more.

Durlng certaln seasons ihe number of sueh santrls increases .

.. ;~ • .. ., , .

()

_e ,

e

However? dUl'ing~ the month of Ramadan the larg~st number

gather around"the kyai for study.

Anothcr fa~tcir determlnlng the 1xistence of the

'" 'Y>b " .:' so-called lry~gular santrlS ~S economlC. Many santris can-

not ~fl~o study in a pondok-pesantren for the w'lOJ e

Th e refore, they leave the pondok-pesantren in arder

t 0 ear.n rnoney and support themse 1 '(es by worklng 'in the ," ",-'

'r,lce-flelds, or ln other jobs. \\1hen they have enough ~

nioney' they 'HII go bat. k to the pondok -pesantren. Ohten,

sorne san~ris wor~l th,e ~yal T s rlce-fleld. rn many , pondok-pesantrens, particuJarly in 'vest Java, sorne santris

work fo~, the kyâ&.

There are a;so santrl kalong (ln West Java), Ilter­

ally bat santr:r, who come to see tne'" kyai <?nly at nlght, , .

and sI e ep ln the ponddk or in the mosque. In the day-time

they go bdCk to thelr own homes ·t~ work. Th~y ~sually

( I1ve in a vl11age close the pondok-pesantren.

(~i) Regular ~antrlS 1

fl .' The regular san~.l.s 'are tho'se whose maln lnterè~t

lS ln learning.' Thèy, Il ve in the pondok-.pes~ntren and

spend most of their tlme in study. Ii 1 5 excluslve1y

thlS second group of santrls, i. e. the regular santris., u > 5

that will be discuss~d in. _the following pages. \ f , .

Th€ sautrlS usually start thelr studies in the

.1

CI

e

'e

• , .

86

pondok-pesant'rt:m at the. age of thirteen or fourteen,

sometimes even earller. As' a general rule, the proRer

study ln pondok-pesantren lS taken

u:e complet lon of \thelr elejTlentary

up by ~hildren after

school studles, or , (. '. after atte~(hng instructlon tln the m~sque or pondok-

pesantren in thetr vll1àge. Sometlmes, t~ey only attend

the introouctory instruct ion of Islamlc teaclnng in the

mes]ld or langgar. In most pondok-pesantrens there are no c'

requlrements for admls~lon to pondok-pesaritreq. 6

They can

follow any kyal and they, can choose any subjects they

wlsh .. Unly ln certa1n pon~ok-pesantren, there are

~equlrements fo~ admission. The background of the sant ris

varles. Sorne ape young boys~ some adults, some'old men.

Young boys generally study the elementar~~~evel ~f . " -' " .

lslamle' subJ ec ts or study only Qur' anlc 'p~~, i tation.' The ,1: :', .

, advanced santrlS st~~y kitab (re~igious books written.ln f

)~ . ~ Arable. ).

There is no time-limlt for santrlÈ; in a su.hJect or

ln a pon~ok-pesantren. Only the santrl~ themselves limit

thefr stud~es. So~e r~asons for not cornpletlng ~helr' -'1

study ,dthin a specified time are: First, th~ kyal and

even the pondok-pesantren do not offer speciflc courses

WhlCh have to be fin~d in a flxed tlrne. Secondly, the

santrlS are free to choose any subJects or not·to take any.

It 18 up to the santri to ~ecide what he wishes "to study

• . ...

• .'

•

- . ~

and· tor how ~~fg, He a1so decides what kind 9 f kitab he

wlshes to·read. Sorne ~ntris go From one'kyai to another.

They may remaln at one ky~i 'for ' yerrs; or move

pondok-pesantren to alilothèr wi"tlhln ,a year. .

From one

1'0 s~~ ~i>, there ~ n: uniform age rt which '1 sante>

flnishes his' study. It depends on t~e persooal clr)um-

stanc~f the santri himse1f.

The relationshlp betweeh santpis 18 very close.They -' ..

Ilve a Ilfe of mutual help ahd cooperation, eNen though • 1

they come From dlfferent proVlnces and differen~ !slands\ .. Thelr mother tongues are. also different, but, because of

" the fe~'ling in the pondok-pesa~tren and their shared life,

they are,brought closer to each other and Ïeél like

brothers. The junio~ santris respect the. senior santris.

More lmportant than the ~hared material help is the , .'

exchange of~ eÀperience. The junlor santris do not hesi-

tate ~o ask help of the sadtris who are more eKPerien~ed.~

in the matter ol 1earnln~. The santris share their

experience with others.

The santris in Pondok Modern Gontor, for ex~mple,

conduct extra-curricular acti vj,-ties t.l)emsel ve~r' They have " ' ' , '. \ establi~hed classes for v,arious course, s"uch as, type";

writlng, photography, stenograpny, adml..nl.stration,

Qira'at, and Qaslda. ~hey also set up music, drama and

o 33 sports clubs. 'lhese élctivi'ties have increased in number .

1 j

'n, r,-

~~ ~ ,

f, 1

/ 1

•

•

'. ' .

\.

U Sari"tiris at Pon~ok l'lodern have muslcai ensembles which

t

include gambus (a Melayu orchestra) and a Western-style . \ , .

band. Tradltional dances are not taqght, but are some-

times performed at concert or on particular occdsions. ... ..' .. 'f

Sometimes, the wayang and reog (fo~k dances) - are performed

in ~ paFticular ceremoni~s or festlvals. 'fhe santrl alsp

• practice penéak-sllat (a system ot f ightlng) and judo

: 1 34 amongst themselves.

(i) The santris' daiIy'life ln Pondol Modern

,t;

Although there are presently no detailed reports in

thls respect, we can foilow the dally Iife of the ;antris

of Pondok Modern (~of3tor. The followlng repo\t relle~ on

the personal experlences of the present writer wh~ lived

in Pondok Modern Cbnto; for- seven years.

Usually, the santris wake up before dawn. ~he senior

Isantrls, or the heads of the dormlt,ory .wake up .. earller and

they wake up the oth~r santris. Howeve~, sorne of the& get

up late, or 'th,ey. wake up only for Subh praxer, then they t - • • • '. ~

sleep again. There lS no compuls2-0n to perform ~ub~

prayer in the mosque. UQly some of them pray in the ,

mosque. The s antris' a<.. t i vi ties in the morning ine lude • memorlzlng the lesson, and s ,~ple of them re"lte the Qur'an. -~

Sorne go to ~I~J square or court, for

<..lean the c~ses or rooms.

r - - -

sports, (ertain santrlS

(

,

l •

)

• \ .

..

•

•

J"

• 1

.-

" The santr is study ln c la~~rom t! ight 0 f C lock tlll

naan. TI'ft have only a few hours }or rest, ~nclUdi~g Ume

f or lune h and the performance of th~ zuhr prayer. The

afternoon classes start at two o'clock. ,

Only ~enlor

santr lS, :1. e. those Wl th fourth, fI ft~ and s l dh degrees,

do not attend the ~lasses. Sorne of them are teachers of

·thes e classes.

'J

After cldsse8 are over at four o'clock, the san~riB ~

may have sorne relax~on. The maIn re(reatlon 18 sports.

Sorne plflY -mUSIC. Some pantrls like to go to the sâwah, e

(r':1ce'-~ld) {or re<.reaV6on, and perhaps to a] lay thelr

homes ic~ness. })ur lng the recreation pel' iod Etome santrls

'c~rry books or p-.?perS ·ta memorlze the lessoub' : At ·SIX

o'clock aIl E!por~8 and other a.~tlvltlé:s ~t~p, when the

- be:l;l héJŒ -r-u-ng ... - AlI the santi~1.s gather in the· po~do k-pe-

8dn{ren~ Later, they have to go to the m08q~e, to per~orm

the maghrib praye!'. The .J ama ca Maghrlb (collectl ve

evenlng prayer) 18 ëompulsory. Any santri may be punlshed

by th.e 13a!;lan Keamanan (the Secur.l ty Department) WhlCh

w~tches ,ov e r the whole pondak-pesant~n and the, areas

around the pondok-pesantren where the sant ris usually

/"'- bathe .

When the lamà'a Naghrlb prayer ~s over, the Bagi.an

Penerangan (the lnformatlon Department), ano~nces the

~ • 1

slgnlflcant lnformatI0n or news . Thp infQrmatlon i8

.l

:

..

!

~.

• '}

1 ",

•

-, ( 90

. . tradit~onally given in Arabie, English and Indon~sian.

Often, the kyal will give a speech. Sometlmes, the kyal

D, l'

wlii have .askecJta a special guest to gl ve a speech. r Later, the santrlS wlll come bach. to the pondok for

the recitation of the Qur'~n. This reLitat~on of the

Qur'~n afte~Maghrlb is semi-compulsory. It lasts mOre or

less thlrty mlnutes. After dinner, the other compulsory

work lS C Ish3 1 pra~e~, which is obllgatory only for Jun:or

santris, usualJy called sighar ~llt'erally young), who llve

toge~he~ ln one pondok. '.

Before going to bed, the santrlS study'in the dorml-

tories, Llass rooms~ front-yard, hall or in the"mosque .

Most santr'ls go to sleep at eleven· 0 ',clock when the t • ,

electrlc lamps are turned off. The santrlS are, not

allowed out a~ nlght.

AIl 't'he santrlS at Pondoh. Modern Gontor Ilve ut the

pondok., A v~ry I~ew, as an exceptloil, Ilve ln thelr own f ,, ' .'

homes. rwever, t ~y must co.~e to the pondoh. ln order to f '

iollow the santris' activltles and malntaln dlselp~irle.

" Host." .01 ,the 'santrls are ~upi)Qrted ~ t'}:leir .,;are'~ts. ,

They recei~e wesel (money orders or bliis of ~xchange)

e~ch month. Sometimes, they aisO ~ecelVe palet (parceIs).

The santrls live and eat slmply. ~

.The actlvities of sahtrlS follow ~ baslc princlple

ot self help and self d~sclpllne. The dlscipllne of san~is

)

~.

..

•

. '

•

<

is fully S4pervised by the . santris themsel ves, under , '- the

guidance of the kyai and ustadh (teacher) o' The·re are no

writt~n rules in Pondok Modern Gontoro AlI one l~ asked

to ~o is tu lls~~n to nne's conSClence beforci d01ng some-

c- • thingo P'<;;)pular among the santris are the terms "shu ur,-"

and, "dam1l',11 WhlCh means to ask yourself whethe"'r you should ~ ,

do som'eUl1n~~ or not 0 ''l'he sant rlS aT>e gl ven freedom and

are tralned to develop a strong sense of responslhilltyo

Their most treasured mottos ~re: Berbudl ~lnggl (Noble

charactcl').i Berpengetahuan-luas (Broad kno-wl edge) ,

Berbadan sehat (Sound Body) and Berfiklran-bebas (Inde-

pendent mind) 0

Or (11) Tne organizàtion of santris

• ~

San~ris are not fo~bidden to fürm.80C'jal or POll~l-

... _ ..... cal organ~zations 0 In many pondok-pesantre~s,' ,~antris'

4\ are allowed to Join any organization, wlth permisS10n of

r

tre kyai. However, most santrls t'ollow the ky~'s line

or 'th ough~ 0

1 In this matter, where do the santr1S of Pondok

Modern (~ontor stand ldeologically? • Pondok Modern Gontor

lS completely free from the influence of any politlcaJ

parties or group interests .

takes the view'that pOlltics should be kept out ,of

35 edvcatlon. Lance (astle describes this philosophy as

foliows:

o ..

'.

, .

•

•

0,

"Hopern'" refers only tü teadi1ng methods, not whit is taught, whic~ is pure IsI~m, as it always was. No doub~ he reJects many kolot . pract~ces and suffered Opposltl0n earlier from the kolot. But whereas some modernists, es­peclally in the Muhammadijah, seem to devote themselves'mainly to the struggle agalnst

" conservatism, Zarkasji belongs to the rather numerous group who try to smooth _over the ç, distinctlon and ~void antagonizing old-fa­shl0ned people, conrident th~t pristine Islam as they understand it wlll in time trlumph

) over local deviatlons and conscious that secularlsm, communism and perhaps Christian-i ty are ~he ,real enemies." 36 "

92

J

~al lIa,h Ahmad Sahal emphas.izes ~th:is idea. He

hOP~S hlS santris w~lr become the backbone of the ~OC1~y, and not bècome involxed in· the confllcts among Mual~ms,

" cause~ by POlltlca: ~ro~ps ~r ideological or=,'ènt ion.

~ sheuld have independent mind and broad ideas . . , • 1

ConcerJing the organlza~lon of santris of Pondok

They

~lode!:!! Contor, Lance Ca~tles gives the follm"ing imp-

presslon: fI

AlI boys must be members of Pela jar Islam !ndonesia, ' ) \

J

(P.I.l.~:/a Muslim secondary schoo~ stu~ents' organiza-

tlon. The, 'tOf\1pulsory students' organization P:1. I. 1 -> 1 • r

belongs to the Mas)umi allrab~he - former 'scout organl­

..;.. zatioR, Ilizbul Walhon, ,.ras ·Muhamritadlyah-affilla,ted. 37 .

Accordlng to the present writer, the former organl-

zatlop ~of the s'antrls of Pondok Modern Contor ",as Pe"la.Jar

:LsI~ Indonesia (P. 1. l. or the Musllm ' Stude~ts' "Associa­

tion). P.I.l, was prefered and pèrmitted by Pondok

.'

-

• -

, '

•

• 't . " ., .

MO,dern Gontor because it is independent and no't affiL-

iated with any other'organization. The former sc'out . organization ,was Pandu Islam (not Iiizbul Wat'hon) whi"ch

I,was '.. 38

not ' afflliateà with any other organizatldn.

Recèntly, the organization of s2ntrls. at Pondok ,

93

Jvlod~rn Gontor has beçome Organisasi Pelajar Ponâok Modern ~- ~~~=--=~--~~~--~~.,~~--~,~-

J ... ~

(a. P. P .H. or PO!ldok Hodern Students i arganizatiqn). The

-a.p.p.M. is ~n internaI qr local ~rgan~zati9n, and com-

pllments the curriculu~ i~that it trains the santris in

organlzing ac~ivities. The b.P.P.M. has·two · Supervisors,. - ',. 'T • • •

'three Principie Gutdes, an Adv.tsor, Chairmen, and~ thir-

" teen d~partments~ these are comprised of;Secretaria~,

Finance, (Seëurity, Inst;uctiori, Information, Library, •

Arts, Sport,. Healt~,. Guest.Reception, Students' ~opera-. . 39.

tive'Store, Nutrition, and Cantœen.

The santris 'or Pondok,t1odern Gontor manage thlê :; .

" " ." organiza~ion by themselv~s. Election of office bearers

is held once a y<?ar, sa leadership èxperlence câp be -4

shared by a11. AlI members ele~t leaders by delJl.o-..

cratic proc~ss. L

The organizati responsible for f

matters relatipg to €he ac~i~ities a~d discipline of

santris. anc~ a year, thé officer of the organization ~ p

delivers his a~~ua] repo,r,.:t at a meeting a..,ttended by aIl

santr~s, teachers .. and kyais).

A remarkable achievement of the a.p.p.M. is the

•

••

fi

,~

••

(

'.J

94-

.. organlzation pf the santpis" activlties. However, this

C'ari. not be, separated from the· ed~cational goals of Pondok

Modern Gontor. With vne O.P.P.M. the santris are self-• 5 ,

governing. Another activity of the O.V.P.M. was the p

enlapgemen~ of the Santris' Cooperatives at Pondok Modern

4° Gontor. ,

The purpose of the estélPllshment of Studentsl'

C60perative lS to f~lfi1] the daily needs of the santrls. JP

) c 1

The managing staff of thé cooperatlve lS elected from

. , , ' ·amdngr~antrls for a one-y~ar peri~d. The cooperative has

1

a store where santris can ,buy their needs, such as' books,

stationary, sports equlpment" and food .

fhe initlal ca~ital of the cooperative was col­

lected from the santris themselves. The profit~·of the

cooperative are used ~or thelr tenefit, such as the

maintenance of sPQrt~ _ facilitles, purGhase of medi~ine, <!. ' ~ ..

securi ty, .organization acti vi tie,sl, trav~l €'xpenses of .J

the representatives """tô- attend co~gresses,_.&onJ~_e~.e_nce~l'

~nd other m~etings.

The d. P. P. M. particlpat,ed ifl; ,collecting ,fu'nds for

the Iconstruction of th'e mc(sque of Pondok M.odern Gont'or~ . \ \. . \

\

rh 1972-73 the O,P.P.M~ amounted to nearly three million \

1 • 41 Rupiah (approxlmately .$7, 22{). ) .

Anot~er organizatioQ of the santris is Ikatan

Keluarga Pondok Modet'n (r.K .. P:~ or ,

\ J •

,

)

•

• =,

l , 'l'

" ' ..

ASSoclatlon of Pondol Modern) • The I.&.P.M. was esta-

blishe(( ln. 1949 by the alumnl of Pondok Hodern Gontor .F ~

who malntained close spiritual bonds wit~ their alma

mater. The 'membership cons":l"sts tlf aIl the students, !

95

b1umrri, parents and sympathlzers of Pondok Modern Gontor.

The L.k.P.M. has a central ~oard, asslsted by local

"boards which a~ spread 0111., throughout the Arclnpelago. \

" In 19b4 the Thlrd Ndtional Conference of Ii. P.H. was 1

hcld ln Jakarta.

The 1.l\..P.Jo.J. hels the responslbillty of mainta;Lning

the future life of Pondok Modern Gontor and contlnuing -

the ïdetls,' 0:(; the founders. Executl ve -power is gi ven to

B~dtln \VaJ~af Pondok Modern (I:;ndowment Lomm~~ee of Pondok

Modern), who ~ e Illember:; a"e appolnted f rom the 1.1\. P. H.

The' found at lon has t\o.lo legal ,bodles, - l. e. Yayasan

Pemcllharaan dan ferluasan Wakaf Pon.àok . ~lodern (Founda- ...

tlon for Malntenance and In~rease of the Pond~k Modern • - <

Lndowment,) ' and y '~yasan Universit.as Daarussalaam (Dar a1-

Sdlam Unlveri;lty Found ... atlun).

(111) Tite SantrlS of Pondok<Modern Contor

'l'he boys who be'come santri s 01 Pond~k Hodern Contor

cume from varims .ethnlc groups and different l s lands

WhlC.h are ln the fir·st pl ace geographic ally extremely"

, 1 42 wldely chspersed. rlhey 1'1\'e _ togeth e r ln Pondol Modern

r

. "

• r·

Go~tor and they help each other. They are full of the

sp1r1t of ke1khalasan and gotong-royong (sincerity ând

mutual help). l'nis dem,onstrates the Indonesia"n nat~nal motta "13hlnneka Tunggal Ika" (Unit y in Dlversity).

" The question -15, ~here do they come from and what

, ,43 kind of boys- study ai Pondok Modern (;ontor: A great

, t

number of santr'is COD1C' from J av a"" They are from East

Java, 1rlcluding from Ha-dura and 13awean, Central Java~ ~

West Java and Jakarta. Many also.come from SumatFa,' from

the extreme north to the extreme south. The Sumatrans

are malnly fru~ Lampung and Pelembang (in the Southern

part of Sumatra), Riau, and also from West Sumatra. l'here

are , also some trom the South, East and West ~all~antan . . ~~ . ..,;

Stlll others come fr~m Sulawesl spec1f1cally from regibns t

such as South Sulawes1 and North Su]awesl. A few are -1 '. ,

..". . from M<?l uccas, i rom the Ternate .ancL Ambonla reglons. Some

of the santr1s a]so are from Bali, Lombok, Sum6awa,rlo~es,

and I1mo~. A few santris a~e from West Irlan, and they

44 are not sent from there every year.

(.

In addit10n, ~ost b~g blties such as Jakarta,

~ndung, Cirebon, PeJ...a~ongan, Semarang, YogyaRarta, ;

Surakarta, Surabaya, Malang are represen~ed. Th~re are

also santrls from citles outslde of Ji;tva, SUGh as

TanJ ungkarang , Palembang, Padang, Buk1t"tingg1, .Med~n

(aIl in Sumatra)., There a're dlso sorne~ ~~~;m 13anJarmas1.n, ; '~

t •

•

Samarinda, and Pontianak (aIl ' in Kalimant~n). Several - ~ ...

santris are from Ujung Pandang, Goro talo and Donggala

(aIl in Sulawesl); also there are sant lS from Singara)a

(J3ali), Mataram (Lombok) and Kupang (Tlmor). , J

In. the lQ70s there were sorne sanfrls from Japan '

and Thailand Linder ,h~~PQnsorship of Organisasl Islam If

ASla Africa (Afro-Aslav) IslamlC" Organization) ~ There

l w-ere also two santris from Halayasia.

Most patents of santris are f armers. Sàme are

tradesmen and buslness people of the illlddle class. Still

others are rellgious functionarles. A few parents are

c0!T11funlty .leaders J members of national elite or proml-c •

~ant rellglous figure or ulamiJ. There are also a s~all

• number of mlli~ary offlcers, civil ?fflCers, ~nd pegawai

negerl (government emp]oyees) among the parent~ of

45 santrlS.

Ilowever) most of the santru; are from, villages.

Nevertheless, it is still hard for many parents to a-fford

to send thelr boys to Pondok Modern Contor Wlnch ls rela-

tlvely costly ' (meal, fees, book dn~ !iransport). There-

fore, the-se boys seem to come fro~ wealthy v,il] age

famll1es, or at 1 è~st from familles who, have a 1 ."

of ribe-field. As matter of fact, there are

portion

the sons (

# of farmers who have more than the statutory maXlmum of

land.' Actually most of the santrls come from the 1.,

J /

•

/

). /

kabupaten '( distr1ct) \,'h1Ch is known as a plent1ful area.

As may be expected, the re are hardly any santris from \ .

the poor ar.e.as~

3.1 Tke current educational operat"ions

a~. The educational aif1s

./ Pond ok Modern Conto~ emphasizes the ~oral and

splritblal education and character development of tl-}e

s antr lS. Ths ob'Je ct ive educat ional alm lS to ~vi~~ cadres for the Muslim com~unlty. Pondok Modern Gontor

. ~ .

t)'les to produce Muslim prea<;her;'S and scholars who \\'111

devote thelr I1fe to pub11C service . It fully rea11zes

the slgn1flcance of the cadre formation as it re1a€e~ .. "" to 1"hat Musl1ms expect fi-om their capab~e an~ hon~st

.. ' )

leaders and scholars. Lonsequently, this places the

educational aims on splrltual and character formation.

Po~dok Modern Contor belleves that char~cter tralning of

the memoers of a communi t y. 1,S 011;e of th,e mo~t decisl ve

factors that determlne the patte~n of community life.

" Pondok Modern Contor trains the santris to develop a

and" strong sense of respons1bl1ity tOl.Jard their so\.ety

emphasizes ~oclal Musl1m community orlentations ~ '1 ~ ~ •

"Pondok Modern provldes soclal educatl0n. Every student is gl.ven practlca1 trainlng in observing and doing things that he expects

r

•

•

\

•

t · , l' f (~"f o encounter ln 11S uture'll e ln SO~lety. Things are organi~çd in such a wa~ as to give the students reaiisti~ pictures of life in society. The student~ are tra±ned to develop altruistic Jove and a sense of sa~riflce devoted to the welfare of the community, especla11y the Moslem community. It is" the lack of absence of such noble characteristlc~ that has brought about decadence in the M~slem world nowadays."46

We mlght note here, Kyai Haj i Imam Zarka;sJ i' s cri­

~lcism of mental pegawai (the menta1ity o~ government

official~): Their Ilmited point of' V16W res~ictsr them

to thclr government jobs. They work Wl t'lOut any s,ense of

dedication 01' ini tiati v~ and' they'" only work accordlng to

the boss's orders,-Kyai Haji Imam Zarkasji is a1so dis-, • satlsfied wlth the school system WhlCh is orlentBd

~

tbwards the produc tion of pegawal negeri (government

employee) . ~

The reason which is given for thlS +s that / ~ ./ /

pegaw'ai negeri i5 n<;>t free as it used to be in the Dut.ch

colonla] perlod when the offlcia1s obeyed orders fro~ the

Dutch. However, Kyai Hal i Imam ZàrkasJ l does not pre~t

his santrlS from becoming good pegawal negeri in the .

sense of belng responsible for the de~elopment of the "

country. Bothftai Hajl Imam Zarkasji and kyai Ha] i

Ahmad Saha1 enJLou;:ge the santris to becom~ creative , '

persons and so have many pegawals . .. ' ~he a~~iratlon of the founders of Pondok Modern

\'ontor lS to produce a kyal-intelel,-, or a kYél;i who has

. ,

1

•

0 ( , '.

•

."

• 100

Islamic krtowledge as well.' as the knowledge of genera1"

sciences.

o b. Pondok Modern Gontor and the main programmes

~\,

Pondok Modern Contor was ëstablished by stron~

spirit, deHication, and bellef in Allah's help. The found-

ers started without any materl~~ capl~al, only an ~ld

mosque and a p.i.ece of land, which was gi ven as waqf f,or

47 the purpose of Islande edueatlon and teaclnng. QFrom

the beglnning, Pondok Modern Gontor has trled to be self-, . supporting and to have no commltment to any politleal

party., The Instituti.' on belongs' to the Muslim community

" .' , and is committed to Allah t s help .. '

'Phe obJectlve of Pohdok HodernerGontor is to modernize

the method of teachlng in pondok-pesantren and td broaden

ltS scope ln arder ta keep abreast of the progress of

48 modern science and technology.

0-

The current operatlon, however, is a prelimlnary

1 step toward the ultlmate goàl, i.e. the Islamic Institu-

tion WhlCh lS the synthesis of elements of four univer-

sltles. These unlversitles are: Al-Azhar University,

Syangglt, Aligarh Unlverslty,~and Santlniketan Unlversity.

Without gOlni.lnto any detall, a brlef note should

be made here about the four unlvirsities which were~

related to the ideas of the founders of Pondok Modern Gontor .

..

r

• \

••

.'

• 101

..

(1) Al-Azhar Unlversity, in~gYPt, was established J '1 ~ ~

jn the tenth century and still exists. It is more than

'just a local mosque o~ university; it is an lmmortql

stronghold of Islam. Al-Azhar has become a centre of

Islamic learning to which students come from many Muslim "

countries.

The currl,culum of Al-Azhar follows the general l ine

of lnstructiorr of the madrasa,devoting most at;en~l~n to

Th~ology, Jurisprudence, Hadith and Arabie. In 1930 the ., . hlgher studies were dlvided into th~e~ faeultles: Theology,

, \

Islamie Law and the Arabie language. In addition, the

teachin~ of these aetivltie~ was gradually tr?nsferred

f h Id h d . Il b 'Id - 49 . rom t e 0 mosque to t e 010 ern co ege Ul lng.

(ii) Syanggit (or Shanqit) ln North AfrlC'a with the

generosity of its sponsors has enabled students to study

at the expense jf the Instltutlon.

(iil) Aligarh University ln InOia is known for' its

effôrt to modernize Islam. , Moder~ Aligarh owes lts proml-.. ...>. -

nence to lts unlverslty. The founder of the ,Institution

was Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khân (d.1879). The language of . •

lnstructi'on, w en the unJ.verslty was operatit,Dg was Engl1sh , .

except in subjects. Entrance to the college wa~

only Muslims. In the ~arly twentleth

centu~y, were several teachers of European orlgin ~ere --'"

50 professors of Arabîe.

~

- 1.-

.,'

. ' ,

' )

, 1

•

,1

•

•

, 102

\ ~iv) Santiniketan a la Rabindranath Tagore (1861- 6

1941) is ha11marked by slmp1icity and peacefu1ness.

Santin.iketary. (Hindi, abode of peace) is a uni verSl ty town

in the Birbhum- dlstrict in West- Bengal, Indial It has ,

g~own out of Santiniketan Asrama, a place of medltatlon

-in peaceful sec1usion. It was founded and endowed in

] 86~ by Maharslll Devendranath, the father -of 7b~ndranath

tagore. The latter, ln turn, set up a school ca11ed the

Brahma Vidyalaya, with the object of imparting sound

education 1n à re.1igious atm,os~here, In i 9 ~ 1 TagO~e started another experi~ental educationa1 programme ih

WhlCh the chlldren would not ,be' divorced from nature, where

they could feel themse[ve s 'mernbers of. a 1drge communlty,

and where they could ~cquire know1edge and grow, up in an

atmosphere of JOY, freedom, and 'mutual trust. In 1921

Tagore founded the V iSJi_a-Bharati Uni vet's i ty, WhlCh seeks to

deve10p a bas'is on WhlCh the cultures of East ,abd West may 51

meet in cornmon fe110wshlp,

With the s~nthesis of the elements o f these four

universitles, Pondok Modern Contor ho~es to produce ~onsum-

mate Musllm preachers and sch01ars or high calibre 'and t'

Ill' 52 integrlty, who wl11 devote thelr,il 1ife to public serVlce.

Pondok Modern Gontor drew on the phl1osophles of ,

these universitles in preparlng its ultimate goals. ..

These

universities are "models iri encouraging santris ta becorne

• f

'1 ...

•

/

• ,"

\ 103 ..

future oriented, with hi~h ideals. However, Pondok Modern

Contor has lts own char acter with p strong conviction'

that its ultimate goals wlll some day be realized. This

strong convictlon is manifested in lts programme.

• ) \\le might say that Pondok-Modern Contor has progressed i

in many pspects. However, since soclety is ln urgent need

of a large number of honest and quallf1ed re1iglous tea-

chers, Pondok Hodern Contor has not yet reached l ts goal. 1

It recogniz8s ltS dut Y to fulfil Muslim needs and to edu-

" .. qate the young generatlon to prepare "lhemselves for their

future lives.

Pondok. Modern Contor has outllued fi ve programmes to 53

reach l"lS goals. These are Panca Jangka (Five Programmes),

namely: .~ . ,~ ::- , ~;: ~

< l '...,.... ~

Flrst:'" '.~s!4ci!tion and Ins r:'l:;ctlon. The alm of thlS /'

programme is to maintain instr~ction and to lmprove the

standard of education. Slnce 1958 Pondok. Modern Gontorft

~ has experimented with classes conslsting oi gr'aduat~s of

Ju~ior High School. It also has undergone new develop-~ ,

ment since the setting up of Institut·Pendldikan Darussa~ J

lam (Darussalam Educational Instltute) pt th~ end of 1963. 1 1 - _

\Vith the 'establishment oi "lhi$ ~J1t!!y.gr-4,ity, an ~ttempt has . , i - " .

been made to redllze the ldea of a blgge~ Islamlc Univer- ,

Slty, WhlCh wlll meet ~hQ needs of scholars in aIl fields .

/

, " "

'.

• l

•

1

;'t, J04

ThlS need is so great for the srccess of national develop-

ment and the revival of Islam. Yayasan Perguruan Tinggi

Daarussalaam (Daarussalaàm University Foundation) was

establlshed as a legal b~dy to take care of aIl the needs '?'-" - ;/ of the university.

!

/ ;"

Second: Buildtng, egulpment and other facflities.

""l'tJ.e pllrpo 38 of thi;;; pt'ogr'811l.n8 13 to malnta U1 and improve

the present bUllding and ltS equipnent and to provide

.fllO~eW 'build ings and .other facilities. At ,the present ..

time permanent buildlngs have repJaced most of the old

bamboo buildlngp of the prewar periode Aiso several ne~

buildings have been set up: a school building, an audi-~ ~

to:r.1um, a heralth centre, a dormitory bUllding and a lee-

turers' house. the latter 13 called Perumahan Dosen ,

(Perdos). Construction was recently begun on a large

mosque with a hall, llbrary, and rooms for various pur-

poses.

Third: ~lnance. This' program~ mainly to main­

taln and t9 increase financial resorrees to keep Pondok

Modern Gontor going and to earry out lts eduçational pro-

gramme. The instlfution makes this effort in order to

ffnanee' the cost of the studeqts' studies. One of the-

efforts to seeure funds ~s to obtain evdowments of arable

lands (rice-flelds and plantations ).

At the present tlme, Pondok Modern Contor has an

j ••

• "

] 0 C;

endowment of about 230 hectares of rice-fields, which , . came from Muslim phi~antropists, and zakat (rel iglOUS

l ' ',' '

'taxes). These are.loGat~d in several place~ throughout

East Java,

Fourth: Cadre formqtl0n. The purpose of thlS 'pro-

gra~e is· to continue the work and to perpetuate the "

ideals of Pondok Modern Gontor. Cadre formatl0n is signi-

ficant in contlnuing and promoting the work and ldeals of­---\ the founders and the teachlng and managing staffs. The , cadres are now pursulng ~udies at various unlversities

at home, as weIl as at sorne universities abroad. ,Sorne of

thern have succeeded and are now back home and taking an

active part in the organization and advancement ~t Darus--

l U," , 54

sa am , nlversl~y.

Flfth: Welfare o~ .. t .. Rt{ farnlly of the faunders and the r

t'€dchlng, staff. This programm~ trles to relleve Pondok

Modern Gontor\ from the burden of supporting its founders

and teachlng and rnanaging staff. ",,1

Pondok Modern Gontor is J

l

thé p~ace for charlty. One do es not galn material proflt)

there. Even the founders and teaching and managing strftfj

are expected ta show their generosity ln supporting Pondok

~lodern Gontor. So are the organizers, the full-tlme ins. . ~

trustors, the members of the endowment Committee of the

Foundation, and their. assistants. Therefore, they aIl

support themselves .

\ \

,

•

.• -

..

t

•

106 •

4. Educational Work

• As already mentioned, before being 'permitted to

enter Pondok Modern Gontor, a boy must attend elementary,

school so that he understands simple arithmetic, and , , -k~ows ~ow to read and write Arabic. He must know the

, basic lslamic teat:hings- and- -he fourteen years old.

The educational system followed by Pondok Modern .,' is the pondok system, with modern methods of teaching. AlI

students l'ive in. the residences. The courses in rellgious

subjeéts ~nd gener~l studies last six years at secondary

level, which is called Kulliyatul Mucallimin al-Islamiyya

" '"', (K.H,I.), or Teachers' Training School .

The first year, ArÊbi~ is emphasized, particularly ,

oral speech. _c

In this year the subjects of Qawa ld and ,') ,

Sarf are not given s9parately as iddependent subJects, . but are part in the Arabic language class. Only in thé

l '

second year are these subjects separated -from Arabic.

In the second year of the programme Àrabic becom~s

- the ~an~uage of instructiori. lslamic subJects are glVen

in Arabic. .~ g.ood example of how the courses. are effect:i,.-.

vely t~ugh.t may be menti,oned in connection WiÙl the exam-}

i"I1ation. In the flrst semester of the SeCO?D year, the

exam~nations are in Ârabi~, There are also oral ex~m~ . '

inatlons in Arabic and 'Qur'an as weIl as in English .

..

107

• Other subjects; such as Islamic history, CAgaTid . , (Theology) ~nd Tajwld (The art of' :ecitipg tfle. Qur' an)

... ... - ~

,-~

- are also in Arabie. In the follo'W'i~g scho'o'l'''ye'ar th~ use

of Arabie texts is even more develotp<i'd. /~ A,

In tha foprt\ year of the programme, the va~lious ...

taBpects of Arabie ~anguage and literature are taught.

In~luded ln these courses are al-Nahw wa al-Sarf (Grammar . . . '

and Morphology ):, al-Balagha (Rhètoric~, al-Adab al_cArabi

,(ArahJ.c liter;ture). Religious subjects, for example,

Tafsir (Co~entary), Hadith (Traditlon), Fiqh (Jurispru--;. . /".

, dence), ~U sul al F-!Qh (Principles of Islamlc LàW) are also r=*

• taught' in tbis year .

-' In the fifth and sixth year courses, the students

\ begin to practise teaching: Usually they teach .afternoon

classes. Sometimes they also teach.morning classes under

the supervislon of the direc"tfor and' their colleagues.

Th,en, the director comments on or criticizes the sttldent

teachers T methodology.

General subjects are given from the first year 1 q

cou"rse through the sixth y':ear course. Sorne subJects are: . '

Arithmetic, Geography, National and World Hlstory, Biology,

PhYS1CS~ Natùral Sciences. Sorne subjects ~re left tci the

students for their activities out of classes. However, ,

it is not su~icient to look at a list'of subjects taught

• at Pondok Modern Gontor. The Insti tutiQ~ T s' educati6nal

•

•

• /

.... j

-,/

r \ 1Q&: 1 ....

work goes far beyond'its published curr iculum. 55 . ,

The question lS what per 'cent, of time should be Q

-devoted,to religious subjects and how much to general sub-

. ' ~ ..

j ects. According to many madrasas or pondo l}-pesantre-ns in ~ ~

lndonesia, each subject .~houid have a certain percentage. '.

, , ·One madrasa, more or less, ~ might be div1de.d itito 50' per

" (:~t for rel1gious ' subjects, and 50 · per cent for general 1

cour:es, whereas ·another ,mad;asa might be divided into 70

per cent .for religious subjects and 30 per ~nt for gen­

.eral subjects.

do es not give 'an~ ~ 1

Pond~k Motlern Contor ~er,

part1cular percentage to th~ courses ~

or subjects>;~ 'One sub-, ~

ject is equivalent -to ~nother. Anyoné can ,~dvance to

,Çl_nother class when he achieves a good mark in aIl subJ ects,

O~. the other hand, he m~ght faiL the entire .programme',

qe"ca~se he has not passe.d certain subjects, either r~ï~ gio~s or general ones.

When _ a student graduates from PondoI\.. Mod§rn Gontor he~

m~ght become a teacher at K.M.I. and usually he/ ~utomatl­

cally become.s a ~tudent at the Institvt Pendidlkan 'Darus-- " ~' ~

salam (I.P.D.). ~t is very hard, how~ver, to èompl~te th~ ,""

whole programme.. Less th'an 20 per cent of the student.s

• successfully finish. } 1 ~ , e

Very f€w of them are accepted as

te,achers. lt is onJy by 'Lhe reputa-tion of the student and ' /

the permission of the kY,ai th".at they are aCéè~ed . tv!any

\"

1 ',"

r

1

. f' • t

\ "" , v

1.

•

! '

" r JOq

" / l,

of them continue to study at univérsities iw.lndonesia,

f .P,

and sorne 0 ·th~m study abroad in universities, , such as

Institut Agam~ Islam Negeri (I.A.I.N.), Gajah Mada Uni-

'versity (in Yogyakarta), Alrlangga Unlversitr (in , ' '

Su~abaYd), al~o in Al-Azhar Uni~ersity artd Cairo Univer-

sity (in ( ,i1iro), and , Islamic Univers'ity ~of Medina. Sorne ,

of them graduate from those universities, and become lec-)

turers at the InstItut, Agama Islam- Negeri (1. A. 1. N.) and •

1eachers' Colleges~.Institut Keguruan dan Ilmu Penge-

tahuan', (1. K. 1. P. ) ."

Sorne of thern becorne teachers ~n Government and non­

Government Islamic Teachefs Training School (P.G.A.), '. ~

~ome of t~_em even set up their own religious scho01s or

~their own pondok-pesantrens.

Those who do not continue their suudies, can f~rther ~ .

their knowledge from books ," csince th~~ have already ", ... ~--

received adequate t~aining in lndependent study wh~n they

attended Bondok Modern G~ntor,

~. The teachlng of languages.

1 / '

Th'e teaclnn-g of languages, most part icularly Arabie \ .

and Engllsh.lS a problem ln Indonesia. ' Pondok Modern .. ~ i

Contor emph~s~~e~ both ,Arabie· ~nd Engllsh. The. language

teaching method ûsed ln Pcwdo!f Mod'ern Gontor lS the direct ..,.

, .. one . This met!lOd has been used Slnce the establishment of

the 'Institution.

•

o

•

"

.-

110

It is said, that Kyai Ha,ji Ahmad Sahal was disap-

pointed by'the faet that at the Kongres Islam (Islamie

Congres~) in Surabaya (in 1926),56 it was very diffi~ult

to find a Muslim delegate fluent in both Arabie and English.

Consequently, instead of requiring just mastery of Is~amic

sClences and geperal subjects, an active knowledge of

Arabic lS a180 ob~igatory. 'ThlS me,thod of teaching was

developed ln 193~y Kyai Haji Imam ZarkasJi.

The teaehing of languages is very effective because ,

the santris are forced to spea~~ After six mon~hs santris

are obliged to use Arabie and Engllsp for their C?llVer-

-,~ation. Th~y h.av~ conversat lon, to' practlce p.ublic speak-<j " ,'. -ing three time..,,;à'\'o'eek. Lach session called muhadara, . ,

cons~sts o~ practlcing Arabic, English and Indonesian . ..... J

There are no practical difflculties in practlcing these ~

languages because aIl of the santris Ilve in the dormitory

and each santrl influences ~nother. Many of them are

nominated as Jasüs (agents) for the Bagian ~eamanan

(Security Department). One of the J~S~ST duties lS to

observe the conversatlon'of the santris.

We note here, that Pondok Modern Gontot"· prohibited

\ its ,santrlS from readlng about nomance. Novels, magazlne

and other such Teadlng matter was una~ceptable. Never-

the'less, for the purpose df having a w~<Te reading back­

ground in Arabic or Engllsh, they are allowed to read

0\

7'

• .'

••

",

•. ,

111

such material. On certain o~asions, the santrls perform •

dramas in A~bie to exercise their "eap,NJility in Arabie.

Sometimes, they hold a competition ln delivering public

speeches in Arabit, English.and Indonesian. Ta lmproye

the~r ability in Arabie and EnglisH, they publish six

newspapers, thre€ in Arabie and three ot~ers ln English

1~

which are placed on many walls throughou~ the pondok-, '.

pesantren. ~

Pondok Modern Gontor has given the hi~est priorlty /"'\

to Arabic and' it is used as a medium of instructlon and

conversation among the santrls because of ltS signlfieance

to the Musli~ p~lnt of view. The importance of Arabie is

summarlzed as folloN's~

!lIt is an undeniable fa@t that the language , of Al-Qur'an 8r,the Arabie language lS, from the Moslem's point of yieN', superior to .ot.htJr languages 'of the worl d. The Arabie lS an absolute require~nt for the ~nderstanding of Islam, especially for those who want .. ~ acqulre aCor2ad and intensive knowledge of Islamlc theoîogy.'

Arabic is also a living language spoken·by maqy mll;tions O,f people, and is one of trre- ' offielal languàges of tlÏe United Nations. ..... ", It has exerted a strong influence on man~ other languages, beeause it N'as once the medium of one of the highest civillzatio ~ ln the wor]d. It is one of the aetively llving languages of the 20th eentury and is capable of beeoming a medium of~iversal culture." S7

1he other foreign language emphasizes by Pondok

o

Cl

• ' , ,1

\ Y'

•• J

•

1] 2

.. Mo~rn Gontor is English .. Considering the wor~-wide use

~t Pondok Modern 'f ... 5?-f Engll'Sh, i t has an imp,ortant place T

Contor, and is actlvely used alohg with Arablc. Formerly -

Dutch and French were also taught. However, Pondo~

• 1

, Modern Gontor belie~es the santris would do better lf

they learned one foreign langudge weil rather than

sevèral poorly.

In addition to Arabie and English, Pondok Modern

Gontor glves an lmportant raIe to the Indonesian language.

Indoneslan lS the santris' means of communication later

wh en they are llvin~ ln society. It is taught in, class

and used as a medium of instructlon in various sU?Jects. ~ .'"

b. Scout club PRAMUKA

AlI matters co the activities of santrlS

have an educational and teaching purpose. More specifi­

cally, aIl actlvltie~ focus on the development of cur-

.. riculum. Therefore, aIl the santrlS' activities are

under 'the mdnagement of the santris themselves.

For t~s reason, scout actlvlties are considered

important. It 13 essentlal that these movements are

pedagoglcally signlficant, because the activities of the

scout clubs are useful to the development of future~

leaders in scout movemerl: s.

AlI santris of Pondok Modern Gontor became aètlve

, '

;

•

•

• .J

members of the club Pramuka. They have one after-

noon a week for scoutlng. In the scout club the santris

also·1earn a vocational skill. To broaden the santris

know1edge, Pondok Modern Gontor's PRAMUKA sometimes conduct ~)

Qf-cam~us ~amping expeditions. To further broaden the

santris experlence, they al 0 pariicipate i~ numerous ---------- -

actlvities, both Jocal or Sorne of the members

of P9ndok'Nodern Gontor's KA were sent to Interna-.--;..=-=-~:..:::..::

tional Jamboree in Kuala Lumpur (in 1954) and sorne others

to the World Jamboree in the Philipines (in 1959).

The activltles of PRAMUKA are lncreasing in number

""" and quality. The members of PRAMUKA at Pondok Modern

Gontor have a goad rép~tation. Therefore, PRAMUKA's

National Headquarters gave them the sp~cial honour ,of

sending reqpresentatives to the First Natlonal Jamboree

at Jakarta held in Aprll, 1973. On this occasion, the

members of PRAMUKA of Pondok Modern Gonto!' showed thelr

ablllties ln aIl Jamboree actlvlties. They were given 0' S8

a spec+al award for their participation. 0,,,

1

•

•

•

1#

FOOTNOTES

IPondok Modern lS located at Godtor, a village situated far from city, about ten kilometer~ from Pono­rogo, or fort y kilbmeters south 6f Madiun (East Java).

2 Raden Mas Su1aiman Jamaluddin was the fourth 'descent

of the Kasepuhan Sultanate of Cirebon (West Java). --... ~

3F~r fu;ther informatio~~ see A. Hassan Zainal Hakim "and Abdul Hafizh Dasuki, eds., Sedjarah Pendidikan Pondok

Modern Gontor Ponorogo, Gontor, Balai Pendidikan P.M. Gontor, 1960, pp. 18-19 and pp. 24-25.

4See A Short 'Description of Islamio Educational Institution Pondok Moder~ and its Daarussalaam University, Gontor Ponorogo, (n.d.), p. 4.

5Quoteâ by Lance CastIes, op. c it., p. 30 from a pamphlet printed at Gontor.

6A Short Description, op. cit~, p. 5.

7For more inform~tion on the pr~grim ~he Insti­tution, se~ A. Hassan Zainal Haklm and A du1 Hafizh Dasuki, op. cit., pp. 41-5 8 .

SA Short Descrip~ion, op. cit., p. 7. 9 -Ibid., p. 7.

10During the Revo.:{.ti tionary War, many santpis, ,teachers and advlsors of Pondok Modern were active in the guerri11a forces and in the battle-field, fighting against the Du'tch army. Some .of the santris of Pondok Modern joined with Tentara Pelajar (StudeJts' Army).

lIA Short Description, op. clt., p. 23.

12~., p. 23.

l3 I bld., p. l,O.

l4For more inf.ormation on Daarus s alaam University, see Dokumentasi Pembukaan Perguruan Tinggi Daarussalaam, Gontor Ponorogo, 1963, for its curriculum, 'see Appendices III and IV .

. ,

•

• r

•

l5The Minister of Religious Affairs' decree no. 53/1966, ,issued on Aug~st 24, 1966.

l6See App~ndix 1.

]]Ç

~17For an interestlng account see Lance~astles, "Notes on the Islamic Schoo1 at Gontor, " Indonesia l, April, 1966, Ithaca, N.Y., Modern Indonesia Project, 1966, pp. 30-45; Reprlnted in Pondok Pesantren: Sebuah Anto10gi, Contor Ponorogo, Institut Pendidikan Darussalam, lQ73, pp. 204-225. .

1 8For the number of students at Pondok Modern Gontor, see Appendix V •

19The experience of the pres~nt writer who taught in the experimental classes in the 1960s. Sorne of hlS stu- ~

.dents were students of University in West ~ava.

, 20 As explained in a pamphlet, printed ln Gontor; see also Wardun (Warta Dunla) Pondok Modern. Rlsa1ah akhlr tahun ajaran 1973. ·' Gontor Ponorogo, 1?73.

21An Australian who visite~ Pondok Modern for four days in August/1964 . .

22 Lance CastIes, op. cit., p. 32.

23See W.H. Rassers, Panji, the Culture Hero. A Structural Study of Religion in Java, The Hague, 1959, pp. 2l3-24. , r

24Se e ~angkunegara VII, On the Wayang Kullt (~urwa) and its Symbo11c and Mystical Elements, Ithaca, N.Y. Cornell University" 1957, p. 14. ~

."

25See R. Redfield, Peasant Society ' and Culture, Chicago, Ill., Univ~rsity of Cpicago Press, 1956, especia11y chapter 3, pp. 67-104; see also C. Geertz, "The Javanese KljaJi," op. cit., p. 230. t.

26Ibid ., p. 230.-,

27Haji Moha~mad RasJidl, a prominant leader of Muhammadiyah; formerly Professor at the Institute cif Islamic Studies, McGi11 University, Montreal, and now of the Uni­versity of Indonesia, Jakarta .

- 1

•

•

•

116

2~See Hassan Shadily, A Prelimirtary study' on the Impact of Isl~m on a communlty and lts culture in Indo­nesia, Ithaca, N.Y., M.A. Th~SlS, Cornell University, 1955, p. 155.

29A comparative account on present pondok-pesantren see SudJoko PrasodJo, "Pesantren,"" Prisma, no. 3, April,

, . 1972, pp. 49-57; N. Dawan Rahé\rdjo, 1'Ky~, Pesantren dan Desi?,11 Prisma, no. 4, August, 1973, pp. 80-95.

30 6 R~A. Kern" If Resan-ç.ren, TI op. Clt., pp. 460 ... 1.

3lF ':>f t· 1 ~ d' A or more >n orma lon On ~, see ~amu Ja sJarl,

Kedudukan ~iai dalam Pondok Pesantren, Yogyakarta, Drs. Thesis, GaJah Mada, 1967. '.

32The eÀperlenee of the present writer. -'11--,

33The experience of the present wrlter, who santri at Pondok Modern Gontor from 1954 to 1961; Lance CastIes, op. cit., p. 35.

34Ibid. , p . 35.

35Ibid" , ~ ~

p. 41.

36Ib1d , ; ..,

pp. 40-41, ~

was a see

37 Ibid., pp. 35 and 41.. However, there are sorne points which are not qulte accurate or not in keeping wlth the existing facts. For instance, he states that seout were Hizbul Wathon, but they 'Nere actually Pandu Islam, before disso1utlon into PR»lUKA.

. 3 8Yor sorne" informat'ion on stud ents' acti Vl ties, see Wardun Pondok Modern, op. cit. This bul~etln (in lndone­

' slan, Arabie and Engllsh) is issued yearly to describe the main actlvitles of Pondok Modern Contor throug~out the year. '

,-(

39 Ibid . ," p. 2?).

, 40F~rmDrly, the Students' çooperatlve was cal1ed Baglan Social (Social Department) with a small store, provldlng for.~dally need of the santris. From period to period it was enlarged a.nd the capital a1so was in- . , creased: .

. ,

J 1

"-

/

•

•

117

4lOne Canadian dollar is equa] to 4~5 rU~la~ (Rp.)

42Lance CastIes, op. cit., p. 31"<:---"

43 The main sources of th1-S account of ,the santris 1:S ·tn'è material Wh1Ch the present writer recel ved from ~. Zainy,' a senior teacher at Pondok Modern Gontor ~d Secretary of Daarussalaam University, and the experience of the writer hims~lf. ~ ., ('

~ 44In 1971 there Jere three santr1s from West Irian (Irian Jaya) and two santris ln the following year, see Append lX VI. .

45Among the. parents of santris were Muhammad1yah ~ leaders, Hamka, >Kahar Muzakk1r ~ N. U. leader as 1 t \'Jas men­t10ned by Lance CastIes, Kyai Haji Syukri Gozali. There were also some mi1itary off1cers, such as Brigadier General H'. Muhklas Raw1, now . Embassador ta Tutkey . ..

4,6 A Shprt 1 Descript ion, ' op. cit. : ... p. 6.

47 This intention ~as been ~xpressly stated by P1agam, or Charter of transfer, Wh1Ch slgned at the Reception tommemorat1ng the Fourth Windu (32th Anni~ers~ry) in October 1958. - This reception presented by Government Dignities, both Military and Civil, Ambassadors from several Islamic countr1es, alumni and students. From th1S it was procla1med that the donation of Pondok Modern Gontor as wagf has made ~t the property qf Musl1ms aIl over the world.

l 1

4t1A"Short Descr1ption, op. cit., p. 6.

4'?See K. Vo1Iers,. "Azhar," Shorter E.I. op. cit., pp. 50-52; For mor~ deta11s on Al-Azhar, see Bayard Dodge, Al-Azhar. A Mi11en1um of Mus1im Learning, Washington, D.C. The M1ddle Eai?t Institute, 1961. ";;

SOSee A. E:/. Tr1tton, "Al1garh," L. 1. ' new ed., p. 403; For more 1nformation see Theodore Harison., H1story of the Muhammadan Ang10-0rlental College Aligarh, A11ahabad, 1903.

19, 5l See "Sant1niketan," Encyclopaed1a Britanica, vol.

p. 1049.

52A Short Dy8Cription, op. cil., p. 8 .

..

1

•

•

118

.....

! 53 For more information on the main program of Pondok Modern, see Ibid., pp. 10-15; Wardun, op. cit., pp. 9-11.

54The Pondok Modern's cadres are pursuing studies~at various universities, such as Gajah Mada Universlty, Air-1angga yniversiti, State Islami~ Institute, and sorne others

. at sorne universities abroad, ~uch as Al-Azhar Universlty, Cairo University, and Is1amic University at Madina.

\

55See Appendix II. ~

56Kyai Hajl Ahmad Sahal participated in this Congress as a delegate from Madium. This Congress was he Id after the return of H.U.S. Cokroaminoto,and Kyai Haji Mas Mansur from the Mecca gathering at which they reported.to the World. Islamic Congréss of Mecca (in 1926). This Congress resulted in the establishment of the Muktamar Alam Islamy Farcu1 Hindis Syarqiyyah, i.e. the Indonesian Branch of the World Islamic 'Congress (Mu'tamar cAlam IslamI) of Mecca.

57 A Short D~scription, op. cit., p. 16. , .

58 For a brièf information on scout activities see Wardun, op·. cit., p. 29.

(

.J ,

1

" ,

•

• >

•

CHAPTER III

PONDOK-PESANTREN AN~ ~HE,SOCIErr

1. The relaflonship of the pondok-pesant~en wit~ {he

community.

We have seen in thè last chapter that the establish-\

ment of pondok-pesantren was supported ~y Muslim community. i

Importaht factor whi~h played a vital part ln this matter

was the kyal. In the foll'owing pages, we wlll discuss the .. general.opin~on of the relatlonshlp ?f the po~d6k-pesantren

with the communi~y and the general public . 1

The baslc issue is that pondok-pesantren bel.ongs to

both the local and national Muslim çommunity. It has

played an important part in Muslim society right from the

beglnnlng. Most of the bearers of Islamic knowledge

graùuated from thlS Institutiou. . . Since most of the members of Indoneslan society are

"Musllms, the Institution was t~ place for devotlon. There-\

fore, many of them donated"

money''Or materials for theo

buildlngs, or they worked as needed to build pondok-pe-

santrens. A, local community, for instance, built a

pondok-pesantren th~mselves. In many places, pondok-pe­

santrens were establ~shed and-constructed by'the loca~

cùmmun:tty .

]1q

.. f;'

• ..

•

•

120

~Thetkyais play an important role in that they are

actlve in the Muslim commttn±ty. Bêcause of their religious \

attitudes, the people respect them. Also, because of _ . , their spirltu~l and intellectua1 activities, they can also

be counted among the elite of Indonesian society. The

~ority of kyals belong to the middle c'lass. Most of

them are farmers, and sorne have laTg~ rice~fields and

plantations~ Sorne are merchants.

The kyais stand out am?ng the people and they are

very close to the common people. As a reshllt, there is a

relationship between pondok-pesantren and public. This

relationship was accued and developed from time to time ,

and based on keikhlasan (sincerlty) .Frequently, the people .,

work for the santrls or'pondok-pesantrens, and other tlmes

the santris work cooperatively with the people.

How great the respect for the kyais in a community

can be observed by the example we have ln the construction

of Pesantren Dar al-Fala? In response to their religion .

and in respect to the ~, the people came in great num-, .

bers to work. Work was motivated by t~e khutba (sermon

ln the mosque) an~ the pengajian (religious instruction)

ln the langgar. The people worked together without- pay-

ment. They butlt the mosque of the pondok-pesantren, the

dormitory, classes and road. They came regularly, 'in turn,

from far away, This lastecl-- -f-or thl ee -ye-a:rs (1960-63). The .,

••

'.

~: ....... r " 1

/

121

: " 1 lnstitùtion began o~eration ln:1967. ,

;

Another examp1e, is Pe'santren Darun ' N,ajah. In 1965,

the Institution p1aning committee decid.ed to bui1d a new

'. building for classes. At-.that t~me it was very hard to ,

collect money, e~en'for the inltial capi~al a~~ the work

was interrupted. Because of the urgent nee~, the work

sta'rted again in,1999 and construction of the buildlng ~las ,

begun ln the same year. The people w~o ll~ed in the area

around tbe buildlng donated whatever resources they c6uld.

Only a few of them were paid as professional éarpenters 2

and plumbers.

places, a real form of mutual help existed.,

In sorne ,crowded;

therefo e, not aIl the santris are able to live on the •

campus. In these circumstances the people wi11ingly take

the santrls into their homes~ The santris also participate

in many activitïes of '~ he community. For ins~~n~e, they

gi vè instruction in Is~arni~ teachi~g, have road~ 'or , '

bridgès built, construG~ houses, and ev en becorne lnvo1ved

in indlvldual relationships~

Such a relationshlp depends on the characterl~tic

of the pondok-pesantren itself and those of the community

as weIl. Sorne pondok-p'esantrens become involved ln the

community's activities and others do not. Most pondok~ '

1

pe'santrens have been established by kyai§. but built by

" :

•

•

•

, ( 122

respecti~e ~Qmmunitie,. However, some have

, been esta/-.

.,

\

blished by k:yais with backing' of . certain individuals and

they continue to receive their financial support t'rom

cthese indi v1çluals -:~: , . .

]n mos~?f the villages there are pondok-pesantrens e

or madras as or at least places for-Islamic instructlon ..

In fact, the ,pondok-pesantren usually st~nd& side by slde

with the mosque or langgar. It is estima~ed that by 1954 " 1 there were about 12,000 madrasas with abo~t a million and

1

a half pupils, compa~ed to 53,000 pesantrens with nearly ) :s ..

3 two 11).11110n pup1ls. However, the, exact number of phndok-

pesantren ls unkndwn.

apparent that Indohe~ian Muslims have aètively partic1pated 1 in the building and development of Indonesia . • :J • "

1 • 02. The typas of-Pondok-pesantren

, -For a descripti~e compar1son, it might be useful to

, give a brief description of some pondok-pesantrerts in

/ differ.~nt areas, namely: Buntet, Cïrebon (West Java),

Tebuirentf Jombang (East Java) and J),âr al-FàlJ~l, :ijogor

(West Java). J,;

'\

- .. , ....

• " (

,

..--. "ï"23 Jo

, 7 a)n Pondok-pesantren Buntet, Clrebon

q This institution was founded in 1798.8

However,

accordlng to sorne sources ît was founded in 1750. Still

other sources clairn it was founded at the beginnlng of

the Java War, ln 18~5. The founder was Kyai Muqoyirn, a ,. ';

..-/rnutti' of th'e Sultan in Cirebon. q

He left his posltion , because he refused to cooperate with the Dutch. The men

, ~' w~o conllnued his work w'ere Kyai Ba,ii Hutaad (d.ltl52) and ft

.. Kya'l Ha.ii Abdul Jarnil (d.1919). During the Revolutlon, the

./

Institution was headed by ~yai HaJi Abbas (1879-1946), The

present kyai is Kyal Haji Hustahdi Ab.bas':,9 .

ThlS is not the pl~Le to deal wlth the history of

the Institution. O~ly sorne aspects of ltS operation during " b ) f'"

the perl.od of Kyai Haal Abbas and 'thE) pe_r,lod. just fo1lowing

are.1f'noted here. -,

\v}llle Kyal Hajl Abba~ was· kyal at Pondok-Pesantren

Buntet, he was dlrectly responsible for'its organization. ... ...l " ~ .. :')

Ife was ass,lsted by the boaI'd of kyais, whieh was cal]ed \0

MaJ]ls Sesep~h: The kyals on the teaching staff were each

responslbJe fOr teaching thelr o~n speclallty arnongst the'

Qur'ânlC and rellglous-subJects. These subjects were

h.yal Hall-Abbas was sULceeded by hlS oldest' son,'

~1ustahdl AiJbas, who lS. prese~t J y the ky~i 0 f the Instl tution.

~ . , .

•

•

• .' ~

"

--.... Nowadays, the organiza'tion of the Insti tut::on is

" -div ided into two councils. The first is Maj 1 is Sesepuh.

~

Thl;s Maj lis ac'ts as policy maker, in religious or in

educational and social operations. The second council,

Majlls Pelaksana Utama (Tanfidhlyya) serves as an execu-

tive board in the administration and education o~ pondok-

pesantren.

- ~-~ The current educational operatlon of Pesàntren

Buntet is a combinat ion of the pondok-pesantren and madrasa

systems. The kyai gi ve,s, instruction in _kitab, elther in

his house or ln the masque of the Instithlt~t. The~e are

" also gener~l lectur'es by certain ky~~, duri Ramadan.

There are also madrasas! organized c)assroom instruction in

rel igious and general subjects. ,_

By 1960 there were !?endidikan Guru Agama (P,G.A:L) in'

six-year courses for both boys and girls. 'i,

In 196 8 the

Hadrasah CAliyah Agama Islam Negeri (M.A.A,I.N.) was set

up. Two years later, an ,Islamic Unlversity, "Cakra Buana" )

and an Academy of the Qur t an were opened.

Most of the santris (boys and girls) live in the

dormitory, though some of them ]ive off campus. At the

present'", tim~ there are 3670 santri.s, lne luding the santrls /

who study at the pondok-pesantren, 10

madrasa and unlverslty.

-

L ,

• ?

./

•

•

, , 125

b) Pondok-Pesantren Tebuireng, Jombang

The founder of this institution was Kyai Haji ~

c HasyIm Asy ari (d.1947) who was known as kyai Tebuireng.

The Instituti~n ,was founded in 1899. The organizatlon

of the InstItution consisted of a simple dwelllng-house,

where the kyai and his 28 santris, lived together. After

many years ,of struggle, the pondok-pesantr,en was completed

wIth the .,constructIon of a mosque, dormI tories a Q:

buildIng for inst~uctio~. Then, thousand of sant~s came Il

from aIl over Java. \

c J The accqmplishment,of Kyai Haji Hasyim Asy ari can

be best understood by observing his dai1y schedule. In

the early morning, before dawn, he prayed ln the ,mosque

w~th hIS santrlS. This was followed by dhikr and recitatlon ,

of the Qur,an. At 6.30 tha-lecture for advanced santris p

WhlCh 1asted unt il la. 00 began ln hlS house. !fwo and hal f

} hours was taken for a_ break, ln which the kyai mIght réad

the kitab'J.r writ J , or meet vlsItors. In the afternoon,

after pray 1.. n' zuhr, instructlOtl began. InstructIon was " 12 13 '

glven eltp by bandungan or sorogan. This 1asted -

untll 5.30 w1th of one in.terr~Ption in·

Instru~ti6n "perlod fOl praying a-:,r-. The

the middle of the

evening lectures

.were gi ven after

11. 00.14

c -Isha! This lecture 1aè~ed untIl

~ ..

•

•

0,

• .

126

In addition to these regular lectures during ~

Ramadan there were special lectures for reading hadith's

. 15 boo'ks, BUkharl and Mus1lm. ,

Besides the above-out1ined instruction in the pondok

system, there were madrasas which had a new method of

teaching. This system was begun only in -t;;he èàrly twen-,

T-eth century. These madrasas were dlvided, into two parts.

~These were Thanawiyya A where re1igious s~bjects cQmprised

75 per cent:of the materia1 and 25 per cent was devoted

to general subjects; and Th~nawiyya B, where 25 per cent . was devoted to re1igious subjects and 75 per cent to

genera1 subjects.16

This progress was due to Kyal Haji

I1yas~ Haj l A. Wahid HaSYim,}fo and Kyal Haji

19 Khaliq Hasyim.

At the pres.:mt tlme, the head of the pondok-pesantren

is H," Yusuf Hasyim. Furthermore, there is a University 1

WhlCh lS ca11ed by the name of thd founder, UniverSltas

c ·20 llaSYlm Asy arl.

cl' Pondok-ï>esantren Dar a1-Fa1~ill, Bogor

Pondok-Pesantren D~r a1-Fa1ih (estab11shed ln 1~60)

is located in C lampea, 12 kllometers from Bdgor (West

Java). In comparlson wlth the bther pondok-pesantrens,

thlS schoocl emphasizes in cadre formatlon of the members

of the Founders of Vl11age Society, Emphasis is placed

on thelr spiritual and matèrial needs .

/

•

•

•

127

Yor only the first few years was the head of the

f' Institution a kyai, i.e.

21 Shaleh Iskandar. Later, the

executive operation was handled by a board, ca1led a

Directoriom. The lnstructors were graduates from the

The genera1 requlrements fo~ admisslon to Dar al-Fa1ah

are: the boys must have at ten'ded elementary school, read the

Qur'an and be thirteen to seventeen years old. They must

also be healthy and in good enough condition to work in the , .~ ..

agricbltu~al fields an? workshops and be from a village .

family. Last of aIl, after completing school the boys must 22

b~ willlng to come back to ~he village to work.

The current educational operation follows the "'pondok-

pesantren splrlt wlth the classlcal system in a six year

course. AlI students live ~n a dormitory. AlI student

activities are under the supervislon of the lnstructors in

~ religious atmosphere,' They are taught rellglous subj ects

( 25.7 :':' ), and ge~err' subj ects (74. 3%), lnclud ing agrlcul­

ture (8. 8 ~: )-; mathematics and natural sciences (10. 6j~), fleld­

work (20.6 ~ ), and 8.6 per cent for Indoneslan, Lnglish and • ' .. 23

PhYS1Cdl educat lon. _

Dar;al~Falah provides students with an education

which enables them to begln wqrk, partlcularly in

1

•

•

•

128

agricultural field, after iraduation.' It does not, how-

ever: prepare its s1;.udents for university.

3. Pondok-pesantren and the Government

1'0 discuss the relationships of the pondok-pesantren (

J

and the government !requires investigation ln two direc-

tions. One has to find out the attitude of each towards

the other .. Accordlngly, the discuSSlon wlll be dlvided It

lnto two parts. ' The flrst part will de al Wl th the attltude

of the kyal towards the government. The sec?nd part lS

intended to pOlnt out how the authorities relate to the

kyai or pondok-pesant~en. In this respect most discussion

will deal wi th the Department O'f Rel igious fffairs. "

a) The attitude of kyais towards the Government

The first impression is that the kyals are the. per- i'

sons or groups Nho live strictly aceordlng to the ,FuIe

lald down by the Qurt~n and ~adlth. A~ a matter of faet,

,,--they are learned me~ of Islamlc knowledge whom the Musllm

people can learn from or consult ..,in rellgio.us mattèrs.

It is a rel igious do ct r ine in WhlCh there lS no

separation of the temporal and spirltual that determlnes 1

the contlnuity of Muslim society. 1

The kyais make an

effort to demonstrate that rellgious rules can be prac­

t1cally apP~led ln the daily Ùfe ~he ~ociety .

, /

•

)

, •

• f,

1..-

"

t 1'9

Consequently, the g-overnment of Muslim soclety shoul,d

, f.' respect the religious life of'the people.

History indieat~s that becau~e of repression by

> • the coloàial rUlers, the kyais remained defensive. This

~

was manlfested by an attitude of non cooperation with the ' ) \

çolonlals. The kyai even extended this attltude of non

cooperation to the educational system, as it was run by

the Dutch colonials, Therefore, many kyais established '\

. . the Islamic }.iistitution WhlCh is called 'pondok-pesantren

or madrasa. In the opinion of the kyals) who are devoted )

to the cause of Islam and great loyers of the re11gious

sU,bj eets, thlS Islamic i-nsti tution lS the place for dev­

otion. They only ask for the help of Allah ~nd they live

fully independently and without any interest in any

governmental·positlons. The kyais, iq exceedingly large

numbers rejected aIl financial help from the colonlal ,

government. Kyais did so ta keep themselves free from 24

governmental pressure.

In independent Indonesia, the attltude of kyals has

.changed. Sorne of them have' taken governme~t posltions or

work in the Department of Religious Affairs.

In general, the kyals have recently had good rela-

tlons wlth th~ government and to some extent with the

local authorltie-s. However, we might note here, that they

do not let anybody dlctate what is to be taught ln the

o

•

•

•

130

" • pondok-pesantren, Ror do they degrade knowledge by accept-

ing jobs in the government ',' (

Most of the kyals are very apprehensive about the

aid of the government, They, are afraid of government

interference and are not yet wliling to accept regulation 1

by the government. At the presen't tlme, only few kyais

have accepted ' the assIstence of the government, , i~ the

form of teachers, bUlldIngs and books. However, govern-

ment asslstdnce of pondok-pesantren i~ far from the amount

• nequlred to even maintaln t~eir educatlonal operations,

F or th 15 re ~son pe r ha ps, ,\ome pàndo k cpe 5 ant rens are not

interested in recelvlng yny assistance from the governmen~,

Neverttieless, it appears th,t no kyais have refused the

recent Presldentlal offer of aid ta suppprt the'pondok­.' - 25 pesantren, _.

\

b) The authorities and the kyais"

• The general impresslon lS that ~here is no contra-

" d lctlon between ~he author iti,es and the ky ai~. However,

thlS impression is counteract~d by the fact that the actual

number of government posts which offered tD the kyais were . very llmited. , The more lm~ortant posts in - the stdte we~e

hardly ever held by Islamic scholars.

Politically, Muslim leaders are in a mlnorlty, For

instance, the fi ve-member Pres id lum ~ f GeneraI Soehart/t: , 1

• •

)

•

"'-

•

131

1 cabinet (after July, 1966) has only one kyai as head of

c -the Nahdlatul Ulama'. In addition, only three or four of

th;e twellty-four ministerial portfollos are held by members

lof Islamic political parties or m-ass organizatlons. 26 , ,

The only Department (Ministry) WhlC~ iSt more or

less, exclusively in-the hands of the kiais is the

Departrnent of Rellglous Affalrs.

In discussing the au thor l tles and tç kyais, we can

not separate from the Department of Relig~ us ,Affairs. ~ .. w_" ,

Even though sorne Muslim activities can no obe included

ln this ,department, most activitles of this department are

related to Muslim soclety.

Baslcally, the Department of Religlous Affalrs

cons lSts of fi ve Direc'tora.te GeneraIs, 1. e. 0·[ Muslim

Society, Christlan (Protestant), ,CathollcS, Hlndu Bali, ..

The Directorate of Muslim Society, Wh1Ch

lS directly related to the pondok-pesantren, wlll be dlS-27

cussed here.

First, ~s the Dlrekt~orat Urusan Agama (Dltrura), or

Directorate of Rell~ous A~fairs, which hand~es,\arious aspects of marr lage, also c alled N. T. R. (Nlkah, f alak,

Rujuk), wagf, anq m~sJid. This Directorate has offlces

throughout the kabu®ten and kecamatan.

Second -is the Direktorat Penerangan Agama (Dltpena),

or Directorate of Rellgious Informatlon, WhlCh 18

/

, '

•

•

132

'" responsible for religious guidance, publlshes Islamic

pamphlets and booklets, provides ~hu~ba texts, and admin­

isters the Islamic celebration days.

Third lS the Direktorat Peradilan ~gama (Dltpera),

or Direct~te of Religious Justice which lS responsible

for rel iglOUS courts.

Fourth is the D~rektorat Pendidikan Agama (Ditpenda)

or Directorate of Religious Educatlon which is ,in charge ,)

of government {eliglOuS ~cho~l, such as the Madrasah

Islam Negeri (M:I.N.) at Elementary level, and the Pendi­

dikan Guru Agama (P.G.A.), Madrasah Allyah Agama Islam

N~eri (M.A.A.I.N.), both at the secondary level. This

Directorate also handles the general administratlon of

private re]lgious schools, pondok-pesantren, lncludlng

the reglstrat~on of religlou5·teachers.

Fifth is thA 'Direktorat Perguruan Tinggi Agama 1

(D~tperta), or Directorate of Rellgious Universlties,

~ :WhlCh organl.zes government-owned rellglous uni ~ers.ities,

"and private religious unl versities. Recently, this

J Directorate organlzed fourteen State Islamic Instltutes .{ .. : and hundreds of private rellgious universities. 27 : .

,: Al thougt: there are only a few Dlrectorates, they , : .. v

f have offlees directly to the kabupaten and kecamatan, ~ . • 1

· • · · l • 1

, l

· ! "'

and local levels. The great influence of tHe Department

pn the religious and soc laI life of the people is

)

•

•

133

recognlzed. It is also this Department whi~h opens the

do or for religious leaders, kyais, to become government

offlcials.

The government oversSes the progress of pond~k~ ~

• pesantrens to encourage the pondok-pesantrens to follow

the changes in the needs of society. Consequently, the

' pondok-pesantrens received officia~ suggestions about

development of,~the curriculum. In other words, the govern­

ment makes an effort to reform the pondok-pesantrens. ,.

The reformatlon. of pondok-pesantren is addressed ~ ......,. - '.....", .

partIy to the educational system and partly to teaching "

~ethodology. The pondok-pesantrens emphasize reIlg10us

subjects (Islam in its narrow meaningj, spiritual and

28 lnteilectuai training, ~nd not vocational Skl11s. ~ .,;

We can not separate the development of the nation 1

from the pondok-pesantrens because "this development

~ncludes not on1y economic cultural or splritual growth,

but also the development of man ln hlS totality. There­

fore, the pondok-pesantrens should take an- active part

ln the developlng nation, WhlCh includes the growth of

the whole man. This involves far " more than economl~ • \ 1-

f~ctors, which are , nevertheless, essentiai for pre-condl-

tl0ning the development of man ~ln his totallty. Thus,

in this instance, the word develop~ent means the process

whereby people within thelr own culture, ~dapt themselves \ .. 29

to -the needs of the times ih which they live.

••

•

•

13-4

Efforts have been made by the government to develop

the pondok-pespntrens. There were various seminars where

the kyals met to discuss the Qondok-pesantrens. One of

them was a Seminar of pondok-pesantrens from,all over

Indonesia, held, 'in Yogyakarta in July, 1965. This semlnar

was given to discuss the problems of pondok-pes-antrens. It

became an important QCcasion, as the kyais discussed aIl

aspects of the pondok-pe9a~t;~;s including' éurriculum, ',,-? 0

org?nlzatlon, and impr~veffient of the integration of pondok-

. 30 pesantren into , society.

Before thlS seminar, there were other similan serni-

nars · to discuss the problems of Islamlc instltutions .

There was the Seminar of Religious Educatlon in the State

./ S.Ch~OlS, ~n ("ipayu~, Bogor (J'lest Java) in 1959 and ln ·

1963 a Seminar of~ligiouS Education in the Unlversities

was held ln Yogyakarta.

These Seminars wepe sponsored by the Department of

0<. -=-_)eligious Aff airs. Many kyalS participated and sorne of

them dellvere~ papers. . ,

In 1969-70, a government survey was conducted. It

was followed by a semlnar on religio~s educatlon in non-

rellgious schools. This survey was sponsored -by the

Department of Religious Affalrs. r This work was part of

the fl ve-year plan of the Department of Religious Affalrs.

Another seminar also-supported by the government was the

•

•

. '

/

... ~ •

135

l \..:,~,.r::.;:.;.;..1=n~a;.:.r--=P_e.::..n=d.=i:..::d:..::i:.;k1la,=..:;n.....Jo::;';:;';::;';:;"-=-=~:'='=':'::""'.,.:..:;;lj~=a< (Semi nar 0 f Edu-

~on in the Re1igious Institutio s) in Tugu, Bogor (West

~, 3 Java). It was held in Ju~e, 1971.

In 1972 the ~hnister of Religious Affalrs, H.A.

Hukti AIl, pOlnted out that the' ;nain programme of his

Department was the improvement of ponèiok-pesantre~n and

the maintenance of the Institut Agama Islam Negeri

32 (I.A.l.N.~).

ln connection with the pondok pesantren, the Depart-

ment of Rellgious Affairs sponsored cattle-breeding. This

experimental project, began in·1972. Flfteen pondok-l

pesantrens became pilot proj ects. Sorne were in the fOU;;;-

provinces ln J~va, and sorne in the three provi~~~s. ?9Ceh, 33",. . .~ .. ,j ,

East Kalimantan, and South Sulawesi.J' ,;' • <~,,~. ,)

. This pllot project, suppori'e~ by President Soeharto,

d th ., ~f··:lt·h·1.." D t t fifR l' . was un er e superV1Slon 0 e epar men 0 v e 19louS

Affairs. The Depa;tment of Agrlculture gave assistance ln

The government d1so sponsored a proaramme

to increase the cooperatlve educatlon of santris which , already eXlsted in many pondok-pesantrens. This step was

~ro~ght about by the Musyawarah Koperasi Pondok-Pesan~ren

se Jawa-Madura l (The First ç\operative Conference of

Pondok-Pesantren :t'rom aIl of Jfva-Madllra). This conference

was held at PondokTPesant buireng, Jombang (East Java)

in April, 197 3'~ ~4 ce was a cooperative effort

•

- r -

,.'

..

•

•

136

between the Department of, Religlous Affairs and the -- ~ ...

Department of Transmigration, CDoperation ~md Han Power.

The above-mentioned activities were the step of è

the 'Department of Religious Affairs to lnvite other "

Depqrtments to work together to develop pondok-pesantrens.

In the long run, the growth of the sense of re?ponslbllity

ta maintain the pondok-pesantrens wlll not only be by the t _ J,~

Department of Religious Affairs, but also by other 'Depart-

ments or, perhaps, the Government.

\

Besides"these activities, other activitles were

supported by sorne local authorlties. For example, ln

East Java and West Java, instructors of pondok-pesantren ',,,,

were upg;a~ < H,a~y other Musl)m orgpanlzatlons sponsored /

prÇ>gramrne and ~,en~nars to lmprove the quality of educat ion ,';." 3 5

in the pondokïpesantren. . \ '

It seems to sorne observers~ that such proJects wlll .'

give a negat.tve a,spect to th~ char acter of the p)?'rfdük­

. p;santrens. Some othe-rs are of the oPlnio\ t.hat ~hese

projects will provlde f"or the future of the santrlS in

society.

However, the pondok-pes antren's have their own char-

acter as an Islamic institution, either ln old or modern

fashion. AlI innovations should come properly. A W1S~, • ..;i"

,- âpproach will br ing about a good concl us io n. The ld eas

of ref6rmatl0n will com~ to aIl pondok-pesantrens sooner

or later as l:!as already been come to many.

•

' .• ~/

• {l

] 37. "

, 4. Achlevements of Pondok-pesantren

)

1he achiev'ement of 1)r8.... pondok-pesantren have ~ J ;.

a~peare~ from the early dferiod of its establlshment. Of

pr"mary, "mportanLe are s~~ces in ;slamic education, As 1 .

'the pqndok-pesantren was the earliest educational lnsti~

tUllon in Indonesia, lt became a centre of Muslim learnlng.

Thére are a number of reports whlch show the eXlstence of

pondo k-pes antren in the ear 1 y per iod. . Iheir growth par-

a]lels the spread of Islam ln Indonesia, particular]y in

Java. The pondok-pesantren played an important role, and

the wali:;;' or kyais became a l ink between the sul tan and

{he general publi~ in spreading Islam. This -aspect was , discussed earller ln this thesis. But lt must be 'men-

.'

tioned here, that the ~ondok-pesantren was, and is, an

independen~ ln8titutlon, although, sorne of the walis or~

kyals were descendents of t_he ru lers, or sultâns.

~ Most of' -the Indonesian c -ulama' graduated from pondok~

pesantren. As a result o! their sevices i? education, these c _

ulama ' have become aware of thelr natlon and have under-

taken edU(atlng the people, ln their own ~ay, or ln the .' . so-caLled tradltio'nallst method. As a matt~r of fact, .. the

L - ( ulama ' played an important role in defending the

- natlon against the colonial rulers. History'even tells

. ~

us âbout thelr role as leaders in peace and .ar. There

; •

•

/

, /

•

1

136 o

were mapy Wars against the Dutch in Java, Sumatra, KaIi-

mantan, Moluccas. In those and other wars, Indonesian ~

ô

fought under the Ieader~hip of the kyais. Thus the impor-

tant role of kyais is qUlte evident.

\~~cannot describe here the wars in any detail. ,',

However, ~n the I~oneslan revolution the pondok-pesan\ren

played an lmportan~art in providlng guerilla force;~nd

soidlers in the battl~ field, fighting agalnst the Colonial

army. Many santris and kyais were active ln varlous army

div1~ions, such as Lasykar Prakyat (People's Army),.Ten­

tara Pelajar (Students' Army).

Dur1ng the Japanese occupat'10n, one of the earliest

-challenges against the Japanese c.ame from the kya1s. ' Th1S ' "

~

was ln february, 1944 1n Singaparna, Tasikm~laya (West

Java), under the leadersll1p of Kyal Haj1 Zainal Mustafa. ~ .

Ile was ' supported by his santris of Pondok-Pesantren

Slngaparna and the local Mus~im community. 36 As a result

of this challenge, ~~i ~ Za1nal Mustafa and seveT'~ of h1S followers were captured a'nd subsequently lnvesti\

gated by the Japanese. "lS p6ndok-pesantren was CIO~ for severa1 years. Following thlS affair, there were

two revolts ln ~ara~mpel, Cilcbon (West Java) in May, 1944,

and the second ln Lohbener (West Ja\a) in ~ugust or Lhe

same year. The leaders of both revolts were the local

h .. 37

a"j lS .

... "

"

• 1

•

, \

•

/' \ \ .-/ 38 '

Wi~Ûnding of Hi'zbullah, santris werê given

army training. Sorne pondok-pesantrens became centre of

Hizbullah activities. Leadership was provided by local

kyaCn pondok-pesantren. - Needless to say, the creatlon 1 ( ~

of this Islamic army was influenced by the kyals with

great support from the santris and the Musllm community.

They we~e full of enthusi~sm for the struggle against the

colonlal rulers.

I-n many cases the members of Hlzbullah had a cooper-

atlve anq guerilla character. Not aIl unlts were equipped

with weapons. They attacked the enemy with bamb~ ~uncing

(bamboo spears) only. Their courage was spurred on by

thêir bellef ln Allah's help and their desire ta fulfil

rellgious obllgation, i.e., jihad. They bel ieved the

dead in the war against the Dutch (or infldels) . were . )-

shdhld (~artyr).

Hagically powerfu] weapqns and persona] kyals also

secured the splrlt of sa~tris~ There were kyais, whose

reputat16n beca~e wldely known,_who practiced anolnting

those who Vlslted them with the water of salvation and

invulnerabl] ity. Sorne other kyais gave rotan (rattan),

whip, or c16th with ~ur'inic verses. However, the word of • takbi~, i.e. Allihu Akbar (Allah is Griatest) was the

" -greatest wllich gave them enefgy in war. 39

The proclama~ion of independent Indonesia (in 1945)

c.

•

"

•

•

•

140

was used to mobilize the masS(s to d!'lfend the country.

The kyals and their santris in pondok-pesantren began to

move to 'the war field. One of the impJrtant events was

the batt1e of Surabaya. In this conflict Bung-'om0's

voice was transmitted through hundreds of radio sets

dlsseminating war propaganda and focuslng revolutionary

.1 energles. His b.roadcasts alway.s. opened ·wlth the cry

--. 40 "Allâhu y\kbar. Il

..

Because of the splrlt of' takblr, the Musllms (

answered the challenge and they strugg1ed with jihad fi

sabi1 Allah to maintain-Ihdonesia's lndependence and

their Islamic rellgion. In many pondok-pesantrens the

~asykar of santris were formed. Therefore, there have

been m"any alumni of pondok-pesantrens who have been ln

active service as members of the army, ranging froW

'" Lleutenant, Captaln, Major, Colonel, to General.

It was natural for the pondok-pesant~en to have

1

':;)

kindlèd the spirlt of santris to fight the colonial rulers, J

because the attitude'üf antl-colonlallsm has been so

deeply entrenc.hed in each kyai and his santrls.

The pondok-pesantren can a1so be credited with

forming the chJracter of the IndoneSlan hatlon. The educ­

ation in pondok-pesantren, wlth ltS emphasls on spi~itual

and moral educatlon, lmparts a sense of obllgatlon to

carry out Islamlc teachlngs. It is not an exaggeratidn,

• .. \

• )

/'

14]

d •

therefore, if we say that without the pondok-pesantrens

a~d other religious institution, Indonesia would not have

b l ·· 41 ecome an Is amlC soclety.

There are many graduates of pondok-pesantren who,

after returnJ.ng to society; assume important positions

ln the government as members of the local or national t

42 Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat (D.P.R.) and even as M~nisters.

Many of them become merrtbers of Dewan Pertimbangan Agung

(D.P.A.) and MaJlis Permusyawaratan Rakyat (M.P.R.). Still

others become prominant leaders of varlOUS politi~al and

social organizations.

Sorne of the pondok-pesantrens' graduates work as

business people, tradeSffi€n, or manufacturers. The national

level of the batik manufacture, Gabungan Koperas~ Batik

Indonesia (G. K. B. 1.) for Instance, ~,s ln the hands of

people who·graduated from pondok-pesantren., Most of its

members Ilve ln many b~g cities are pondok-pesantren's

graduates.

Most of the graduates from pondok-pesantren, however~

" become rellgious teachers,. or work in the Depi:lrtment of

Rel~g10us Affalrs. ~ome set u~ their own rellglous

schools, and others become muballighs. Many return ta th~ir own local communities ana become tr~ers, farmers

or establish their own businesses.

The pondok-pesantrens' graduates have rec~lved a

/

t'

• ( (il

, spiritual .and mora! educa~~o~whic~ serves as the basis

, , for their lives in society. This education enables them

• to function both independent1y and a1so as members of

------their society. "

'. \

"

• 1

\

. ~

,

-•

••

•

/'

•

, a

F 0 0 T NOT E S

1 , " See M. SaI eh hTidodo, "Kepemimpin<an Desa dan

Prospek Pusat L8tihan Pembangunan Pertanian dl Pamanukan­' sebrang, Kabupaten Subang, Jawa Barat,'t Mimeographed paper, 1972; For a short description on Pesantren Dar

- al-Falah, see Sudjoko Prasodjo~ "Pesantren, ft Prisma, no. 3, Apri1, 197 2 ; pp. 54~55.

2For a brief account on Darun Najah, see Balai Pendidlkan Pesantren Darun Najah, Jakarta, J.K.M.I., 1972.

3See C. Geertz, ItModernlzation 111 fi Huslim Socie.ty: The Indon€sian Cas"e, 11 in Robert N. Bellah, ed. , : Rellgion and Progress in Modern Asia, New York, The Free'Pr~ss; London, Collier-Macmillan Limitéd, 1965.

4This account is based on the report WhlCh was receiv~d by the Directorate of Religious Education fr.om 75 per cent of the pondok~pesantrën areas throughout • Indonesj..a .

5Recently, Haji Kafrawi became Director General of Muslim Society of the Department of Rellgious Affairs.

, 6ThlS ~ccount was given in a conference of P2ndok-pesa~tren from aIl pa~ts of Java and Madura; held in Pesantren Tebuireng, Jombang (East Java) from 26 to 30 April, 1973; For Haj i Kafrawi t s paper, see "Pon~ok_ ~e­sa.ntren, Masyarakat Islam dan Pembangunan, tr Al-Jértlll cah, no. J, XII , 1973, reprinted in Pondok-Pesantren, Sebuah Antologl, tontor Ponorogo, Instdtut Pendidikan Darussalam Pondok Modern, 1973, pp. 135-14 8 .

7PondoR-pesantren BQntet lS situated in the vlllage of Buntet, about nine kilometers from Cirebon, (West Java). The main source for lnformation about thi; Pondok­pesantren are f~und in the article on Pesantren Buntet and the monograph , published by Pesantren Buntet.

8See Muhammad Dharto Wahab, "Pesantren Bunt'et Clrebon," Kiblat no. 22, XX, April, 1973, p. 2~.

9See Mohammad Hlsyam Manshur, Sekilas llntas Pesantren Buntet Mertapadakulon Cirebon; Buntet, Pesantren Buntet, )19~ ,3, p. 3. . / ...,.,-

j 43

•

•

•

10Ib ' d . __ 1_., pp. 17-18.

1.14

llKyai Haji H~syim AsyCa~i, the founder of Pondok­pesantren Tebuireng, was the most prominant tradltiona1ist f kyai in Java. His pondok-pesantren became a , centre of the Is1amic 'party Nahd1atul cU1am~') see H. Aboebakar, op.cit., p. 79. '

l2 Bandungan lS a method used in pondok-pesantr~n • for lnstructing the intermediate leve1 santris. Usually

the kyai reads the kitâb and he explains its m~anlng while the santris listen. lnstructlon is purely oral; no

, visual ald, but the book is used ln certaln subJects.

l3Sorogan is a method of instruction ln pondok­pesantren. lt . is usually employed in teaching advanced· santris. Usual1y each santri brlngs the kiiâb of hlS own choice. Each one has a turn to see the kyai who reads the kitâb ana explains its meaning'.

14See'H~jl' Aboebakar, op. Clt., pp. 99-100; see a1so • Sudjoko Pra,sodjo, op. clt., pp. 51-52.

15Se~ Haji Aboebakar~ op. cit., p. 95.

16Ibid ., 'pp. 94-95.

17Kyal Haji llyas, wa~ a prominant leader of • Nahdlatul cu lama', and formerly the Minlster cf Religlous Affairs .

. ,18 KYa i Haj i Abdul WahlQ HasYlm, was the so~ of Kyai Hajl Hasyim AsyCarl of ~e Pesantren Tebulreng, J ombang. He had a pgs antren education. He w,as formerly the Minister of Re~igious Affairs.

19Kyai Ha]i Khallq Hasy~m was the son of ~yal ~aji . Hasylm AsyCari and the most proffilnant 1ead~r of Angkatan

Ummat Islam (Akui).

20Universltas Hasyim AsyCari was established ln 1969. I~ conslsted of two facultles, Syarlah and Dacwah. ,

21Another founder of Da~ al-Falah was A. Gaffar lsmall. He ~as educated ln the modernist Is1amlc $umatm Thawalib. H1S present domicile is in Pekalongan (Central Java) .

J.

'.

.~

,

• .. .. .. "

•

in

1 145

2~As 'explained in a pafphlet prlnt~d at Da\ al-Falah 1.972, fo-r the new studentV of the scho l'ast~c yeaf' 197 3~

2)See M. Dawam Raha.rdjo, op. cit., P', 89.

24In some as pects there were sôme s imllarl ties -to the scholars in Medieval Islam; Compare Munir-u-Dln Ahmad,

~ Musllm Education And the Scholars' social stâtus, up to the 5th eentury Muslim Era, Zurich, Verlag Der Islam, 196~, especlally part three, pp. 194-254. -

?5Beginnlng in the 1970s President Soeharto supported the pondok-pesantren annually. The money is taken from the govdrnment's SUbSldy for the hajj, WhlCh is now expanded to inclu~e Musll~ aetlvities. It also supports Musllm instl~ tutions.

268ee Roslhan Anwar, op. cït., p. 116.

27 ' f On the hlstorical origln of the Department of Re1igious Affal~s, see publicatlons lssued by the Public Relatlon S~ction of the Departme~t; sueh as, Kem~nterlan Agama, Penylaran Kemente~Lan Agama, no. Il, Pedoman Pen­djabat 'Kantor2 Agama, 2 vols., Penerbltan Kementerian . Agama, 1955.

28A discussion) on the peformatlon of the educatlonal system and methoa of teaching of pondok-pesantren, see H. A. Mukt l Alï, Agama dan Pembangunan di Indonesia, J a- 1

karta, 13iro Hubungan Masyarakat, Departemen Agama;' 197 2,~ vol. 1, pp. 21-33.

29~or an account on Religion and Development in F

, IndoneSla, see Ibid., vol. II, pp. 123-144.

300n the serninar, see Special issue, Al-DJamiah, .~. Clt. This lssue contalns several papers WhlCh were delivered at the semlnar.

. ,

3l For more details on surveys 'and.sernlnars, see Laporan Penelltlan, op. cit., especla11y part seven, pp. 265-693.

32 TeleV1Slon lntervlew of Minister, B.A Mukti Ali,

in early 1()72.

vol. 338ee 11.A. Muktl AIl, Agilma dan Pembangunan, op. clt.,

1 1. pp. 4 ~ - 5 2 •

/

.. 1

•

• . ,

•

] 46 ',1

34'For a brief des~rlption on the ,conference; see DJuhar~, 'Nusyawarah Koperasi Pondok Pesantren Se Jawa­Madura .t,Tf Kib1at, 4, XXI, Ju1y, 1973, pp. 21-22; For the conclusion of the conferenceJ see Harian Abadi, 3 May 1973, repFlnted in Pondok Pesantren. Sebuah Anto1ogi, op. cit., pp. 1133-34. c ·

3'5See Mh, Thayib Ft" lIBebe:apa Catatan sek~tar .Pekan Up Grading alim ulama di , Pandaan, "'Harian Abadi, 7 and 8 March 1972; reprinte~ in Pondok Pesantren, Sebuah Antologi, op. cit., pp. ~7-74.

36An ~ccount on Kyai Ha]l Zalna1 Mustafa, see Sy~rief Hidajat, Riwaj at Singkat Perdjuangan 1\ ,'H. Z. Musta,f a, Tas~k­

ma1~ 1961; see a1so Harry J. Benda, The Creseent Çlnd the Rlsin~ Sun: The Hague and Bandung, W. van Hoev~, 1958 , pp. 1 0-61; Benedict R.O TG. Anderson, Jav~ in a ' t~me of Revolution, Ithaca, N.Y. Cornel1 Universlty Press, 1972, . pp. 35-36.

lZ0n these revo1ts, see DJen 'Amar, Bandung Lautan Api, Bandung, Dhlwantara, 1963.

j~Hizbul1ah' (A11ah's Army) was founded in 1945. Its chairman was Zpinu1 Arlfin, and Mohàmmad Roem was Vlce­~hairman. They and 9t her Muslim's leaders organlzed the

, " 39For more example, see John

the ear1y Revolution, 1thaca, N.Y. Southeast Asia Program, Department Cornel1 University, 1964.

R.W. Smal1, Bandung ln Modern Indonesia ProJect, of Asian Studies,

40Bung Tomo (Sutomo) was a prominant leader who carried the revo1utionary energies, partlcu1arly in the battle of-Surabaya (1947). \

41See C. Geertz" "Hode,i:l.nization" , op. cit., p. 96. ,

42A1l Mlnisters of the Department of Rellglous Affalrs graudated from pondok-pesantren. Most of them graduated from Pesantren Tebuireng, Jombang. The present Minister, H.A. Mukti AIl graduated from Pesantren Termas, Pacitan '(East Java). The present chairmfln of D.P.R. Kyai Haji Idham Chalid, graduated from Pondok Mode~n Cantor, and was

" ' tormerly Prime Minister and Deputy P~ime Minister.

/

"

•

••

-\0-

L '

•

1 • ,

r CHAPTER IV

CON C LUS ION " ,

The pondok pesantren has' been significant for many

generations beDause of its attempt to mould the character

of Indones,lan Muslim~ by giving them a proper rellgi-ous

ba~kground. People are instructed in a religious atmos-

phere.

The pondok-pesantren has presented a religious

'e~uc-at~on whlph has' provided the people with Islamic

knowledge, based ~~ their faith. ,Graduates of Pondok­

pesantren attempt ta- ma,ke IsJ!~m the mo'st important influ-1

ence ' in the li~e of the Indon~sian people. Islam has

always demanded such commitment.

Historically, the pondok-pesantren played an impor-

tant role in the history of Indonesian·Islam. The

earliest Islamic p~eachers, used the pondok-pesantren to \

preach Islam. The pogdok-pesantreh was the earliest "

educatlonal instltution ln Indonesla. It fuses lndi-

genous Indonesiàn culture wlth lslamic c'haracter. ' The )

Islamlc character of the pondok-pésantren can not be

" separated from the earlLest Muslim instltutions. These

ear!y Institutions' were created during the Classical

Islamic period and developed in the Mediaeval Islamic •

147

••

•

,.

•

period. The most important contribution of the ~ndok-

pesantren to the Indonesian nation w~ its function ~n ,

educatlonal service, as it has been deeply involved in l' 1

natlonal education.

The demands of soclety, however, are responslble

for criticism of the pondok~pesantren. The critlcs feel

that pondok-pesantren can not follow the change of society

and its needs. They claim that the pondok-pesantren is ." ,

statlc, and its instruction is not suitable to the modern

method of teachlng. We -rnlght take sorne examples of the

pondok-pesantren's operatioQ. _For the most part there are

no classes, and there is no discipline regarding the years

~eeded for courses, and no requlrement for attendance. The

- santrls have been able to come to pondok-pesantren when-1

" ever they like, and they have been permitted to leave when-

ever they wish. Sorne santris stay at pondok-pes§ntren for

several years without acquiring any knowl€dge whatever.

The Islamic reform movement ln Indonesla introduced

the new religlous lnstltutl0n called rnadrasa. A few

pondok-pesantrens were modernized and àdapted the madrasa ' t ,

system. Thelr form of education approximates t~ the

Western type of school, teaching arlthrnetlc, forelgn lan­

guages, the reading of Latin scrlpt, and so on.

One of the pondok~pesantren which adapted to modern

method of teachlng is Pondok Modern Gontor WhlCh h~s been

",

",

•

•

•

149

"discussed in this thesls. It was set up by its founders

t>

based on ideas of modernizlng pondok-pesantren. Its

curriculum is based on that of modern schools, employing \

modern ,gtethods ' of teaching.~ It is modern not in belie f,

but in the educational system applied there. Though

Pondok Modern Contor is modern in its system of teaching

and educational manner, it i8 pondok-pesantren in.char-

acter.

Kyai Haj i Imam Zarkasj i -, one of the founders of

Pondok Modern Gontor, emphasizes that these institutions ,

retain the pondok-pesantr~ chara~ter because of their • ù

sp1rit. Accordlng to him, the spir1t of the pondok-

~ pesantren is moulded by five values: 1) keikhlasan, or " . .

~i lng pamrih (selfless sincerity) , 2) kesederhanaan IJ

(simpl icity) \.Jhich me,ans strengthening the soul ancJ no

retreat ln the face of difficultles, 3) kesanggupAn

monolong tllri sendiri (abillty to help ones self and not

dependant on the help of others), 4) ukhuwwah dinlyyah

(re11g10us brGtherhood) and mutual cooperation, and ,

5) jiwa bebas (independent soul) and th~ optimistlc

struggle for ones future life.

In attempting to define' Islam in Indonesian society,

Pondok Modern Gontor emphasis the education of youth.

Slnce its establishment in 1926, Pondok Nod"ern Contor has

malntained that education should be based on religion. It .. ,

\

r

•

J

, 1

. "

•

] SO

-reallzes that moral char~cter of the members of society

is one of' the most decisive factors of communlty llfe ..

ConsequentlYr Pondok Modern Contor places ltS major

emphasis on moral ~nd spirltua~ education and bUllding

the character of Indonesian nation.

\\!hile stressing the importance of rellgious ..spbjects,'

Pondok Modern GOQtor has nqt neglected ~eneral subjects. Â • ~ "'i

The santri are ~ffered tralning lp publlL service. They

devélop of sacrifice arr~ devotlon to the welfare

. of soci.e The santr is also have been tl1ained in Il vl'ng

a simple sincere life, which lS to ~~velop their

courage to live se'lf -confidently and honestly.

ar 1965 was important for pondok-pesantren.

This .{?,eriod s known as Guided Denocracy (1958 to 1966) ~

and noted the end of Soekarno's dominance over Indonesian

political life. Thïs period was called Orde ~.Lama (Old

Order) . In thlS year {1965}, 'the Afro-As:La~ Islamic

ConferenZe 'was held in Bandung. This conference contrl-

buted a great deal and resulted in a sem~nar of pondok-

pesantren representing aIl past of IndoneSlan ln Yogya~

• ka~ta, 3uly, 1965. This was the earliest semlnar con-. "

cerning pondok-pesantren, supported by the government, , '. "- .

i.e., the Department of Religio~s Affalrs.

After 1966 a period called Orde Baru (New Order),

the government paid more attentlon to the pondok-pesantren .

/7

•

• 1 ?

'.

"

•

\\ 151 "-

\ The pondok-pesantren is not ' ~?ly a r~11g10uS .1nst,itution,

~ \

and, therefore, has a strong ca:;;e, 'not\on1y .~ith the

" Soclety, but a180 the government . Tha/government, 1.e.

.{

The Department of Re1iglous.Affai~s, has, therefore,

decided to develop pondok-pesantren. The government a1so .1

lnvited the pondo~-pesantren ta pàrti~-ipate"'1\n national \1

deve1opment. There were various activltles sponsored by

, the government. These took the form of discussions or

seminars, as 'weIl as the constrl.{ctlon of bui.ldin'i~s, the

prQviding of books, t~achers. 1 ~,

So"far, few pondok-pesantrens have apPfied modern

educatlonal conc~pts in~their educationa1 programmes. . However, the, 'pondQk-pesahtren stil~Xists strongly as,' an'

o

lslamlc educ~10na1 instltution. The slgniflcant acl~leve-

ment of pondok-pesantren is .that ln lts edu~atton, lt ,iJ

produç'cs rel i.gious people, The pondok-pesantren contri-

butes to the developmeJ\t of , the country, Indonesian

society, and the continuity of Islam ln Indonesia.

- .' , "

" ., .

,

." '..-,

\

• /

•

APPENDIX l

r . TRÀ'iSLITE}0\TION

',~~ 1 Transliteration has been done according to the

srstem adopted by the Institute o~ Islamie Studies, MeGill University. The name of wel.vknown cities, such as Mecca J

Medina J have been spelled as internationally known. With regard to the Indonesian names and terms of Arabie orlgin, the wrlter preserved the transliteration adopted by Indo­nesian writers.

~ In ]q72 there was an agreement between the Indoneslan

and the Malaysian Governments to makc thelr dlfferent spelllngs similar. 3he decislOn"WaS carried out and pro­c]almed by bath governments in August 1072.

The writer has prefered to use the new spelling in thlS thesis. However J materJJals from the period of _ transltlon (before 1972) have been used in thlS thesis. There~pre) cl"latlons from pr'e-1972, in wh~,ch old spe11ing was st\.11 used, are left unchanged in thlS thesis. .

tÎÎJwever, there lS no uniformity in Indonesian trans-"llteration. T}1ere are many terms of AhablC orlgln, adapted into Indones1an. THe terms are not alJays spelléd consis­tently. Personal names are sometimes spelled ln a variety of ways and the writer has emplayed the, ones conunonly used ln current spelling, and emphasizes more the new spelling.

The 1IIain dlfferehces between the Indoneslan spelling (including the old and new) and Engllsh spelling are as fol}ows:

IndoneSlan

ch kh

dj J j Y

ng ng tJ ~ c.

I:ngllsh

• (Slmilar to the kh . in Arabic,Khallfar.

j (jacket) . , y (yard) "

ng (hang)· ch (chalr)

The maIn differences of tranS]lteratlon from Arablc are as fo IJ ows:

-, ] S '2 \

" •

( -

•

•

c

Arabie Indonesian English (Islaniic Studies).

ts'" J.hadi t s )

J (jami C ah )

h (rahmat)

kh (khatib)

dz (adzan)

sy (cIsya ')

sh I( shubuh)

d~ - (ramadlan)

th (athf~).

zh {zhuhur)

th (hadith). •

C j (j ami a)

h (ra~ma)

kh (kha~Ib)

dh (adqan) e _

sh (Isha t)

s

d

t

z

(subh) •

( r~ma~an)

(a~fal )

(zuhr)

In Indonesian transliteration, the long vowels of Arabic double, The Arabie Dar al-Sftlam is written as

1 . l

Daaru,s....Salaam or Darussa am in lndoneslan.

/

The qutch vowel ~, was fOi'merly .used in Indonesla for the sound of ~ as rubrlc" rule. Thi,s is still used, but only in certain personal names, as Soeharto, Mohammad Roem.

1

\

,..

Il

1

J

J

'i

• ,;

(

•

• r

'.

APPENDIX II

The Al-Islam:

----------------------~-------------------------------~-

No. The Subjects ! '

-------------------------ï~--------------------------- --

..

l

1. 2. 3'. 4. 5· 6. 7 • 8 •

II

9. '10 . Il. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

III

19. 20. 21 • 22. 23. 24.

25. } 26.

27. 2~.

29. 30.

ARABIC LANGUAGE c

al-Im1â' (Dictation) a1- In$.h,~ .'-c . .Lç omposi tion) al-Mutâ1q a (Reading) al-Hahfüzat (Memorized MateriaU a1-Khâtt {C'a11lgraphy) i a1-Naryw w~ al-9arf (Grammar & MorpholoiY al-Balâgh?\(Rhetoric)

' . al-Adab al-cArabI (Arable Literature) i

RELIGIOUS SUBJECTS

a1-Qur'an (Qur'anic Reading) al-TaJwid (Art of Intonation) al-Tar jama & Tafsir .( Translation & Commentari) al-Hadïth (Tradition) tvlustalahal-Hadith (Sclence of Tradition) al:Fiqh' (Jurisprudence) Usul al-Fiqh (Princlpl es of Islam ic Law) al-Tawhid (Theology) al -Man'hq (Logd.c) Ta' rIkh' a.~ -Islam (Islamic H:istory)

GENERAL SU BJECTS

al-Hisâb (Arlthmetic) al-Jabr (Algebra) al-Handasa (Geometry) al-Tabica (Natural Science) ~ al-1-' a bl c i (Bio1<?Jty ) _ . -~ , Ta'rlkh Indonesla &( Am (Indoneslan &' World Hlstory) 1. ~l-Jughraflya (Geography) ,(

, a1-Tarblya (Education) al-Tarbiya al-CAmallyya (Practlcal Teaching)' a1-Wa"taniyya (Vici vs) (' 0

al-Indanlsiyya (Indonesian) al-Injellziyya (English)

-;~See Mahmud Yunus, SedJarah Pendidikan Islam di Indone­sic;" Jakarta, Pustaka Mahmudiah, 1960, p. 21 8 .

, 'l'i4

r

•

•

•

APPENDIX III

---"'~ The curriculum of the ,Faculty of Education

Darus Salam Univers i ty at Pondok Modern Gontor -l~

No.

l. 2. 3. 4· 5.

6. 7· 8. 9.

10. Il. IL 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 1 8 . 19.

10. 21. • 22. 23. 24. 25·

'" .... ,

THE SUBJECTS

Civïcs Sociology Anthropo1ogy Indonesian Language Science of Hea1th

Theology JurisPrudence ~

Commehtary \ Tradition Arabie C~mparative Religions Education General Psychologyo Developmental ~sycho1ogy Psychology 0 f Edu1cation Social Psychology· Methodo1ogy ~

History of 'Education Phi1osophy of Education

Phi1osophy (General & Islam) LOglc -0,

E-thics Journalism Islamic Studies Eng1ish

J

--------------~~-------~-------------------------~-----" ; • ,

* See Dokumentasl Pembuka,n Perguruah Tinggi Darussalam, Gontor Ponorogo, 1963, p. 46 .

" 15'

)

/ '/

•

•

~ .

APPENDIX IV"

The Curriculum_ of the Faculty- of Theology ,Dàru\.Sal.am Uni vers~ ty at· Pondok Modern Gontor-:é

No. ) The Subjects

------------------------------------------~--------------

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

10. 11. 1-2, 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

21. 22. 23. 24. .-25· 26. ..

, .

"

Civl.cS , . Soc~ology Ant~ropology 0

'Philosophy (General & Islam) Ethics Lqgü;; , Astrorlomy History of Islamic CivilizatIon Indonesian Language

Theology Commentary Tradition Jurisprudence Principles of Islamic Law History of Islamic Law Sçienee of Propaganc1a Mystieism ~ Comparative Religions . Social Psychology Arabie

Education General Psychology Developmental Psychology Methodo,J.ogy Journal15m Eng~ish •

0,

--------~------~------------a----------------------------

'. *See Dokumentasi Pembukaan P~n ~ruan Tin i Darussalam,

Gontor Ponorogo, 19 3, p.i47. ~

156 •

J

'.

--'.

• -----r--------------____ I . 1 . ' •

~

~ APPENDIX _V

The humber of 'students at K.H. 1. (Kulli~atul Hu c a111mln a1-Is1amiyya) and l.P.D. (Darussa1am Uni~erslty) of Pondok }lodern. Gontor Ponorogo.

~-~<------ï---------------------------------ï------------------------------------; -1 • 1 / 1 1 1 1 ',- • 1 1 Students of l\..H. l. 1 Students "Of l. P. D. : • 1

: ~----------~-----------;---------~-~-------~r------------r--~------~ 1 1 .- J 1 1 1 1 1 . 1

l 1 1 l '- 1 1 1 : Scholastl~ 1 New , Total '1 Gradu- 1 ~ New 1 Total , .Gradu- 1

1 ~ 1 1 Ils d 1 1 1 Year 1 titudents 1 Students 1 ates 1 .Students 1 tu ents 1 _ ates 1 : _________ :.. _: ________ .:. __ + ______ L ____ -{ ~ _______ : _____________ } ____________ ~ _________ -{

\ . 1 1 2"'1 3 1 4 _ 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

:--~--------r----------T-----------,~--------,-------------T------------r---------, 1 l , 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 - l ,, 1 ,, 1 1 6 1 1 1 196 5 1 3 b 9 1 - -,c 1 - -,c 1 12 1 4 1 0 1

1 196 6 : 4? 5 : - -:c : - -;é : 2 5 \ 5'9 \ 0: 1 19 6 7 1 6 Il J 1 - -;.. 1 - ~~, 1 7 1 44 "1 8

- 1 1 1 1 1 : 196 8 '1 23 8 702 1 39 1 20 1 31 . 1 0 1 1969 r 544 1016: Lb : 14 r: -4i : 7 l . 1970 : 475 1244: 64 :. 13 : 45 : 1 \. 1971 '470 117 8 1 55 1 1 5 . 1 42 1 0 : 1972 : 417 1305: d88 : 35 \ 65 \: Il 1 1973 1; 50?" 1341 1 104 1 23 1 86 1 Il

l , 1 1 1 1 1- - • Il l' 1 1 1. 1 • Ii 1 1 1 1 ,-----------------------------------------------------------------------~---------~ • N-ote: i ~ - -;'- the docu'itents ,vere mlsSlng 1

J

157

- e lb • APPENDIX.VI )-

The Place of Origin of Santrls at~Pondok Modern Gontop Ponorogo

I-----------------------------~------------------ï--------7--T---------r---~--T-----l------ï

Il : J A V A : : Sumatera Il ~a1imantan 1 t l , t 1 1 1 1 ) 1 1 1 - --------------- 1 L - ________________ 1 ______ ------ 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 l ' 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 U rI) 1 +J 1 ...., 1 +J t co 1 ..c 1 +J 1 -0...., 1 ..c 1 rI) 1 -.-j -0 rI) 1 co co - 1 th 1 ,.....j 1 1 -.-j.... 1 (f.) 1 co 1 rI) 1 +J 1 +J 1 rI) 1 s:: co 1 +J 1 .... 1 rI) 1:: co 1 rI).... '1 ... 1 ~ 1 1 +-' co 1 co 1 - .... 1 Q) 1 ... 1 :::l 1 Q) 1 Cil... 1 :l 1 (]) 1 (]) Cil (.) 1 :l ca 1 (]) 1 ~ 1

,. 1 ~ ~ 1 w.:l 1 ~ 1 ~- 1 :0 1 0 1 ~ 1 ...,:> 1 0 1 ..c: 1 ~ (.) 1 Z bD 1 ..c: 1 0 1 1 ,....., 1 1 ... 1 1 ~ 1 Cf) 1 I..c: 1:: 1 Cf) 1 +J 1 co :::l 1 bD 1 +-' 1 E-! 1 1...-1 1 1 _Q) 1 1 co 1 1 1 +J Q) 1 1 0 1 ...-1 ...-1 1 1:: 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 u 1 1"'" 1 1 1'" U 1 1 l:::l 0 1 Q) 1 1 1 I~ 1 1 1 1 1 1 101 lien ~ 1 E-! 1 1 1 1 ~ ,1 1 1 1 1 l ,Z, 1 1 l' 1 1 ~ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I------~----~-----~-----~-----~-----~-----ï-----~------T-----r---------r------~-----+------i

: __ ~ -- -ri ---=ï:---~-l--~ __ l __ ~~_J ___ ~_ J __ ~~_L __ ~ __ J ____ ~_ls? --1----== ~--L-==---L-=~i--=~---J 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 --~ 1 \ 1 1 ).965 1 121 1 90 70 1 42 1 51 1 ,0 l '2 1 0 1 4 1 3 1 6 : 0 389 : 1966 : 147: 117 62 : 37 : 51 : 0 : 4 : 0: 0: 0: 7 : 0 415 1 1967 1 222 1 180 93 1 21 1 65 1 5 1 8 1 1 1 7 11? 1 7 1 0 611 1 1 - 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 8 1 1968 1 78 1 47 4S ~ 20 1 24 1 o. 1 13 .. 1 0 1 0 1 4 1 4 1 0 73 : 1q69 : 123: 146 59 : 71 : 47 : 0 : 1 : 0: 2: 4 1 1 1 0 454 1 1970 : 144: 106 86 1 50 1 34 1 4 1 12 1 8 1 2 1 17: 3 : 9 475 : 1971 1 96 1 75 7'2 i 53 : 56 : 3 : 13 : 13: 8: 14: 1 : 16 420 : 197-2 : 109: 44 66 : 66 : 41 : 3 : l 5 : 20: 8 1 26 1 4 1 15 417 1 1973 : 119: 55' 70 1 ...... 100 1 44 '. 6 , 1? , 15' 13: 26 ~ 5 : 37 532 1 _________________ ~ _____ ~ _____ 2 _____ 2 ____ ~ ______ 1 _____ _ ! _____ L ____ J ___ ~ _______ L _____ L _____ _

'Note: ----- A number sf stutlents from other- reglons are lnc1uded.

West Irian (Irian Jaya), Timor," and Nias. These regions are:

dl 158 .-~

....

•

•

GLOSSARY

_ This glossary is.intended to briefly identlfy words, terms, and. abbreviaticrri's used in this thesis. The mean­. ngs gi ven below are taken"-chlefly' from thfl Encyclopedia

f Islam. Tne Shorter Encyclopedia of Islam, A Dictionary f Islam. A' Dictlonary pf Modern Written 'Arabic, and ssa~~ on Indonesia.

agama

c- I ' 'a lm, pl. cul ama '

c­Alimlyya

aliran'

c àllya, aliyah

Allah

----- Akbar

. 'alun-alun

A

the general term applied to Jav.anese Muslim ~!no do no\ follow strict religlous practices; they often are more influenced by pre-Islamic Javanese.

-the calI to Muslim prayers.

rellgion; in this thesis this wQrd is sometimes used for genera~~eli­gious subjects.

(A)learned ma~; scholar, sClentist, or those Muslims who are.considered knowiedgeable in'Islamic sciences; the Indonesian equi valent 'ls kyai, ajengan.

rank of soholarshlp confered by dlploma or degree. •

trend, distincti~e politico-religious tradition.

collegiate studles.

God.

Allah is great, God is most great; An ej~ulation WhlCh. is called takbIr.

, . .~ puolic square, front yard, usually where a mosque stand, public hall,

) and offlces of authority. -- .~

159

•

, .

• ,

1 l •

Angkatan Ummat Islam

c -arud

asrama

âyât, sing. aya (A)

B

160 l '

Lit. generation of Muslim Community. An Islamic political pap'ty founded by Kyai Haji Khaliq Hasyim.

the metrics, the prosody

boardi~ house, dormitory , ,

! Lit. , ' sign, or miracle; the term used Vor Qur~ânic verses.-

! / ~. "

, '

Badan \v'akaf POhdok Modern The LndoWlll'ent (ommi t tee of Pon­dok Modern.

Bagia~ Keamanan Security Department .

Bagian Penerangan Information Department 1

al-Balagl"E (includin~ al-Macani, al-Bayan, al-BadIc

) Khetoric, the SClence of ~lo­quence

bambu runclng

batik

B1t Allâh

. { . bedug

berkah, bar.al~a (A)

blilk or kombongan

~

,bujang ------ sunat

\ ..

lit., bambu: bamboo; runcing:

;

ar p ; bamboo spears, traditianal eapbn used by the people' s army, uring the revolutionary war

" an Indonesian process of ~xtile-finishlng, either qrinted by machine or by hand. ,1 ,_

House of God, refers to the mosque in Mecca, but may also be applied to any mosque

a great drum ~îed in the for the call~~ prayers

blessing; benediction

mosques

the ter; for lodge or dormitory ln pondo K-pesantren

----bechelo~ 'circumsized child

'.

• \

•

•

candi . .

g.amIr

darusan or tadarus

e da wa

D

161

temple

mind, innermost, conscience. ,

from Arabie origin, dars, lit. lesson, used for rieitation and listening to the Qur'an.

propa;ganda, misSlonary act"i­vitie~

"

Dewan Pertimbangan Agung (D.P.A~) • Suprime Advisory Council

Dewàn Perwakilan Rakyat (D.P.R.) Peopl~'s Representative Council; parliament

/ . dhikr

D~ ~\ ShI lll-lyya e 00

llt., recollection, reputation, used 'as tloning(' _of the name commonly associated

remembrance.l the men-of Allah, wj.th sufism.

lit., rellgious schoo1; the modernist re]~gious school in Padang Panjang\ founded ln 1915

')

Direktorat Pendldikan Agamp (Ditpenda) Dlrectorate of Rell-glOUS Education . \_ -""

Direktorat Penerangan Agama' (Ditpena) Directorate of Reli-4ious Information

" Direkto~Peradilan Agama (Ditpera) Dlrectorate of Rell-gious Jus tice

Direk;!orat lJrl.ffian Agama (Dltrura) Directora.te of Religious Affairs '

Doctorandus (Drs.) tltle denotlng that its holder has completed aIl requirements for a doctorate except)the dis-sertation

• )

, (

•

•

dosen

empu

Fakul tas

faqIh pl. fuqahi'

faraid

fiqh

lecturer in the university ,

lit'., lord, master; used as smith

F

Facu] ty

legist, jurisprudent and theo­logian, expert of figh (Islamic ' jurisprudence)

, inher i tances, la" of descent and distribution

Islamic Jurisprudence, Islamic Lav

G

1~2

Gabungan Koperasi Batik Indonesia (G.K.B.I.) Indonesian Batik Cooperatlve Federation .

gamêlan

gotong-royong

guru nga J i

ha.1J

... Javanese orchestra, an assemble of instruments ,hich provides accompaniment .for thfl ' ayang (shado' plays), the~a~e, and for other'occasions

muiual hel~ and cooperation

teacher QUI" anie teacher, rel fgirS tutor

the p ilgr im;"ge to Mecca

1

• --

•

"

, ~

•

haji

f .

the title for those who have undertaken the pilgrimage to Mecca

. 163

"

: . .., Himpunan Mahasiswa Islam (H:M.I.) The Musl1.m University Students~ssociatian

0

Hizbullah

, 0

cibadat,~ sing. cibada

lit., A~ of Allah; Islam.ic military organization during revolution

Q

~

l

rituals, the ordinance of divine worship;- religlous observances (fi

Ikatan KelJarga Pondok Modern - Brothe,hood Assoc1.ation of Pondak Moder'il

• imam or imang

/ the leader of a Muslim com­munit y , or the leader/ .l,n ': ri tu al prayers '.

Institut Agama Islam Negeri ' (1. A,. I. N. ) State\ IslaIU,iic Institute

Instit ut Keguru~n dan Ilmu Pengetahuan (IKIP) Colleges

Teachers'

I~ti tut Pertanina Bogor (1. P,. B.) Bogor Agricul tural Institute'

c i t ikâf

~

~

-c Jama a

jasüs,

J 1.hiid \

't) retirement in a mosque for a period afr t ,ime ,

J

group of people, communityj , collective prayer

agent, e,spionage

flght, battle, holy Wdr against the infidels, as a religioua dut y

~ ;'

" '

• -

••

.-

. 164

Jihad fi Jabilillah (jihad fi sabIl Allah) holy wars in the èause of Allah

r

kq.bupaten

kataman

ka.um

kauman

kecamatan

K

regency, administrative d~s~ trict

a gathering which i8 usually held after a pupil completes tJ1e Qur' ,an \ village rel1g~ous official ( Islamic)

a group of p~ople, usually d~vout Muslims, living around a mosque in Java

th~ district

keikhlasan, ikhla~ (A) selp ing, pamrih (Jav.) sincere • devotion, loyal a'ttachment,

faithfulness, selfless sincerity

kelurahan village

keramat, 'kramat, karama (A) sacred grave, miracle worked by a saint

keris krisse

kesederhanaan simplicity

ketrampilan

kitab (1), kltalY' (A)

khutba

kolot

/1 kombongan

kuliah subuh

vocational Sklll

'book, - religlous book written ~ Arabie r the sermon dellvered at the Friday prayer

conservative, tradltl0nallst, oider group

see bilik

subh lecture

•

• •

• .-"

1

-A

165

Kuillyatul' Mue aIl im'in al'-Islamly.yah (K.H. 1.) Teàchers Trainlng School.at P~ndok

~ Modern Contor .

kYüi

- )~

religious teacher, a title of respect given to the culama, particularly u s ed for the head of a pondok-pesantren.

the tltle of those who are recognizéd as Muslim sçholars and have undertaken thè pilgri-

mage tu Mecca • 1 L !

langgar, suro, surau, tajug, bale l prayer house where the , Muslim carries .out hlS prayers,

'. lasykar

. .::,

~.lat al-qadr

\ . madhhab, pl. madhahlb

• J 1

_ .. :.:----,

i9t~laiyya thatlawiyya c â11Y a

.-

however, it is not used f or dt'r ioay prayer ~ .. . ) army, troops

the night when the Qur'an was revealed

M

school of flqh

reJig ious sch~ol for teaching Islamlc knowledge; usually refers to a religlous (refor-

' mist) scho01 . elementary school sec ondary or high sehool college "

.... ~~ '

r-Uldrd~~h >-:~A]lyah Agama Islalll Negeri (i-I.A.A. J .'N.) _.,._ - - , 1 Stai.c Senior- Hi!!h ls'lanuc

. - /' ~ --/ . Se huol at Se condary level

",:1 t.llil: <.1;-. ah ] ~ 1 dlll }iec,erl, SLlt e h:lamH St tl{)O] at [1 emen-t a ry 1 e v c 1 -.' --. - '

'f - 1

1.

... "

•

• _1

,

:~. !

r'

, , 166

maJli~, pl. majalIs lit., meetIng, sittin,g; assem~.?-l; meetIng held for ' the-purpose ot learning

"- ~ / Majlls Syuro Muslimln IndoneSla (Masyumi) Consultative

Council of lndonesian Muslims

Naj!ls Pl::Ù1ffi.upJaw'ar'atan Rakyat Sementara (M.P.R.S.) Provlsional People's'Consul­t'ative Congr,ess

( c makrifat, ma rlfa

mandala

Maulud 01' Mulud

<J[renta1 pegawçl1

. mesJ id, !!lasj id

t: ----- Jami

mu c aJ,.limIn,

muCd]J1mat,

"

muftI

muhadara

r-\uhamma

munah h~~ '1

mur'l (murHI)

(A) , 1

hIghest ~ystical knowledge

convert

-<.' the month of Rabi al-Awwa1 in the IsJ amic calender in dlhich the pr~phet Mu~mad was , barn

bfficia1 mentallty (in a nega­tive s 'ense)

1

mosqu~ where the Frlday prayer i8 cO'nducted the g:re at mosque

mucal~lm male teachers /

mucalllma femg~e teachers

"

/ . ..... /

50C181 Intercourses

" " bearer~of news, used as lslamic propagand1st

. '

of~iclal expound~r of formaI legal opinIons ln IslamIc Law

, ' -,~,

lecture; ln Pondok Modern Gontor this wortl refers to a meeting for F~actILIng public speaking.

Modernist Is lamJ. <- . 80'C laI organi-zation, [ounded ln 1912, by I\yai Ha,!l ~hmad Dahlan

legaJ aspects ~ marriage

pupiJ .

__ JI r .- /

/ ~ "

1

•

•

\

• .....

~.

musal1â .

; naib

"

167

the prayer house,

N

lit., represe~tative, dëputy; the substitute' for penghu1u

lit., the ?enaissance of Muslim scholars. ' A tradltl.Onalist Isla~ic ~a~ty founded in 1926 by Kyai Haji'Hasyim Asycari \

ngelmu, (Jav.) c~]m (A) know1edge~ s?metimes esoteric

\ -Nikah, TalaI..., Rujuk (N.T,R.) lVlarriage, Repudiation, .,nd

Reconciliation ' ,. '

o

Organisasi Islam ASla Afrlka Afr~-Asian Islamic Orggni~ zatioll

. ~

OFganisasi PelaJar Pondok Hode1'n Pàndok Modern Students T

Organlzatl0n

....

paket 1

" panca"jangkà

Pandu Islam

" pegawal --- --''-. neger i

\ . 1

pkla'jar Islam

+L~I'_Silat , .

Indon.esia

P

parcel

fiv~, main programs, of Pondok Modern t

Islamic Scout

'employee, official, functl0nary governmen~ employee, government

, official ~

(P.I.I.) The M~slim Studènts' Ass'ü'ciat ion

a ~system of fightlng; tradl­tional art of self defense

\ 1/ ." r \. "

•

•

.~

\ \

168

Pendidikpn Guru Agama (P.G.A.) Islamic Teachers Training School

pengaji?n

I?engasuh

/ }

, . council or meeting 'for Islamic instruction

guardlan

penghulu, pengulu, panghulu lit., headman or director. Administrator of mosque who also- serves in othe~ religious • capacities as weIl; r~ligious or marriage offlcials; in Minangkabau, -adat chlef

perdikan dè~~ free vil~age

Perguruan Tinggi ~, University

Persatuan GururGuru Agama Islam (P.G.A~I.) . Islamic Teachers t Associatlon

Persatuan Isla,m (Persis) llt. ,: Islamic Unl ty. A reform-~ ist assoclatlon, established in

Bandung. in early 192'0 . t

pesantren, pondok-pesantren, pondok, penyantren Islamic educational institutiQn religlous sçllOol ~

'Praja Muda ~arant (Pramuka) the name of the Natiohal Indonesian Scout

pitrah (1), fltrO (A}

\

, .

almsgivlng a l'Ramadan whic 1

divided amon (See Zakât a

Q

the end of lS traditionally the poor people

-fit r )

Arabi~ poem'having ~peciflc structure

.1

\

.' -t •

•

' .. ,;fi .... ' ..

l' . )

qirà'at, sing. qira' a

al-Qur'an

H.amadan

'Raden Mas, Raden

t;'angkang meunasah,

rant.au

reog

rida (A), re1a (1)

rupiah (Rp.)

surau

reading, recitatlon, recital especially of the Qur'an, punctuation a~d vocalization of the Qur'anic text.

the Holy Book 6f the Muslim

R

the month of fastlng

Lord, PrlnLe; title of nobility ln Java

religious institution ln A~eh and West Sumatra, the equivalent to pondok-pesantren ln Java

(ta go abroad, ta leave one's home area

1

a folk dance,

approval", c.onsent, pleasure

Inddneslan money; One dollar Ca1lLtla equals 415 rupiah

s

/ , 1

f1 sabil1llah (n: sabil Allâh) for a cai.tse of Cod, ~n (, behalf of God and hlS retlgion

! · salat . (1), salat- (A) c

santri

./ . , .

prayers; Musllm fi ve t~Ip-e1 '/ prayers a clay, namely:, 'Fd]r or '5ubh, dawn prayer, Zuhr, noon prayer, Asr, afternoon prayer, Maghrlb,'sunset prayer, and cIshà', night prayer.

a student of a cert~n religious school, pondok-pe§èntren; dlso used by thp~e who ser10usly practi(e th~lr religious obll­gations (devout Muslim)

"

~. ï

••

• , .

.~

Sarekat Islam (5.1.)

sekaten

) ,

sekolah agama

sharlca

/ h c_ ~ '~ s u ur

s}amet, sel~at, s~lama :J

slametan, kenduri

subh (A), subuh (1)

sûfÎl' \

?üf~sm

sultan (1 , sul~an (A)

sunan

sunna(h)

(j) \

. '

170

Islamic Assoclation

traditionally, sekaten is from the work shahâdatayn (A) literally wltnessing; ln the religious sense it is the profession of falth, "There is no ~od but Allah and Muhammad is the prophet of Allah"; in the traditlonal sense it lS a festival celebrating the birth- 1

day of the Praphet M~anullad. 1

1 any religious school

Islamic Law, ~he reveaied

consciousness, ~wareness ' .. '

salvation, happiness; pros­perit y preservat~on

religiOlrs meal or fe'ast; com­muna~ feast, popular , among the Javanese, given to commemorate lmportant events in an indivl-dual's Ilie U

dawn prayer

a man who professes the mystic prlnciples of tasawwuf (see

'. ta~awwuf)

, .

my"st(icism 1

power, rule, relgn

prince, soverelgn

lit., a path or way; a manner of life. A term used in Islam to mean Tradition, elther the sayings or doings of the Prophet Muhammad; commendable, refers to'actions the performance of which is rewarded, 'but its neglect is not punished.

!:ïII

/ 1

1 /

" '

• "

•

•

.,

syahld t 1), shahid pl. shuhada' (A) - Wl tne\ss, martyr, one . kl11ed in the battle with the infidles

tadarus

tafslr

, , takbir

takhassus ..

Taman Siswa

tanfidijiyya

tariqa

tasawwuf

Tentara ~elaJar (T.P.)

thanawiyya

thanaw1.yya ülâ _______ Caliya

r ,

{ •

.T

see darusan

Exegesis, commentary of the Qur'an

see Allah Akbar J

speci~lization (especlally ~n ' a scientiflC fleld) .

lit., Garden of Pupl1s; nation­a1ist school system founded by ~1 Hajar Dewantara

executlve

education

V a path; a term used by the süfis relllgious l±'fe

}

,r the

word used to express the doc­trines of, the Süfîs or Islamic mystics

theo1ogy; the Oneness of God

student Army, eXlsted during the Revolutlonary War .. the Islamic school at secondary level, three years or ~ix years after elementary school

Junl0r schoo1 Senior High S(hoo1

u

see calim

"

"

(

'--­• .. ,.

•

•

172

ukhuwwa (h) ------ diniyya ------ Islamiyya

brotherhood, fraternity religlous brotherhood Islamic brotherhood

w

wakap, waqf pl. awqaf (A) religious endowment, pious foundation

wali, waliy; pl. awliya' near, close associates; a man who is close to Allah, ho1y man; saint in ' Islamic religion

Wall Saf"!-ga ...;

wayang

wesel

hO.

.... Yayasan Pemel ihara':lll dan

the nine saints, referrlng to the, earllest preachers of Islam in Java

traditional 'Jayanese drama, the shadow-play, puppet-show

blll of exchange, nOR~ order ~:-

y ,1

Perluasé\n Wakaf Pondok Modern Foundation for Maintenance and Increase of the Pondok Modern Endowment

J

1 Yayasan Upiversitas Daarussalaam'- Dar al-Salam Unlversity

F'ÛundatlClll \

taka:t

"

z

pur~ty, honesty, Justificatlon, almgiving, alm tax (IsI~ic Law) obligatory donation of :t,ood- ,l

stuffs required at the Snd of Rama~~n, the month of fasilng •

Note: (A) Arabie, (1) Indonesian, (Ja~.) Jf;lvanese

"

(

•

f •

• • ç'

•

1. Books and Pamphlets~

Hldu K.ILA. Wahid Has 'im dan karangan tersiar Blography of K.H.A. Wahid Hasyim and hlS essays), Jakarta, Panitya Buku Peringatan A1m. K.H.A. Walid llasyim, 1957.

Ahmed, Munir-ud-Din, l'- us'lim education and the scholars t social status u to the 5th centur Husl.lm Era, ZUrich, Der lsl m, 196 ' .

IAlfian, "Islamic Modefrnism ln Indonesian politics. The Muhan~adiyah d4r1ng the (olonia! period, 1912-1940," Wisconsin, Ph.D. dlssertatlon, Univer'Slty of Wisconsin, 1969.

A. Mukti, "The MuhammadiJ ah Moverhent. A Ui blllO­graphl.C al' Intfodul't 10n," Montreal, M. A. thesis, MeCi}J Univer~lty, 1957.

"

----- Beberapa Masalah Pend.ldlkan dl Indonesia ('Some prob1ems of ~ducatlon in lndonesia), ''Yogyakarta, Nida,,197 1 . j

----- A ama dan"P mban unan di IndoneSla (Rellglon and Development ; ln Indonesla , Jakarta, Blr-ü Hubungan Hasyarakat,! Departemen Agama, 1972 and 1973 .

1

AllsJahbana, S., ,:"A Prellmlnary study of c1asb structure among tht-, ~undanese ln the PJ;'iJdngdn," ItlMea, N.Y., M.A. thesis, (ornel1 University, 1954. ,

S. Takdlr, Indonesla. ~oclal and Cultural Revolutlon, I\uala Lumpur, Oxford ùnlverslty Press, 1966' .

. Anderson, 13enèdH_t Iüch-ard Ot(;orman, Java in a tl1l1e of

, J rev,Olutlon. Oc cupat ion and re~nstanc e, 1944-1946, Ithaca, N.Y., Cornel] University Press, 1072, .,

Ange1lno, A.D.A. de Kdt, Colonla1 noJ~LY, translated by G.,J. Renier, The Hague, H. Nijho~f,'1931.'

~J :

Arnold, T.~., The Preaehing of ls~~~: ~ ~ History 01 the . Propagation of the Husllm Fdi.th,; Lo})don, (onstable'" & Company Ltd., 1913. i

! J73

1 l

.:.

"

•

("~-

•

174

1

Asj ar l, Samudj a, l'Keduduh.an I\:j di da 1 am Pondo k Pesantren," SThe f unctJon of kyai ln Pondoh.-Pesan~I'en)~ Yogyakar­ta, Drs. thesis, Gajah Mada Unlversity, 1967. , ~

Ba!ai J>'endid.lkan Pesantren 'Darunnadjah (The Lducational \ Institution of Pesantren Darunnajah), Jakarta,

. Yayasan Kesejahteraan Masyar~~at Islam, 1972.

Benda, li arory Jindr lCQ, The Cresent and the R1S lng Sun. Indoqeslan Islam under the Japanese Uccupation, 1942-194,5, /Ihe Hague, \v. van Hoeve, 1958.

----- lontlnuity and change ln IndoneSlan Islam, New Haven, Yare Unlversity, Sautheast AS1S Studles, 1965.

----- Decolonlzation in lndonesia. ,1he problem of contin­~lty dnd,change; New Haven, Ya1ae Universlty, Sautheâst ASla Studies, 1965.

Bousquet, Georges Henrl, A French View ot the Netherlands Indles, New York, Instltute. of Paciflc Rea1tlons, ] 940. A translatJon bY Phlilp L. Li l enthal of La Po\it~9ue musulmane et colonlal des Pays-Bas,-' YarlS, Paul Hartmann, 1939.

Brugmans, 1. J., Çeschiedenis van het Underwi,ls ln Neder­landsch Indie, Groningen, J.B. ~o]tres, 193b.

lrawturd, John, History of the Indian Archlpelagu, L~inburg, 1b20.

Dahm, Bernhard, H.1story of Indones la in th e Twent,ieth lentury, transJa1..ed by P.S. Fal1a~ London, Praeger, 1971.

" Dewantara, 'Kl. H adj aI', hat'ra 1\:1 II àdJ aI' Dewantara l The \\Torh

ot hlllaJar Dewantard), vol. l, YogYd'harta, HaJlis Luhur Persatuan Taman Si s wa, lC)b2.

Dj ~j adinlngrdt, I.uh.man, From 1111 teracy tu Univer-,;;J.ty. Educ at lonal Development hin the Nethe rJ ands Indles, New York, The Institut~~f Pacifie Relations, 1942.

D]a]ddlnlngrat, P.A.A., Kenanr-kenan an Pan eran Aria Achmad DJaJadiningf'at Nemoirs of P.A.A .. layadln­lngrat), Jakarta, Balal Puslaka~ 1936. A trans]l­tlon of Herll:.lneringen van Pangeran Aria Achmad DJagadlnlngrat, Amsterdam and Batavia) G. l\olff, 193 .

" '.

• \ ' ..

•

•

'-.J 175

"

" . " ~Jen Amar, Bandung Lautan Api (Bandung,

Dhl~?ntara, 196J. Sea Fir~, Bandung

:. -Dodge, naya~i, Al-Azhar. A Millennium of Muslim Learning,

Washington, D.C., The t>1iddle oEast Institute, 1961.

Dodge, Bayard, Nuslim I:ducation in Medieval Tlmes, Washington, D.C., The Middle East Institùte, 1962.

Dokumentasi Pembukaan Pergurud« Tinggl Daarussalaam (DoLumentatl0n o~ the openlng of Daarussalaam Unl­verslty) , Contor Ponorogo, 1965.

Embree, Edwin R, Slmon, M.S., Mumford, W.B., Island India Goes to School, (hicago, The Unlverslty of Chlcago Press, 1934.:

• j

• Federsplel, Howard M., Persatuan ls lam. lsl am lL Reform , in twentleth century Indonesia, IthaLa,~~.ï. Modern Indonesia Project, 1970.

Fruln;-Mees, W., " J 922 .

GeschiedenlS Vdn JaYd, .c

2 vols. Veltevreden,

FurnivalJ, John SyGienham, Lducdtlonal Progross ln South­east ASld, New York, Instltute of Paslfic Relatlons, 1943.

----- Nethor1ands Indla. A Study of Plural Economy, New York, (ambr~dge University Press, 1967.

(;~udefroy-Demombynes, Maur lee, Musl im Instl tut 1.0n8, " Ceorge Alien t1 U nW.ln, 1 () 50. ' . ,

Geert7, Clifford, Ihe Religion ùt Java, New York, The Free Press; London, (ollier-MacMillan, J 969.

-----./fSldln Observed. Rellglon Development ln Horocco and Inrlone:::'la, lhlcago, The -.Un1.vers~ty of (lllcago Press, 1971.

----- The SOLlal hlstOly ot an Indonesldn town, Cambridge, Ha~s ., Mdssac huset ts Inf:, Li tute of Technology Press, 1l)65.

----- The development of the Javane.se economy. A 80C10-0' cultural approach, CambrHIge, Massa<.lmsetts Instltute

of Technology, Center for Inter~ationdl Studies,1956 .

" )

• .. ! ,

•

•

176

Hall, D.C.E., A·Histo'ry of South;-east ASla, London, HcHillan; New York, St. Hartln's Press, 1965.

Hamka (Haj 1 AbduJ Mal ik Karim AmrltJ lah), Ajahku. Rlwajat hldu Dr_ Abd. Karim Amrullah dan erd uan an kaum agama My father. Biog:t>aphy of Dr. Abd. Karim Amrullah and the s!ory of the struggle of the Religious Community) , Jakarta, 'Wijaya, 1958.

Jay, Robert Revenel1e, "Santrl and Abangan. Rellgious schism ln rural central ~ava," Cambridge, Mass., Ph. D. dissertat~on, Harvard Universlty, 1957.

Re]iglon and Poli tics in--RUf'a] C ehtral J aVB, New Haven, Southeast ASla S1;.uqies, Yale University, ] 963. ; ..

MI

Jdvanese Vil]agers. SO~lal relations in rural Hodj0kuto, Cambridge, Massachusetts, The MIT Press, ] 969. " .

l ' ~ .. ~ 1"-

J

Jaylanl, Ahmad Timur, "The Sarekat Islam. Its- contributIon to lndonesian ·.natI0nal,ls.m, Il Montreal, M. A. thesls, McGl1l University, 1959 .

• 1

Junus, Hahttlud, SedJaran. .Pendidikan Islam dl Ind'onesid (Hlstory of Islami~ Education ln Indonesla); <Jakart .. a, Pustaka MahmudIah, 1960.

J\afrawl, !l'lhe Path of Subud," Montreal, Jv1.A. thCS1S, H< (; 111 Un 1 ver s 1 t y, 1 9 6 9 • r· ,

l\artodlrdJ 0, Sartono, . The Peasants' Reyal t of Danten ln

, ,~

l tb8 . Its (onditI0ns, Course and Seguel, ' 's-Gra venhage, De Neder landsche Boek-en Steendruk­l-..erlJ, 10p.6.

Kern, Rudo] f Arnold, De Islam Hl lndone b .l e , \\' . van Hoeve, lt}47.

The Hague, .\ ...

I\rdcmer, Il., Agamd 18 1 am (181 amH, Rej lrgl0n), 3rd. ed., supplemented dnd !3dIted by (.A.U. van NIeuwenhuIjze, J,3J_artd, BalaI Penexbit "-ri8tf'n, 1952 . . , ,

de l\]crG:k, 1..5., ][l:-"tury of, the Netherlands T:ast Indies, Rotterdam, ]l)3 K• J

JI , Landon, I\enneth Perry, Southeast ABIa (rossroad of

Religiun~, , (h~~ago, lhe Unlversity of Chlcago Press, 194b.' •

•

i ,<'

...

•

•

\ 177

La poran Pene1i t iaon dan Seminal'" Pendid lkan pa,sia Per.c:uruan Agama (The repox~ of survey and semin~r ot education at Re1iglou~'Sc~001), Jakarta, ProJek peningkatan penelltlan keagamaan Departemen Agama, 1971.

Leur, J.C. van, Indoneslan Trade and Society, Essays in ASlan Social and Economic histoFY, The Hague, Bandung, W. van Hoeve) 1955.

Mangkunegara VII, On the Wayang Ku1it (Purwa) and its Symbo11c and Mystica1 Elements" ItJ1.jlL a, N. Y. C ornell Universlty, 1957.

Manshur, Mohanunad H1SY am, Seki1as 1 intas Pesantren Buntet Mertapadaku10n Cnirebon (A G~impse on Pesantren ." Buntet West Mertapada Cirebon), Buntet, Pesantren Buntet, 1973 .

Mehden, Fred R. ,von der~ Religlon and Nationalism ln Southeast ASla: 'Bu't'ma, Indonesia, the Philippines, Madlson, The Unlversity of Wisconsin Press, 1963.

-Morison, Theodore, Hlstory of the Muhammadan Ang10-

Oriental Lollege Aligarh, Allahdb~d, ~903.

Nai.(I1, Mochtar, uThe Nahd1atul U1ama Party {1952-19SS)," Montreal, M.A. thesis, MeCill Unlverslty, 1960.

Natsir, MohamQ1ad, laplta Se1ecta (Major Works);_ 2 vols. ed: by D.P. Sati A1imin, Bandung and the Hague, V. van Hoeve, 1954 and 1957 .

. Noer, Dellar, The Modernist Muslim Movcment ln Indonesia

1YOO - 194f' Singapore, Oxford Unlverslty' Press, 1973. \ _

\

PiJper, (;.F., IsJam and the Netherlands, lelden, E.J. Url]l, 1957. ~

" , J ,- - - \

Pond ok Pesantren. Sebuah Antolog.l (Pondok Pesantren. An Antho1ogy), Gontor Punorogo, Institut Pendidlkan Darus§--alam, 1973. '

Pocrbakawat j a, Soegarda, Pend idlkan dal am alaru Indon--esia ~ 'Mefldekc.f (Education in lndependent Indone'sia),

Jakarta, Gunung Agung, 1970.

Rad('liffe" David, Iü. Hd'd' r Dewantara and the lanwnsiswa school, Yogyakart a, l aJ Ils Luhur Per.,:>atuan Tamanslswa, 1971.

r

..

<1

•

" 'fI? .' ---

Radjah, Muhammad, Peran Paderl di Sumatra-Barat 1803-38 (Pddri War in West Sumatra, lb03-38 , Jakarta, Balai Pusta.ka, 1964.

Rassers, W.H., Pan.Jl, the Culture lIero. A ~tructura1 . Study of Rel1gion in Java. The Hague, E.J. Brill,

1959.

Redfield, R'J Peasant Society ~nd Culture, Chicago, Unlversity of Chicago Press, 1956.

Salam, Solich1n, Sel<1tar Wall Sanga (About' Nin~ Saints), Kudus, Menara, 1963.

-Sallm, lIaj i Agus, Riw.,a' a t Kedatan an Islam dl Indones ia (lhe H1story of' the coming of Islam to Indones1a , ~akarta, Tintamas, 1962.

Schrleke, B.J.U., Indon slan Socio~o ieal Studles~ 2 vols. The Hague ant! Ban ng, W. van Hoeve, 1955 and 1957.

1

ed. The Ef fec't of Western Influenc..e_,'on the Native (lvilizatlon of the Malay Archipe]ag~, Jakarta, G. ~olff & Co., 1929 .

4

Selosumardjan, Social ch~nges ln JogJakart~, Ithàca, N.Y., (or~ell Un1versïty Press, IQ62.

Shachly, lIas~an, liA Prellmlnary study on th~ 'impact of oIslam ~n a communl ty and l ts cu·] ture Dl l ndonesla, " Ithacd, N.Y., ~l.A. theslS~' (ornell UniversltY,.1955.

A Short" De'scr.lptlon of ls1amlc Ldti't-ationa1 Inst1:tutlon Pondo k Modern and its Daarussalaam Unl verslt Contor Ponorogo, n.d.

Slegel, James T., The'rope of God, 13erkeley,'-..lJ.nlverslty of Californ18 Press, 196<).

Samall, J:R.W., Bandung l~ t~e Early Revoluti0n, 1945-1\146. A Stq,dy in tHe Social :lIv:,tory oi ,the Indo-ne~·)]an 'Revolution, Ithaca, N'. Y. (o1'nel1 'Model~n " 1 ndones la Proj ect J'.lonograph .':ier ie, <.ornell Uni ver- ..;1. ..... /

Slty, 1964. ~ ,

1

"~nouck lIul'gronjft, (hri,c,tldan, Th.ü Ad1chne!-.:.e, 2 vols~ . TI' • .IIlsldted froril J)ui.<h by the late A.W . .':i. ()l'sulll\'an, le 1. ct e Il, l.tt eL. ,J. ,Ur 11 J " ] l) 00 .

\

, ,

~, ,' C' ' ..

- 1

\

• '.

•

•

, .

'. •

Snouck HurgronJe, Christ1àan, Mekka in the latter part of the 19th century. Translated by J.H. Monahan, Leiden, E.J. Brill; London, Luzac & Co., 1931.

----- Verspreide geschriften, Bonn and Le~pzig, Kurt Schroeder, 1923-1927.

Statistik Sekolah/Hadrasah Huhammadi ah (The statistlc of ~luhammadlyah 's School Madrasah , Jakarta, P. P. Huhammadlyah, Majlis Pengajaran, 1962. .. l'

Suj ono, Ag, New Trends in Indon'esian Education 1 Ja.karta, H~rapan Masa, 1960.

Sjariet, H1dajat, Riwa~at ----~~~--~--~~--~~~~~-.~~--=-~~

--- (A Brief story of the struggle Tasikmalaya, Soetraco, 1961. f

• .1

Tauf'lql Abdullah, '~hn.ngkabau, 1900- î 927. Prc11minary S-çudles ln Social Devel opment," Ithaca, N. Y.

Van Ni:~:~n::::::: :~C~~ :::::::i:~, I~:::· i~ post-(onolial Indone~, The Hague and Bandung, W. van Hoeve, 1958. . '

Vlekke, Bernard H.M., Nusantara. A History of .Indonesla, The Hague and Ban~ung, W. van Hoeve, 1959.

Von Grunebaum, C.E., Islam. · Essays in the Nature an.d . Growth of a Cultural tradition, New York, Barnes

if Noble, 1961. (N

Witton, Ronald A, ,"Schooling and .adult educatlon ln Rural Javd. A lomparatlve study of 37 vlllages," Sydney, M.A thesis, Un~versity o f Sydney, 1967.

\val, S.L. van der, Some info atlon on education in Indonesia ue to 1942, T e Hagu{J, N~therlands Unl­versitles Foundation for International lo-operatlon, 1961. ,

Werthe'lm, \Il, F. Indoneslan Society '.pl Transltion. A Study , of Soclal Change, The Hague and Bandung, \V."v ao

Hoeve, 1956. 1

----- Effects 9f Western Civilization on Indonesi~n Society, New ~ork, Institute of Pacifie Relations, H) 50 .

f .

','

/ \

,.-

• 1

rI

'r •

"

•

...

1 •

Wardun· (Warta Dunia) Pondok Modern. Risalah akhlr tahun v ajaran 1973 (The News of Pondok Modern. An Essay of ~ scholastlc y~ar 1973), Contor Ponorogo~ 1973:

a~-Yâfi'I, Salâh al-Bakri~ Tâfrikh Hadrammawt al-S1y~sI, 2 ~61s., Mlsr, Mustafa al-Halabi, 1936.

Zainal Hakim, ~A. Ha§san and Dasuhl, A.H. Sejarah Balal Pendidlkan Pondok Modern (The History of Educational Instltution of Pondok'Modern), 3 vols. Gontor, Balal Pendldikan Pondok Modern, 1961.

Zainuddin, H.M., Tarlch AtJeh dan Nusantara (The HlstDry of Aceh and Indonesia), Medan, Pustaka Iskandar' Huda, 1961. 4

l'

~. Artlcles and Parts of Bookg "

And"r~on', ~en"dict R.O·I G., "The Idea of Pçwer in Javanese Culture," in Claire Holt, ed., Culture and PoIltics ln Indonesia~ Ithaca, N.Y., Corn~niversity Press, l~h2. !

, , '\ 0

.Anwar, --!{oslhan, "Islam and PolitlcS ln IndoneSla, TI ln Robert q.' -Tl Iman, ed., Han, State and SocletJj ln 9

~ Contemporary Southeast Asia, New York, Praeger,1969.

Benda, Harry J., llChrist laan Snout:k Hurgro nJ e and the Foundat.lons of Du tch Is1 amlC Policy in Indonesia," The Journal of Hodern History";- vol. XXX,~' cember

-1951), pp. 350 -6 2., ' • ' 1 .. ----- l1Indonesian Islam under the Japanese Occupation,

"

1942-45-," Psycho:logical Abst.t\acts, vol. XXVIII, December, ~1958, pp. 350-62. "

Berg, (. C., "'The Is1amlsatlon of Java, II Studla IsIamlca, IV, 1955, pp. 111-142:

1

lIIndonesia,lI in 1-1. A. R. Gibb, éd., Whither Islam? A Survey of Modern Movement in the MosJ em Wor1d, London, Vlctor Collancz, 1932 .

. Binder, Leonard, "Is lamlc Tradition and Politi<.s: the

k{jaji and the alim," Comparatlve Studies in Soclety and History, vol. Il, no. 2, January, 1960, pp. 250-256. /

",

t ,

•

•

•

C astles, Lance, "Notes on the Islan'iic school at Gontor," Indonesia, l, April, 1966, pp. 30-45:

- 1 . Dijk, J..:. Vdn, 'TTM1ss10n Work in Central· Java, TI The MosJem

World" vol. .XIIl;, no. 3, July, 1923, pp. 269- 276. 1 •

Djajadiningrat., P.A. Hoesaln, "Islam in Indonesia,l1 in J..:enneth W. Horgan, ed., Islam the Straight pa<f.t, New York, Thç Rona]d Press Company, 195 8 .

Drewes, l~.\Il.J., "lndonesia. Mystic:ism and Actlvlsm," ln (;.L. Von Grunebaum, ed., Unlty anç Variety :t.n Mus'lim Civilization, Chicago, 1he llnlversity of

Ct Ch lcago Press, l C) 5 5.

J'

"New Llght on i.he cofiling 0[1 Islam to Indonesia, Il I3ljdragen tot de taal-, l.and- en Vülh.en,kunde, Vol. 1 24, .10 6 i) . ,

Snouck HurgronJe and the study of !slam, l:h}<;!ragen tot'de taal-, land en Volkenkunde, vol. 113, 195~.

Djuharl, T~usyawarah J..:operasi P~ndok Pesantren Se Jawa-Madura l," ,(The First Cooperatlve Conference of ~ondok Pesantren of aIl over Java-Madura), l\lb1a;t;

\ 4, .XXI, JUly, 1973, pp. 2]-22. \ "Cd lsoe'tr lsno, "S~kelumi t (atatan d~r i Pondok Hodern (,6n­

tOI', Il (A Br lef notes from Pondok Modern Gon;Lor), l3erlta Buana., Jumat, 2 Augu.st 1974.

Furn1vall, J.S., "(010n1al SOl'theast ASla. Instruction or Educatlon,?" Pasiflc Affairs, vol. , .xY, no. l, March, ]942, pp. 77-89., . .

Geertz, Clifford, "R~llgious bel'f" f and economH behavior . in a central Javan~se town " Lconom1c development ~

'. and cuI turaJ.. change, vol. ] V , _,195 6. ,1 ,. . . ----- "The J~vanese KiJ aJ i. The (hanglng Role of a

Cu l tural Broker, 11 Lomparèlti ve Studles in Soc iety and Hlstory, vol. II,~. 2;.January, 1960, pp. 22~-49 .•

ITHodern1zat . in a Hus lim S/ot'c-lety: The Intloneslan ouert N. Bellah, ed., ,Religion and

Pro l'es in Hodern ASla, New York, The Free Press; London, Collier-Macmillan, 1965. Reprinted in Robert O. l'lIman, -ed. Man, State, and Society ~n' Contemporary Southeast Asia,New York, Praeger,1969.

)

• J

•

•

182

GU'nnlng, J. \Il., "Missions among the Moslems of J avJ " TM Moslem Wor Id, vol. V, no. l, j anuary, 19'5, pp. 63~7 5 . •

• 1

Johns, A.H., "Sufism in Indone~a," Journal of Southeast­Asian Hlstory, Vol. 2 no. 2, July.1. 19,61, pp. 10-23. ~ ..

-----)IAspects of Sufi ThoU~ht ln India; a,nd Indonesla in ~ _/ the flrst half oi the l7th century," Journal of

- . the Malayan Brartch of the Royal ASlatlc \ Soclety, vol. 36, 1963, pp. 70-77.

I\.afrawl, "Pondok Pesantren, Hasyarakat Islam dan Pembangunan," (Pondo k~ Pesant ren, ls lamie SOc.iety and Development), AI-JdmlCah, no. 3, XII., 1C}73. Reprlnted ln Pondok Pesantren. Sebuah Antologl, Gontor Ponorogo, i 'Instltut Pendidlkan Darussalam

• pond/lodern, 1973, pp. 135~48. r Kern, R. A. \, "The Orlgin lOf the Malay Surau," JMBRAS,

vol.-29, Pt. ], Hay, 1956, pp. 179-61.

Kernk~mp, ~ W /.1 . A., "Gover~ment and Islam ln t'he Nethe r­lands Bast Indies," translated by N.A.C. Slotemaker de Brulne, 1he Hos1em \Vor1 d, vo) .. XXXV, no. l, Janu~ry, 1945, pp. 6-26.

Kraemer, H., l'Mlssionary Work ln J a v~," Tite Hoslem Wor1d, , vol. XIII~ no. 3, July, 1923, pp. 263-b9.

Kroef, J.M. van der, ttSociety and Cultur~ ln Indonesian Natlonalism," The American Journal of Soelology, no. 58, '19~2, pp. 1] -24. *~

"The Arabs in Ir~donesia," 'l'he ··t.1idd1e EdSt Journal, no. 7, 1\)53, pp. 300-23.

,. ----- "Conservatlsm and_ Reform," lurrent Hlstory, June, t: lYS7, pp. 6~57-63.

----- "Prlnce Diponegoro. Progenltor of lndoneslan National±sm," Far Eastern QuarterIy, vol. 8, 1949, pp. 424-450.

Koentj araningrat, R. M., "The Javanese of Sou th Central 'J ava," ln M,urdok, Ceo ;'ge Peter, ed.' Social structure in Squtheast Asia, Chicago, Quadrangle Bpoks, 19 O. ,

)

, .

..

•

• , ,

Ib3

Harsaban, AIl, lI~ndonesia, 11 in Hi11er T.W.G., ed., Education in South-east Asia, Sydney, IAN Novak,

,1968.

Meulen, D.~van ~er, 1IThe MecLa pi1grlmage and its impo'tance to the Netherlarrls Cai;t Iildles," Th e Mos1 m hlorld, .vo]. XXI, no. l, January, 19410P' 48-60. . b

Morrison, q. ~., ~'The L oming of Is1 am t 0 the Ca~t In<iles, " JMI3R1\S , 24, Febr~~ry, 1951. .'

--"- -- "Per!n a n lnfluence on Mal ay Ll f~ ," JH I3RAS , 28, 1955·

Nainar, S.M.H., "Basic Concepts of Javanese Cultt.lre and the Preachers of Islam," ln' George HakdiSl, ed. ' Arable and Islamic StucÏles 'in honor of Ham.-i1 ton A.R~ Gibb, Cambridge, Mass., The Department of Near Câstern Languag~s and Llteratures of Harvard Unl-verSlty, 196i. '

Prasodjo, SudJoko, "Pesantren," Prlsma, no. 3, April, 197 2 , pp. 4t)-57 .

Rahardjo, M. Dawam, !'Kyai, Pesantren dan Desa," (l\.yai, Pe s antren and Vlllage), Prisma, 'no. 4, 'August, 1l/73, pp. 80:'95.

1

Roff, Wil1üîm R., "Indonesian and Malay .studentS ~ ln CC:llro in the 1920'8," Indonesia, no. 9, Aprll, 197 0 , pp. 73-: 8 9.

- J "Seminar Pondok Pesantrcn seluruh Indonesla," (Seminar

of Pondok Pesantren of a LI. oye~ Ind0nesia", Speclal lssue, AI-DJ aml c ah, no. 5-6; I V, Sept ember ... Novem b.er . 1965.

, Soeroto, Noto, '''vat is Sekaten?", lndonesle) 1951-195 2 , t pp. ~250. ' -

ThoYlb, ~ Ft." "Beberapa catatan sekltar Pekan'Up Grading alim ulama di Pandaan," (Several notes on up grading of cul ama ' at Pandaan), Harian Abadl; 7 and b Mach 1972. ~

1 Vandenbosch) Amry, "Chris'tianity and Coveinment ln

Netherlands-India,~ The Moslem Wor1d, vol. XXII, nb. 2, April; 1932, pp. 134-145.

t

1

•

1 •

?

\

• , Il

1

•

Van" Niel, R'c>bert, "The Course of Indonesian Hlstory,tI • in Ruth T. McVey, ed., Indonesia, New Haven, Human

Relations Ar~a Flles, 1963. , 1 _

Vre'denbregt, J., "The HadJ. S1.me of Its Features arid Functlons ln Il'idonesiâ, 1 Bi]dragen tot de Taa1-,

' Land- en Volkenk~de,~11 8 , 1962, pp. 91-154.

Waha b, .Hll'hammad Dharto, "Pesantren Buntet C ire bon, 'II ~ib1at, no. 22, XX, April, 1973, pp. 23-24.

Wntt , ' \yililam Montgomery, "Th~ Coneeptl0n of the charlS-,

,matic'communlty ln Islam," Numen, vol. 7, 1960, " pp. 77-90 . . .

~ ~

Weatherbee, Donald E., "Traditiorlal Values in Nodernlzlng . Ideologles. Indones lan Lxample ,'tl journal of Developing Areas, l, October, 1969, PP', 41"': 53 ~

-: 1 )

\i.i,llner, A.R., "Soclal Change ln Ja~~nese TdWJ1-Yillage Life," , Lconomïc Development and Cultural Ch,ange, ~, .195 b J pp.' 299 - 3 4 0 .

Zarkasi, Effend'l, nperayaan Sekaten,'" (F.e s tival of Sekêten) Kiblat, vol. 20, April,-1973, pp. 41-43.

.. 3. General Reference Works 1

'Ensiklopedla Indones ia, Bandung and Th e Hagu e, W. v~n

The

Hoeve, 1954, 4 vols.

[ncycldpaedia of ·'Islam, Edited by and others, Leiden, E.J. 'Brl11; , Co., ~913-193 S , 4 vols. and one edition, edited by, H.A.R. Glbb, and continulng. . ...

M. ~h. Houtsm~~ London" Luzac & sup plemeht.. Nflw and others ,. 1960

\,

li!Jgl~es, Thomar ~atrick, A Dictionary of Is1rotl, Lahore, Premier ,Bol)k, House, 1964. , .

Shorter Lncyc10pedla of Islam, edit,ed by H. A. R. Glbb and J.H. Kràmers, Leiden, E.J. Brill; London Luzac & Co., 1961.

'vehr, Hans, A ])icti onary edited by J. Milton Wiesbijoden, ),971 •

t~r ~

of Modern Written Arabie, Cowan, Otto Harrassowitz,

ï

)

\